BPCC-110

APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE

Prof. Swaraj Basu, Former Director, Prof.Vimala Veeraraghavan,

School of Social Sciences, Former Emeritus Professor,
IGNOU, New Delhi Discipline of Psychology,
IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. Purnima Singh Prof. Anuradha Sovani,

Professor Professor, SNDT University,
School of Humanities & Social Sciences Mumbai-
IIT, New Delhi

Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar Prof. Swati Patra

Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, Faculty, Discipline of Psychology,
School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi

Dr. Monika Misra Dr. Smita Gupta (Convenor)

Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, Faculty, Discipline of Psychology,
School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE COORDINATOR
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Faculty, Discipline of Psychology,
School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
GENERAL EDITOR
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block/ Details Unit Writer Editor (Content, format
Units Language)

Block 1 Applied Social Psychology: An Introduction

Unit 1 Introduction to Applied Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Tina D’Cunha

Psychology

Unit 2 Methodological Approaches Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Tina D’Cunha

in Applied Social
Psychology

Unit 3 Qualitative Research in Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Monika Misra

Applied Social Psychology

Block 2 Intervention and Evaluation

Unit 4 Social Issues and Problems Dr. Megha Pushkarna Dr. Smita Gupta

Unit 5 Intervention and Evaluation Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Tina D’Cunha

Block 3 Application of Social Psychology- I

Unit 6 Application of Social Dr. Tina D’Cunha Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar

Psychology to Environment
and Diversity

Unit 7 Application of Social Dr. Tina D’Cunha Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar

Psychology to Community
and Legal System

Unit 8 Application of Social Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Tina D' Cunha
Psychology to Political
Behaviour
Rajiv Girdhar Hemant Kumar Parida
Assistant Registrar, IGNOU, New Delhi Section Officer, IGNOU, New Delhi

978-93-5568-041-9
 Table of Contents

BLOCK 1 APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: AN

INTRODUCTION 13

Unit 1 Introduction to Applied Social Psychology 15

Unit 2 Methodological Approaches in Applied Social Psychology 28
Unit 3 Qualitative Research in Applied Social Psychology 53
BLOCK 2 INTERVENTION AND EVALUATION 73
Unit 4 Social Issues and Social Problems 75
Unit 5 Intervention and Evaluation 95
BLOCK 3 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-I 113
Unit 6 Application of Social Psychology to Environment and
Diversity 115
Unit 7 Application of Social Psychology to Community and
Legal system 132
Unit 8 Application of Social Psychology to Political Behaviour 151
Unit 9 Application of Social Psychology to Consumer Behavior 163
Unit 10 Application of Social Psychology to Work Settings 182
BLOCK 4 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-II 201
Unit 11 Application of Social Psychology to Educational Setting
and Classroom 203
Unit 12 Application of Social Psychology to Sports 216
Unit 13 Application of Social Psychology to Social Media 234
Unit14 Application of Social Psychology to Health, Mental 256
Health and Wellbeing.
BLOCK 5 PRACTICAL 273
Practical 1 Psychological Testing 275
Practical 2 Interview
Practical 3 Designing Intervention based on Theory of Planned Behaviour
Format for Practical Notebook
Evaluation
BPCC 110: APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The course on Applied Social Psychology (BPCC 110) is a core course
offered in IV Semester of BA Psychology Honours Programme (BAPCH),
under Bachelors Degree Programme of IGNOU.

The main objectives of this course are to introduce the definition, nature and
scope of applied social psychology, to discuss the different issues and social
problems, discuss intervention and evaluation and explain the application of
social psychology to varied fields. The course is of 06 Credits, comprising
Theory (04 Credits) and Practical (02 Credits). The course is divided into five
blocks. Each of these blocks represents a specific theme which is discussed in
terms of units. The units are arranged in a logical sequence so as to cover the
main aspects of each theme.

Before proceeding to read the units, you are advised to go through

instructions about how to read the course material. Given below is the
explanation of the organization and sequencing of the unit.

Organization and Sequencing of a Unit

The following is the structure of each unit:

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Section (Theme of the section)
1.2.1 Subsection of 1
……………….
Check Your Progress I
1.3 Section (Theme of the section)
1.3.1 Subsection of 2
……………….
Check Your Progress II
Let Us Sum Up
References
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress
Unit End Questions

As the scheme suggests, each unit is divided into sections for easy reading
and better comprehension. The numbering and length of each section and
subsection may vary from one unit to the other, depending upon the depth of
information in each unit. Each section is indicated by BOLD CAPITALS
and each sub.section by a relatively smaller but bold typeface. Divisions
within the sub.sections are in relatively smaller bold typeface so as to make
it easy for you to understand.
Let us now discuss each section of a unit.

Objectives

We begin each unit with the section ObjectivesIt tells you briefly about the
objectives of the unit what you will learn after you study the unit.

Introduction

The section Introduction will mainly focus on introducing the theme of the
present unit.

Illustration

There are several illustrations in each unit in the form of figures and
diagrams. The main purpose of these illustrations is to make the study
comprehensive and interesting.

Check Your Progress

We have given self.check exercises under the caption Check Your Progress at
the end of main sections. You can provide your answers in the space give
below each question/ exercise.

You will be tempted to have a glance of the main text as soon as you come
across an exercise. But we do hope that you will resist this temptation and
turn to the main text only after completing the answers.

You should read each unit and note the important points in the margin
provided in the course material. This will help in your studyIt will also help
you to answer the self.check exercises and the assignment questions, as well
as help in revising your course before appearing for your Term End
Examination (TEE).

Let Us Sum Up

This section of each unit under the heading Let Us Sum Up summarises the
whole unit for the purpose of ready reference and recapitulation.

References

We have given a list of references in each unit. This is a list of books and
articles used by the course writers to prepare the units. This reflects that your
course material is based on a wide spectrum of literature available on a
particular theme, related to your course. This also informs you of the wide
literature available in the particular area of studyIf interested in widening
your knowledge, you may look for the mentioned references. Each reference
mentions the name of the author, year of publication, title of the book/article,
name of publisher and place of publication.

Suggested readings help you to increase your level of understanding of a

particular theme in each unit.
Key Words

The key words at the end of the unit explain the basic ideas, technical terms
and difficult words.

Answers to Check Your Progress

Answers to Check Your Progress are given in this section.

Unit End Questions

Besides Check Your Progress, we have given Unit End Questions in each
unit. Practicing these questions will help you in answering assignments and
Term End Examination Question Paper, though the pattern and style of
questions asked may not be similar.

Audio and Video Aids

Some Units have been selected for the audio and video programmes to
supplement the printed material. This will help you to understand the units
with greater clarity.

Apart from this, you may also access IGNOU’s FM radio channel, Gyanvani
(105.6 FM), which is available across many cities in India, for regular
programmes, related to themes on Psychology. You can listen to the live
discussions by faculty and experts on the topic of the day and interact with
them through telephone, email, and through chat mode.

You may also watch Gyandarshan TV channel (free to air educational

channel), for programmes related to topics on Psychology. The schedule of
Gyanvani and Gyandarshan is displayed on www.ignou.ac.in. The radio and
TV channels may also be accessed on Gyandhara, webcast facility for
Gyanvani and Gyandarshan, provided by the University.

Practical

The course on Applied Social Psychology (BPCC 110) will include practical.
In practical, learners will be required to conduct two practicals(from amongst
three practicals, practical 1 being compulsory) based on topics in this course
(for example, influence of media on aggression and violence of children,
violence against women/child/ abuse).

Assignment

You will receive a set of assignments for the whole programme. These are
Tutor Marked Assignments, which are to be submitted to the respective
Study Centre after completion. These assignments will be evaluated by
academic counsellor from your Study Centre. Ensure that you complete all
your assignments because the grades that you get in each of these
assignments are included in the final evaluation of your degree. Before
answering the assignments, read all the units and additional material (if
available).
COURSE STRUCTURE
BLOCK 1 APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION

Unit 1: Introduction to Applied Social Psychology

Definition, Nature and Scope of Applied Psychology
Differences between Social Psychology and Applied Social Psychology
Applied Social Psychology as a Science
Applied Social Psychology and Social Policy
Levels of Analysis
Unit 2: Methodological Approaches in Applied Social Psychology
Concept of Research in Applied Social Psychology.
Research Concepts and Components
Quantitative Research in Applied Social Psychology
Action Research
Ethics in Psychological Research
Unit 3: Qualitative Research in Applied Social Psychology
Qualitative Research: An introduction
Methods of Data Collection in Qualitative Research
Data analysis in Qualitative Research
BLOCK 2: INTERVENTION AND EVALUATION
Unit 4:Social Issues and Social Problems
Definition and Nature of Social Problems
Approaches to Social Problems
Social Issues and Problems
Unit 5: Intervention and Evaluation
Intervention
Design and Implementation of Intervention
Impact Analysis
Evaluation
BLOCK 3: APPLICATION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY I
Unit 6: Application of Social Psychology to Environment and Diversity
Social Psychology and Environment
Social Psychology and Diversity
Unit 7 Application of Social Psychology to Community and Legal system
Concept of Community
Application of Social Psychology to Community.
Applications of Social Psychology to the Legal System
Unit 8: Application of Social Psychology to Political Behaviour
Social Perception and Political Behaviour.
Voting Behaviour
Media Influence on Political Behaviour
Unit 9: Application of Social Psychology to Consumer Behavior
Concept of Consumer Behaviour
Consumer Behaviour Models
Factors Influencing Consumer Behaviour
Application of Social Psychology to Consumer Behaviour
Unit 10: Application of Social Psychology to Work settings
Social Perception in Work Settings
Application of Social Learning Theory in Work Settings
Work Motivation and Job Satisfaction
Group Dynamics
Conflicts in Work Settings
BLOCK 4: APPLICATION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY II
Unit 11: Application of Social Psychology to Educational Setting and Classroom
Intrapersonal Process
Interpersonal Processes
Unit 12: Application of Social Psychology to Sports
Teams in Sports
Leadership
Effective Communication
Unit 13: Application of Social Psychology to Social Media
Social Media: Meaning, Types and Usage
Human Attributes and Social Media
Application of Social Psychology to Social Media
Unit14: Application of Social Psychology to Health, Mental Health and
Wellbeing.
Application of Social Psychology to Health
Application of Social Psychology to Mental Health and Wellbeing
Application of Social Psychology to Promoting Health and Healthy Behaviours
BLOCK 5: PRACTICAL
Practical 1: Psychological Testing
Practical 2: Interview
Practical 3: Designing Intervention based on Theory of Planned Behaviour
Format for Practical Notebook
Evaluation
BPCC110: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Dear Learner,

The course on Applied Social Psychology (BPCC 110) is a core course

offered in IV Semester of BA Psychology Honours Programme (BAPCH),
under Bachelors Degree Programme of IGNOU.

It is important that before you start with this course, you revisit what you
have studied in BPCC107 as that will help you understand the application of
social psychology to varied settings.

To provide an overview of this course, the course structure is divided in to

five blocks.

Block 1: The very first block of this unit is titled ‘Applied Social
Psychology: An Introduction’ and has three units, Units 1, 2 and 3. Unit 1
will discuss definition, nature and scope of social psychology, This unit will
serve as a basis for the whole course as significant information about applied
applied social psychology has been covered. Distinction will also be carried
out in this unit between social psychology and applied social psychology.
Applied social psychology as science will also be discussed. The unit will
also focus on applied social psychology and social policy and highlight levels
of analysis. Unit 2 focuses on the methodological approached in applied
social psychology and will cover concept of research in applied social
psychology, research concepts and components, quantitative research in
applied social psychology, action research and ethics in psychological
research. Unit 3 focuses on qualitative research, methods of data collection in
qualitative research and data analysis in qualitative research.

Block 2: Block 2 is titled ‘Intervention and Evaluation’ and includes two

units, Unit 4 and 5. The focus of the block is on intervention and evaluation,
though before an intervention strategy is developed, we need to understand
the social issues and problems. Thus, in unit 4 we will discuss about
definition and nature of social problem, approaches to social problem and
varied social issues and problems. Unit 5 covers intervention, design and
implementation of intervention, impact analysis and evaluation.

Block 3: The title of this block is ‘Application of Social Psychology I’ and it

will cover application of social psychology to environment and diversity
(Unit 6), application of social psychology to community and legal systems
(Unit 7), application of social psychology to political behaviour (Unit 8),
application of social psychology to consumer behaviour (unit 9) and
application of social psychology to work settings (Unit 10).

Block 4: This block is titled ‘Application of Social Psychology II’ and covers
application of social psychology to educational setting and classroom (Unit
11), application of social psychology to sports (unit 12), application of social
psychology to social media (Unit 13) and application of social psychology to
health, mental health and wellbeing (Unit 14).
Block 5: This block pertains to practicals and the learners are expected to
carry out practicals as specified in the block. Three practicals namely,
practical 1, 2 and 3 have been discussed in this section with a focus on their
procedure. Format and evaluation methodology has also been provided.
Practical 1 is compulsory and the academic counsellor will select one from
amongst practical 2 and 3 to be conducted by the learner.
 BLOCK 1
APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: AN
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction to
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED Applied Social

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY*
Psychology

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition, Nature and Scope of Applied Social Psychology
1.3 Difference between Social Psychology and Applied Social Psychology
1.4 Applied Social Psychology as a Science
1.5 Applied Social Psychology and Social Policy
1.6 Levels of Analysis
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 References
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.11 Unit End Questions

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
- discuss the definition, nature and scope of applied social psychology;
- differentiate between social psychology and applied social psychology;
- explain applied social psychology as a science;
- describe applied social psychology and social policy; and
- discuss the levels of analysis.

1.1 INTRODUTION
In BPCC107, you studied about a branch of psychology called social
psychology. By social we mean the social environment or behaviour of an
individual and psychology as we know is systematic and scientific study of
human and animal behaviour. Thus, social psychology mainly focuses on
human behaviour in social contexts. As you may even notice, your own
behaviour is different when you are with your family, when with friends and
when in a more formal set up. Thus, our behaviour is greatly influenced by
the social context that we are in. Therefore as a students of psychology we
also need to focus on the social dimension of human behaviour.

*
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, Delhi
15
Applied Social In the present course we are not going to discuss about social psychology, but
Psychology: An
Introduction will focus more on its application to different setting. Thus, to word it
appropriately, we will focus on applied social psychology.

In the very first unit of this course we will discuss about the definition, nature
and scope of applied social psychology, the difference between social
psychology and applied social psychology. We will also explain applied
social psychology as a science and describe applied social psychology and
social policy. Further we will also discuss the levels of analysis.

1.2 DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF

APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Applied social psychology can be explained as a branch of social psychology.
It mainly deals with application of principles of social psychology to varied
fields. According to Schneider et. al (2012), social psychology can be
defined as a science with an objective to comprehend how individuals relate,
think, feel and influence each other. Thus, social psychology mainly focuses
on the social dimension of human behaviour.

With regard to applied social psychology, it can be defined as “ branch of

social psychology that draws on social psychology theories, principles,
methods and research evidence to contribute to

a) the understanding of social and practical problems and

b) the development of intervention strategies for improving the functioning
of individuals, groups, organisations, committees and societies with
respect to social and practical problems”(Schneider et. al , 2012, page 8).

As can be seen in the above definition the focus is mainly on developing a

better understanding of the problems both social and practical and then
developing a suitable intervention strategy.

Applied social psychology can be termed as a sciences as it is a branch of

social psychology which is also termed as a science. Thus, social issues and
problems are interpreted and interventions are developed in an empirical
manner in order to effectively deal with the social issue or problem and bring
about a change that is positive. This is based on an assumption that any
problem or issue has social dimension to it. Thus, an attempt is made to deal
with the social issues and problems with the help of social psychology
principles in a scientific and systematic manner.

Oskamp and Schultz (1998) defined applied social psychology as application

of the constructs, principles, theories, intervention techniques, research
methods and findings of social psychology in order to develop a
comprehensive understanding of social problems in order to deal with them
effectively. In the definition, construct can be explained as that psychological
entity that is defined in a clear and specific manner, principle can be
16
 Introduction to
described as an explanation regarding varied psychological processes and Applied Social
theory is description, explanation and prediction of an event that is Psychology
observable with the help of a set of principles that are integrated.

As such, the roots of applied social psychology can be traced to Kurt Lewin,
who conducted a research in 1936 that focused on certain social and practical
issues and problems (Schneider et. al , 2012). The purpose of these studies
carried out by Lewin and his collaborators was not on adding to the exiting
fund of knowledge but to find a solution to a problem. Thus, Lewin mainly
worked in the direction of creating a link between theory and application.
Sherif’s research on conflict resolution in 1966 also greatly contributed to the
development of the field of applied social psychology. 1960s also saw many
a need to make psychology socially relevant thus playing a greater role for
betterment of the society. In 1969 various articles that were published in the
American Psychologist focused on an interaction between science and social
issues and problems (Schneider et. al , 2012). By 1970s the applied social
psychology was well established as a separate field. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology was established during 1970-71 and a doctoral programme
in the subject area was offered by Loyola University, Chicago, USA in 1974.
This was followed by launch of another journal Basic and Applied Social
Psychology in 1980 and the very first book on the subject titled Social
Psychology: An Applied Approach by Fisher in 1982 (Schneider et. al ,
2012). And today, it can said that the filed is thriving and developing.
Therefore, as students of psychology we need to focus on the subject area,
learn from it and try to apply its fundamentals and principles for betterment
of the society.

Applied social psychology can be termed as science and we will further

discuss about this in a later unit. Though applied social psychology can also
be termed as based on humanism. According to Shetgovekar (2017, page
248), “In psychology, humanism is mainly expressed in terms of humanistic
psychology that not only believes in uniqueness of the individuals but also in
their potential to develop to their fullest”. The term humanistic social
psychology can also be rooted in this and this sub-field mainly deals with the
contribution of interpersonal relationships in overall development and
potential realisation of individuals. Humanism also denotes equal treatment
for individuals that includes, respect, compassion and dignity in the way the
individuals are treated. It also promotes the involvement and participation of
individuals in decision making especially in issues related to them (Fisher,
1982).

As we have seen from the definitions, the main focus of applied social
psychology is development of suitable intervention strategy. But before this
is done, we also need to focus on relevant theories. Theory can be defined as
“a set of interrelated hypotheses or propositions concerning a phenomenon or
set of phenomena” (Shaw and Costanzo, 1982, page 4). In applied social
psychology interventions could be based on these theories and thus
17
Applied Social understanding the theories could be relevant. In social psychology, the main
Psychology: An
Introduction components of theories are scope, range, testability and parsimony (Chung-
Yan and Towson 2012, page 27).

 Scope: Scope denotes the number of individuals behaviours that are

covered or explained by the theory.
 Range: Range has to do with whether behaviour of certain individual is
covered or that of all the individuals.
 Testimony: Testability has to do with whether a theory can be tested,
that is whether it can be proved or disproved.
 Parsimony: Parsimony denotes that less propositions are utilised by a
theory while an event or phenomenon is explained.

Further, in order to understand theories in an adequate manner, it is also

important to follow the scientific process including observation, theory
development, specific hypothesis and hypothesis testing (Shetgovekar, 2018).
A theory can be developed based on the observations of the events or
phenomenon as they occur in day to day life and the specific hypothesis that
are derived from the theory can then be stated and then tested. Though, in
applied social psychology the results obtained by testing a theory are further
utilised in order to modify the theory and carry out further observations. The
findings could also be used in order to develop suitable intervention
strategies to deal with certain social issues or problems.

Further, applied social psychology can be theory driven or problem driven

(Kok et al. 1996). The focus of the theory driven applied social psychology is
on testing certain theories and how their application in actual social
situations. It also includes the validation of the theory. Whereas, the focus of
the problem driven applied social psychology is on development of
intervention strategies in order to deal effectively with social issues and
problems. The scope of applied social psychology is thus very vast and it
finds application in various fields ranging from health, education, sports to
work setup. In the second, third and fourth block of this course we will
mainly discuss about application in varied fields.

Applied social psychology includes various applications including research,

programme designing, evaluative research, consultation and advocacy

The research in applied social psychology mainly focuses in understanding

the social issues and problems, developing suitable intervention strategy and
evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention strategy (this can be termed as
evaluative research). Thus, you may notice that a lot of action research is
carried out in applied social psychology. Applied social psychology also
includes programme designing. Programme designing mainly involves
developing certain programmes or intervention strategies based on the
research results obtained. With reference to consultancy, an applied social
psychologists could work with certain organisations and use his/ her expertise
18
 Introduction to
to help the organisations deal with certain issues faced by them. And Applied Social
advocacy involves working in direction of bringing about a social change. Psychology

Thus, through applied social psychology, the principles and theories of social
psychology can be applied to various fields.

They can be applied to environment and diversity, community and legal

system. For example, with the help of suitable intervention strategy, a
positive attitude towards environment can be developed amongst the
individuals. It can also be used to understand political behaviour. Further
consumer behaviour can also be understood with the help of applied social
psychology and suitable strategies can be developed in that direction.
Applied social psychology has relevant application in work setup, where
better understanding can be developed about groups and teams, conflict and
conflict resolution, leadership and so on. It has application in educational set
up as well besides sports, where team dynamics can be studied and suitable
strategies can also be developed to build high performing teams. The field of
applied social psychology also has application in the context of social media
and how it influences the individuals. Further, it can also be applied to the
filed of health where better understanding about the health related behaviours
of the individuals can be developed and suitable intervention strategy to
promote healthy practices and behaviour can be developed.

Thus, applied social psychology not only focuses on theory but also on
application of the theories to understand social issues and problems and
develop suitable interventions to deal with the social issues and problems.
The scope of applied social psychology is very vast and it finds application in
various fields ranging from health, education, sports to work setup. In the
second, third and fourth block of this course we will mainly discuss about
application in varied fields.

In the blocks 3 and 4 of this course we will discuss these applications in

detail.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Define applied social psychology.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
19
Applied Social
Psychology: An 1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL
Introduction PSYCHOLOGY AND APPLIED SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology can be termed as a branch of psychology and applied
social psychology in turn can be categorised under social psychology. In
social psychology you studied about various concepts like social perception,
social influence, obedience, conformity, crowd and so on. Whereas, in
applied social psychology we will study about the applications of the
principles of social psychology to various social problems and issues. Thus, it
is more practical in nature where the focus is on studying the social problem
or issue and then developing a suitable intervention strategy in order to
alleviate the problem or issue.

Both the fields, that is, social psychology and applied social psychology can
be described as science and both focus on development of theories and
testing them (Schneider et. al , 2012). Thus, theories on one hand can help
understand the social problem and then the studies carried out by applied
social psychologists can further lead to adding to the fund of knowledge of
social psychology.

Let us now look at the difference between social psychology and applied
social psychology.

Social Psychology Applied Social Psychology

Description Focuses on human Deals with application of principles

behaviour in social of social psychology varied fields.
contexts.

Branch of Social psychology is a Applied social psychology is branch

branch of Psychology. of social psychology.

Focus The main focus is on The focus is on comprehension and

theories. resulution of social problems and
issues.

Approach Deductive approach: Inductive approach: Involves

Involves testing of a deriving a new theory. And which
theory. How a certain theory provides adequate explanation
theory could help in and description of the social issue or
comprehending social problem.
behaviour of
individuals.

20
 Introduction to
Check Your Progress II Applied Social
Psychology
1) Site any one difference between social psychology and applied social
psychology.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

1.4 APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A

SCIENCE
Applied social psychology can necessarily be termed as science not only
because it is branch of social psychology which in turn is a significant area
under psychology, but also because it utilises systematic and empirical
methods and is guided and directed by the scientific core values. Some of the
significant scientific core values are accuracy, objectivity, skepticism, open-
mindedness and ethics. (Schneider et. al , 2012). Let us look at these core
values and understand what they are:

 Accuracy: This is in the context of measurement as well gathering of

information that needs to be carried out without any scope for error and
with great precision.
 Objectivity: In the process of testing a theory or in measurement and
information collection, there needs to be no subjectivity. The process
needs to be objective and free from any bias.
 Scepticism: Any outcome or results need to be questioned and not
accepted without verifying it.
 Open-mindedness: The outcomes and results obtained after an
empirical study that are valid and reliable need to be accepted with an
open-mind even if they contradict one’s own beliefs.
 Ethics: Ethical issues need to be taken care of while carrying out any
study or research.

All the above core values are extremely important and need to be taken care
of while carrying out an empirical study.

There are four main goals of science that include description, prediction,
determining causality and explanation were discussed. Description mainly
elucidates description of a particular event or phenomenon, its nature,
frequency and other details. Prediction deals with the factors that could be
related or lead to the phenomenon. Determining causality denotes
determining the cause and effect relationship between the two factors. That
is, whether changes occurring in one variable lead to changes in another
21
Applied Social variable. Explanation deals with the reason why the phenomena occurs.
Psychology: An
Introduction There could be a cause and effect relationship between two factors but why
does this relation exists is explained/ discussed under explanation.

When we talk about applied social psychology there is an important scientific

goal that is Control. Control in research context denotes ability to manipulate
the situation or research condition in order ti study the changes occurring in
phenomenon (Schneider et. al , 2012).

Thus, the applied psychology makes use of the scientific core values in order
to not only understand the social problems and issues but also to develop
suitable intervention strategies and also to test these intervention strategies
for their effectiveness. In this context the applied social psychologists also
need to focus on any negative outcomes of the intervention strategies
developed and implemented by them.

Check Your Progress III

1) List the scientific core values.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

1.5 APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND

SOCIAL POLICY
When we talk about policy, the focus is mainly on bringing about a change.
Policies are mainly developed in order to bring about positive change or for
betterment of the individuals. Social policy can be described as actions that
are taken by governmental organisations in order to bring about reforms or
development in society. They can play an important role in determining the
wellbeing of individuals in society. Social policies also focus on the social
welfare of the individuals and they can be termed as principles and guidelines
that create conditions that are favourable and beneficial to promote individual
welfare. Social policies aim at ensuring that all the individuals in the society
are provided with certain standards of living and also a chance or opportunity
to make their lives better and develop.

Social policies are mainly developed in order to promote the welfare of the
individuals in the society and could have objectives that focus on the
economical and non-economical goals. They also focus on a fair and equal
distribution of resources amongst various sections of the society.

Social policies do not exist in a vacuum and the social and psychological
aspects of the individuals or society for which they are developed need to be
22
 Introduction to
considered. When such social policies are framed, the values of the Applied Social
individual especially need to be focused on. It is important that the Psychology
knowledge, attitude and practices of the individuals in the society are focused
on as the policies are framed so that they lead to development and do not
interfere with the effective functioning of the individuals in the society.
Utmost care thus needs to be taken when such policies are developed.

The focus also needs to be on the issue or problem for which the policy is
developed. And applied social psychology can play an important role here.
As we discussed in the definition of applied psychology, it mainly focuses on
understanding the social issue or problem and develop suitable intervention
strategy. the very first step is to understand the issue or problem and once we
do so it is easier for us to develop suitable intervention strategy to alleviate
the same. Applied social psychology can provide systematic and scientific
methods to understand the social issues and problems and then it can also
play a role in developing intervention strategies including development of
effective social policies.

Further, applied social psychology can play an important role not only in
understanding the social issue or problem, that can be considered as the very
first step in development of social policy, but it can also play an important
role in in the implementation and evaluation of the social policy. The social
policy once developed can be implemented keeping in mind various social
and psychological aspects of the group of individuals or community for
which it is developed. Further, the effectiveness of the policy can also be
assessed using the systematic and scientific methods of applied social
psychology (these will be discussed by us in the last unit of this course).

Check Your Progress IV

1) What is social policy?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

1.6 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

Individual behaviours are influenced greatly by social surrounding and
conditions. Any behaviour thus needs to be interpreted in terms of social
context. For instance, think about why you have taken up this programme and
identify the social aspects that determined your behaviour for pursuing this
programme and pursuing it, Who motivated you to take up the programme?
Did you take up the programme due to the expectations that significant others
in your life have from you? Reason for pursuing this programme could also
23
Applied Social be that you want to study further and do your best in life, maintain certain
Psychology: An
Introduction standard in the society for yourself and your family.

Thus, as you can see any behaviour will have a social dimension to it. Social
influence that we talk about here can be direct or indirect but the influence
that it has on individual is significant. Thus, the social determinants could be
interpersonal, group, organisational, community and societal or cultural
(Schneider et al, 2012, page 17). And these determinants can also be termed
as levels of analysis. Thus, there are various levels of analysis including the
interpersonal, group, organisational, community and societal/ cultural that
can have an impact on the individual behaviours. All these levels play an
important role and it is not so that one level os superior to another. But in fact
they could even interact in their influence on individual behaviours. Though
in the context taking in to account individual differences is also important,
for example personality.

Let us look at the various levels of analysis:

 Interpersonal: This mainly has to do with the influence of other

individuals, especially, the significant others in one’s life.
 Groups: This has mainly to do with the effect of groups on the
individuals behaviour. It could also be in terms of the social norms
prevalent in a group.
 Organisational: These include varied organisational variables including
structure and communication pattern etc.
 Community: This denotes the aspects of the community ranging from
demography to ethnicity etc.
 Societal/ cultural: The cultural fabric and other relevant aspects related
to the society as a whole.

Individual differences also play an important role in the context of levels of

analysis.

In applied social psychology, it is relevant to identify level (s) of analysis so

that suitable intervention can accordingly be developed.

Check Your Progress V

1) State various levels of analysis.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

24
 Introduction to
1.7 LET US SUM UP Applied Social
Psychology
To summarise, in the present unit, we mainly focused on the definition,
nature and scope of applied social psychology. Applied social psychology
can be explained as a branch of social psychology. It can be defined as
branch of social psychology that draws on social psychology theories,
principles, methods and research evidence to contribute to the understanding
of social and practical problems and the development of intervention
strategies for improving the functioning of individuals, groups, organisations,
committees and societies with respect to social and practical problems. We
also differentiated between social psychology and applied social psychology.
Further, applied social psychology was explained as a science with a focus on
significant scientific core values are accuracy, objectivity, skepticism, open-
mindedness and ethics, that are used in applied social psychology as well.
Further we also described applied social psychology and social policy. Social
policy can be described as actions that are taken by governmental
organisations in order to bring about reforms or development in society.
Applied social psychology can play an important role here. Applied social
psychology mainly focuses on understanding the social issue or problem and
develop suitable intervention strategy. The very first step is to understand the
issue or problem and once we do so it is easier for us to develop a suitable
intervention strategy to alleviate the same. Applied social psychology can
provide us systematic and scientific methods to understand the social issues
and problems and then it can also play a role in developing intervention
strategies including development of effective social policies. Lastly, we
discussed about the levels of analysis including the interpersonal, group,
organisational, community and societal or cultural.

1.8 REFERENCES
Cartwright, D. (1949). Basic and Applied Social Psychology. Philosophy of
Science,16(3), 198-208. Retrieved June 1, 2021, from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185515.
Chung-Yan, G. A., & Towson, S. M. J. (2012). Social Psychological Theory.
In F. W. Schneider, J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social
psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical
problems.Delhi: Sage.
Fisher, R.J.(1982). Social Psychology: An Applied Approach. New York: St.
Martins Press, Inc.
Osakamp, and Schultz, P.W. (1998). Applied Social Psychology (2nd ed).
California: SAGE.

25
Applied Social KoK,G; Sericola. Schaalma, Hj De vries, Hj Parcel,G& Paulussen, J. (1996).
Psychology: An
Introduction Social Psychology and Health Education. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewsture
(Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (Vo./7 pp241-282).
Chichester: John Wiley and sons Ltd.
Schneider, Frank.W, Gruman, Jamie and Coutts, Larry, M. (2012). Defining
the Field of Applied Social Psychology In F. W. Schneider, J. Gruman, & L.
M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing
social and practical problems.Delhi: Sage.
Shaw, M. E. and Costanzo, P. R.(1982). Theories of Social Psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Shetgovekar, S. (2018). An Introduction to Social Psychology. Delhi: Sage

1.9 KEY WORDS

Applied social psychology: Applied social psychology can be explained as a
branch of social psychology. It can be defined as “ branch of social
psychology that draws on social psychology theories, principles, methods and
research evidence to contribute to the understanding of social and practical
problems and the development of intervention strategies for improving the
functioning of individuals, groups, organisations, committees and societies
with respect to social and practical problems” (Schneider et. al , 2012, page
8).

Social psychology: Social psychology can be defined as a science with an

objective to comprehend how individuals relate, think, feel and influence
each other. Thus, social psychology mainly focuses on the social dimension
of human behaviour.

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) Define applied social psychology.
Oskamp and Schultz (1998) defined applied social psychology as application
of the constructs, principles, theories, intervention techniques, research
methods and findings of social psychology in order to develop a
comprehensive understanding of social problems in order to deal with them
effectively.
Check Your Progress II
1) Site any one difference between social psychology and applied social
psychology.
Social psychology focuses on human behaviour in social contexts and
applied social psychology deals with application of principles of social
psychology varied fields.

26
 Introduction to
Check Your Progress III Applied Social
1) List the scientific core values. Psychology

The scientific core values are

- Accuracy
- Objectivity
- Scepticism
- Open-mindedness
- Ethics
Check Your Progress IV
1) What is social policy?
Social policy can be described as actions that are taken by governmental
organisations in order to bring about reforms or development in society.
They can play an important role in determining the wellbeing of
individuals in society.
Check Your Progress V
1) State various levels of analysis.
Various levels of analysis are interpersonal, group, organisational,
community and societal or cultural

1.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Define applied social psychology and discuss its nature and scope.

2) Differentiate between social psychology and applied social psychology.

3) Explain applied social psychology as a science.

4) Describe levels of analysis.

5) Describe methodological approaches in applied social psychology.

27
Applied Social
Psychology: An UNIT 2 METHODOLOGICAL
Introduction
APPROACHES IN APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Concept of Research in Applied Social Psychology.

2.2.1 Goals of Psychological Research

2.2.2 Characteristics of Psychological Research

2.3 Research Concepts and Components

2.4 Quantitative Research in Applied Social Psychology

2.5 Action Research

2.6 Ethics in Psychological Research

2.7 Let Us Sum Up

2.8 References

2. 9 Key Words

2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.11 Unit End Questions

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,
- discuss the research in applied social psychology;
- explain research concepts and components;
- describe qualitative research in applied social psychology;
- explain the concept of action research; and
- discuss ethics in psychological research.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Seema was a psychologist working with a Non Governmental Organisation.
She mainly worked with migrant labourers and felt that health related

*
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Delhi.
28
 Introduction to
awareness was very low amongst the migrants that made them vulnerable to Applied Social
various illnesses. So she decided to carry out a research to understand the Psychology
areas of health related behaviours that need to be focused on. She used a
standardised tool to measure health related knowledge, attitude and
practices and collected data. As she analysed the data using statistical
techniques, she could identify the areas of health that needed attention.
Based on the results she developed a workshop plan for the migrant
labourers.

As you can see in the above example, with the help of research, Seema was
able to develop a suitable health related intervention strategy to help
migrants. In a similar manner, in order to understand and deal with various
social issues, research can be carried out and based on the results of these
research suitable intervention strategies can be developed.

There are a number of problems and issues in the society that can be directly
or indirectly related to human behaviour, be it aggressive behaviour in terms
of road rage, bullying or even cyberbullying, overindulgence in social
networking, lack of effective communication and interpersonal relationship,
suicidal ideation and so on. Such problems and issues need to be researched
further in order to not only develop better understanding about them
including factors leading to them and to develop suitable intervention
strategies to deal with them effectively.

Research is an important aspect of any subject area. In applied social

psychology as well, research is carried out in order to further broaden the
scope and knowledge area of the subject. Further, research in applied social
psychology also focuses on development, implementation and evaluation of
intervention strategies.

2.2 CONCEPT OF RESEARCH IN APPLIED

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Before we go on to specifically discuss about research in applied social
psychology, let us look at the definition, goals and principles of
psychological research. You may have covered this to great extent in
BPCC105: Psychological Research, that was core course in third semester.
We have to remember that applied social psychology is a branch of social
psychology, which in turn is an area under psychology. Thus the goals,
principles and characteristics of psychological research also hold true for
applied social psychology.

Research in simple terms can be explained as adding to the existing fund of

knowledge. The term research is derived from the French word „recherche‟
which means to travel through or survey. Research can be described as an
enquiry that is not only critical but complex as well. Research can also be
described as an analysis and recording of controlled observation that is

29
Applied Social objective and systematic in nature. And this analysis and recording can result
Psychology: An
Introduction in generalisations, and also development of theories.

Some of the definitions of research are given as follows:

Kerlinger (1995, page 10) defines scientific research as “a systematic,

controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomenon guided
by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such
phenomena”.

Research, in simple terms, can be defined as “a systematic investigation to

find answers to a problem” (Burns, 2000).

Best and Khan (1999) have defined research as “systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observation that may lead to the
development of generalisation, principles or theories, resulting in prediction
and possibly ultimate control of events”.

Some of the key points in the above given definitions of research are as
follows:

1) It is systematic in nature: Psychological research is systematic as well

as scientific in nature and follows a pattern and scientific process. It is
important that research is carried out in systematic and scientific manner
so as to ensure that the outcome of the research can be relied on and the
researcher(s) have confidence in the outcome of the research.

2) It is objective: Objectivity is a significant characteristics of any research

and care needs to be taken that no subjectivity creeps in so that the
internal validity of the research is maintained. Thus, the subjective
beliefs of the researcher should not interfere in the research process or
the outcome, rather the focus needs to be on reality that is objective in
nature.

3) It seeks answers to certain problem: Psychological research is carried

out with an objective that needs to be clear and specific. There could be
certain problems and issues that the researcher(s) may come across and
may seek answers to.

4) With the help of research, generalisations can be made and theory

and principles can also be developed: Based on the research findings
generalisations can be made. Further, based on the findings, theory and
principles can also be developed.

2.2.1 Goals of Psychological Research

The main goal of psychological research is to comprehend human and animal
behaviour. The more the researchers are able to decipher human behaviour,
the more it will benefit the society in general and individuals in specific. For
example, developing a better understanding about aggressive behaviour
30
 Introduction to
amongst youth, can help develop suitable intervention. Let us now look at Applied Social
certain specific goals of psychological research, that are discussed as follows: Psychology

1) Description: This is one of the prominent goals of research that involves

description of behaviour in a systematic manner. Description involves
information about what exactly is happening in a situation, where and
with whom is it happening. In description a certain phenomenon/ event
or issue is identified and reported. For example, safety behaviour of
employees can be observed and described.

2) Explanation: This mainly involves explaining why a certain behaviour/

phenomenon is taking place. For example, if employees in an
organisation are not using safety devices, then explanation can be
generated as to why they are doing so.

3) Prediction: Yet another goal of psychological research is prediction.

Based on research certain predictions can be made about the behaviour
under study. In prediction, the factors that may be correlated or related
with certain behaviour or phenomenon are identified. For example,
predictions are made with regard to why employees are not using safety
devices based on previous research and information.

4) Control: Control is also an objective of research which involves

bringing about a change in the behaviour with the help of suitable
intervention strategies. For example, suitable intervention strategies can
be developed to promote use of safety devices amongst the employees.

5) Application: Inferences can be drawn based on the results obtained by

carrying out the research and these can then be applied for problem
solving as well as decision making.

A good psychological research is systematic and scientific in nature. It also

needs to be valid as well as verifiable and replicable. A good psychological
research needs to be logical as well and it should be possible to make
generalisations or develop theories and principles based on the research
outcomes. Thus, a research could be carried out to systematically and
scientifically test certain hypothesis(es) and theories and this is done by
controlling the influence of extraneous or confounding variables.

2.2.2 Characteristics of Psychological Research

An adequate psychological research needs to have the following
characteristics:

1) The purpose and objective(s) of the research needs to be stated in

clear and specific manner: It is important that the purpose and the
objective(s) of the research are stated clearly and specifically, as the
choice of research design and other aspects of the research will depend
on the objectives of the research.
31
Applied Social 2) In order to ensure objectivity, the research procedure needs to be
Psychology: An
Introduction planned adequately: Any research needs to be adequately planned.
Even while building a house, a plan is to be drawn that is followed. In a
similar manner while carrying out research as well, a plan is to be drawn.
That is the reason why often a research proposal or synopsis is created
that provides details about the problem, objectives, hypothesis(es),
sample, research design, tools for data collection and data analysis.

3) Research design needs to be appropriately selected based on the

purpose and objective(s) of the research: Research design provides a
structure to the research and it is important to adequately select a
research design based on the statement of problem stated in the research.
Suitable selection of research designs can ensure high internal validity.

4) Appropriate tools need to be used for data analysis: Data analysis is

an equally important aspect of a psychological research and again based
on the purpose and objective(s) of the research suitable techniques of
data analysis need to be employed.

Let us now focus on research in applied social psychology. The main focus of
research in applied social psychology is not only on understanding the social
issue or problem but also to develop suitable intervention strategy to deal
with the issue. For example, if a research is carried out to understand elderly
abuse, after understanding the issue, an intervention strategy will be
developed to reduce elderly abuse. Though, in certain cases, applied social
psychologists may also refer to the existing research in order to develop
suitable intervention strategy to deal with certain issues.

Some of the important aspects of research in applied social psychology

(Shetgovekar, 2018) are as follows:
- The research may not be based on scientific curiosity. Rather it focuses on
a social issue or problem and how to alleviate it.
- The approach utilised is an interdisciplinary approach as any social issue
or problem cannot be studied from a single dimension.
- The research is mainly carried out in field set up.
- An action plan is developed based on the results obtained. And this
intervention could be further subjected to evaluation to understand its
effectiveness.

Check Your Progress I

1) List the goals of psychological research.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….
32
 Introduction to
2.3 RESEARCH CONCEPTS AND COMPONENTS Applied Social
Psychology
You have already studied of psychological research in BPCC105. This is just
an overview to revisit what was learned by you. Let us look at some of the
research concepts and components in research.

Constructs

When we discuss about constructs, it is also important to understand what is

concept in the context of psychological research. As defined by Kerlinger
(1995, page. 26), a concept “expresses an abstraction formed by
generalisation from particulars”. Thus, height can be a concept, that can be
expressed in terms of observation of objects that are long or short. To take an
example of a psychological variable, adjustment, abstraction can be formed
for adjustment based on observations of individual behaviour. In a similar
manner various psychological variables can be abstracted based on certain
behaviours that can be categorised together.

A construct can be termed as a concept that is adopted for empirical purpose

(Kerlinger, 1995). Thus, when adjustment is adopted in a research for
empirical purpose, it will be termed as a construct. When a concept is
adopted as a construct in a research, it is entered in to the theoretical
framework and thus can be related to other constructs in numerous ways.
Further, constructs can be subjected to observation and measurement
(Kerlinger, 1995). For instance, a standardised scale on adjustment can be
used to measure the construct of adjustment.

Variables

Variable means something that varies. It can also be explained as quantity or

a number that will vary or will have different values. If a researcher is
carrying out a study on emotional intelligence and self esteem of adolescents
in India, in this study, emotional intelligence and self esteem can be termed
as variables. Emotional intelligence and self esteem can be high or low. Both
these variables can possess varied values. Even gender can be termed as a
variable because it will vary in terms of males or females. Variables can be of
different types including the following:
- Independent variable: Variable that is manipulated by the researcher is
independent variable.
- Dependent variable: In a research, variable that is measured for any
changes when independent variable is manipulated is dependent variable.
- Extraneous variable:Variables that may impede or interfere in the
relationship between independent variable and dependent variable are
called extraneous variables.

Population and Sample

33
Applied Social The term population can be used to describe the persons, objects, elements,
Psychology: An
Introduction animals or even reactions that display a pattern of characteristics that is
unique. It can also be explained as set of persons, objects, elements, animals,
reactions that the researcher wants to study. If a researcher wants to carry out
a study on adolescents in New Delhi, then his/ her population will be all the
adolescents in New Delhi. Population can be finite or infinite in nature
(Mohanty and Misra, 2016, page 3). An example of finite population is
number of students in a school who have failed in mathematics. And an
example of infinite populations would be number of stars in the sky.

In simple terms, sample can be defined as the group of individuals who

participate in the research. If we take the example of adolescents in New
Delhi, discussed above, it is not feasible for the researcher to contact and
collect data from all the adolescents in New Delhi. Thus, the researcher will
take a sample (preferably representative) from that population. To take
another example, in a cold drink factory, if the quality inspector wants to find
out if the quality and taste of the cold drink is adequate, he/she will not test
all the bottles of cold drink, but take a sample and test the same and
preferably this sample is taken randomly.

Thus, a sample is a smaller group from the population that participates in the
research. It is important that the sample is representative of the population,
thatis, it is as much as possible similar to the population or possesses the
same characteristics or elements as the population (Mohanty and Misra,
2016). Thus, sampling techniques are relevant in research, which help in
selection of sample. Sampling techniques can be categorised in to probability
sampling and non probability sampling. The sampling techniques have been
described in table 2.1

Table 2.1: Sampling Techniques

Sampling Description Example

technqiue

Probability Every individual who is If the population for a research is

Sampling part of the population students in class 9th of a school,
has an equal chance of each and every student has equal
being included in the chance of being selected for the
sample. Sample is research.
assumed to be
representative of the
population.

34
 Introduction to
Applied Social
Table 2.1: Sampling Techniques Psychology

Simple Participants are Names or roll numbers of all the

random randomly selected from students are written on the chits that
sampling the population using are then put a bowl and ten chits are
methods like lottery taken out (sample size for research
method. is 10) and these students form the
sample of the study.

Systematic A list of individuals in For 50 students in a class (N), the

random the population is created research may want to take a sample
sampling in a random order and of 10 (n) for the research. Sampling
sample is selected based fraction (f) = n/ N= 10/50 = 0.2.
on a random integer, Interval size (i) = N/n = 50/10= 5.
keeping in mind the The random integer from 1 to 5
sampling fraction and could be 4. Thus, from the 4th
the interval size. student in the list the researcher will
select every 5th student (4, 9, 14, 19
and so on) till he/ she gets the
sample of 10.

Stratified Population is divided in Population divided in to males and

random to homogeneous group females and for each groups sample
sampling and then the sample is is randomly selected.
selected randomly.

Cluster Population divided in to In a school, from all the classes,

sampling clusters that are then five classes are randomly selected
randomly selected and and then all the students in these
then all the individuals classes form the sample for the
falling in the selected research.
clusters are taken.

Multistage As the name suggests, Using cluster sampling the classes

random this is carried out at in a school are selected and then
sampling multiple levels. simple random sampling/ stratified
random sampling, sample is
selected from these classes.

Non- There is no random If a study is to be carried out on

probability selection of the participants female victims of domestic violence,
Sampling to be included in the then randomisation is not used and
sample. Hence, the sample based on the availability and consent
may not be representative of the persons, they are included in
of the population. the sample.
35
Applied Social
Psychology: An
Introduction Table 2.1: Sampling Techniques

Convenient Whether an individual The researcher will approach the

sampling will be included in the female victims of violence and
sample will depend on based on their availability, they will
his/ her availability. be included in the sample.

Voluntary Participants willing to Female victims of violence who are

sampling be part of the research willing to participate in the research
are included in the are included in the sample.
sample

Judgement Sample selection is A teacher may identify students

sampling carried out an individual who will participate in the research.
who has a good idea
about the sample

Quota Based on a fixed quota, Quota could be 100 junior

sampling the sample is selected. managers and 50 senior managers
in a company that will form the
sample of the study.

Snowball A researcher approaches A researcher may contact parents

sampling an individual with having gifted children and then they
characteristics as per the may be asked to refer other parents
requirement of the having gifted children.
sample and then this
individual is asked to
further refer individuals
with similar
characteristics.

Experimental and control group

The group for which independent variable is manipulated is called

experimental group and a group for which independent variable is not
manipulated is called control group. For example, if we want to study the
effect of noise distraction (independent variable) on performance of an
individual on a simple task (dependent variable). The experimental group
will be subjected to noise distraction, whereas, the control group will perform
a task under normal condition. Inclusion of control group in a research can
strengthen the research, though it is important to use techniques of
randomisation and matching while selecting sample and dividing them in to
group, experimental or control.

36
 Introduction to
Confederate Applied Social
Psychology
Research in applied social psychology (as also in social psychology) could
involve confederates. Confederates are individuals who help or serve as
accomplices in the research. They are provided certain specific role to play.
For example, in Milgram experiment, the participants had to deliver electric
shock to another participant who made errors in given task. The other
participant was an accomplice or confederate.

Research design

Based on the problem, the researcher needs to select suitable research design.
Research design denotes structure of the research. As stated by Kerlinger
(1995, page 280) “Research designs are invented to enable researchers to
answer research questions as validly, objectively, accurately and
economically as possible”. Research designs not only help in obtaining
answers to the research problem but also help in variance control, that
includes maximisation of true variance (variance in independent variable
leads to variance in dependent variable) and minimisation of error variance
(variance in dependent variable that can be attributed to extraneous variable).
There are various types of research designs, for example, factorial design,
small n designs and so on that can be selected based on the requirement of
the research and research problem. Further, research could be qualitative or
quantitative in nature or may employa mixed approach. Some of the research
designs have been given in table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Research Designs

Sr. Research Design Description Example

No
.

1 True designs 1) Independent variable Effect of temperature

(s) [IV] can be (IV) on Performance
manipulated of the participants.
2) High control (of Temperature can be
extraneous variables) manipulated as warm,
normal and cold.
3) Randomisation
possible
4) Can be used for
studies in laboratory
set up

37
Applied Social
Psychology: An 2 Faulty designs 1) Independent variable Caregivers burden of
Introduction
(s) cannot be caretakers of
manipulated as they individuals with
have already taken terminal illness (IV).
place. Here IV is the terminal
2) Low control illness that has already
occurred and not under
3) Randomisation not
the control of the
possible
researcher.
4) Used in field studies

3 Quasi 1) Quasi means Two teaching methods

Experimental resembling (lecture and group
designs 2) This design resembles discussion, IV) given
true designs to two different classes
to se their impact on
3) Independent variable
students ’learning.
can be manipulated
4) Control is possible to
some extent
5) No randomisation
6) Used in field
experiments

4 Factorial designs 1) Used to study the Effect of gender (IV1)

effect of more than and Socio- Economic
two independent Status (IV2) on Self
variable (s) on the Esteem (Dependent
dependent variable. Variable) of
2) Main effect (of each adolescents.
variable separately) as
well as interactional
effect (of all the IVs)
studied.

5 Small n designs 1) Small sample Study on soldiers

2) In-depth study having Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder
3) Same sample studied
over a period of time.

Methods of Data Collection

There are various methods of data collection that can be used by the research
to collect data. Though it is also possible that more than one method of data
collection is used in a research. These are briefly explained as follows:
- Observation: Observation can be described as a process of data collection
in which the units/ events/ phenomena/ individuals witnessed first hand. A
38 researcher, for example, can observe employees at work, children
 Introduction to
interacting with each other, people belonging to certain community and so Applied Social
on.Observation can be carried out either in a naturalistic set up or it can be Psychology
carried out in a laboratory or a clinical set up. The benefits of naturalistic
situation are in a way high as the behaviour of individuals in their natural
set up can be studied. In such a case there is no manipulation or control of
any variables.Observer plays an immensely important role in observation
as he/ she needs to observe and record events and details. Types of
observation include participant observation, nonparticipant observation,
structured and unstructured observation.
- Interview: Kerlinger (1995, page 441) described interview as “a face to
face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks
a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain
answers pertinent to research problem”. The key points in this definition
are that there are two main individuals involved, interviewer and
interviewee who are involved in a face to face interaction. And during this
interaction, the interviewer will ask certain questions to the interviewee to
elicit responses.One of the main aspects of the interview is the interview
schedule. Interview schedule is nothing but questions that the interviewer
has to ask as well as certain guidelines with regard to how the interviewer
is expected to proceed with the interview. Types of interview include
structured interview, unstructured interview, semistructured interview.
- Psychological tests: Cohen and Swerdlik (2010, page 2), defined
psychological testing “ as the process of measuring psychology-related
variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample
of behavior”. Psychological tests are objective in nature and need to be
valid and reliable. they also have a discriminant feature and are
comprehensive in nature.
- Projective techniques:These are subjective in nature. Here, the test taker
may be asked to respond to certain semi-structured or unstructured stimuli.
The responses are then to be interpreted by the administrator, where
subjectivity may creep in. Examples of projective tests are Rorschach
Inkblot test, Somatic Inkblot Series, Sentence Completion Test, Thematic
Apperception Test and Children‟s Apperception Test.
- Questionnaire: These could include questions that are open ended or
closed ended. Often rating scales like Likert‟s five point scale are also
incorporated in the questionnaire. Care needs to be taken while the
questions are formulated so that they are simple and clear.
- Sociometry: In social psychology, (and applied social psychology) yet
another method of data collection is sociometry, that can be used in order
to study social interaction. It involves data collection and analysis related
to communication and interaction between individuals. Sociometric
matrices or sociograms can also be created based on the data obtained.

39
Applied Social The process of research mainly starts with review of literature and selection
Psychology: An
Introduction of variables. Once the basic idea of what research is to be carried out is clear,
then the problem and objectives are specified and hypothesis (if required) are
formulated. The nature and sample size along with sampling technique is also
decided. Further, research design as found to be adequate and suitable for the
study is to be finalised. Methods of data collection is then to be selected and
once the data is collected it needs to be analysed and interpreted. The results
can then be published or made available for other researchers, policy makers,
subject experts, general public and so on. And more importantly in case of
applied social psychology, the results can be utilised to develop suitable
intervention strategy.

Data analysis

Once the data is collected, the data needs to be analysed. Based on whether
the data is quantitive or qualitative, the analysis needs to be carried out. For
quantitative data various statistical analysis can be computed as per the
objectives of the research. We discussed about statistical techniques in
BPCC104 and BPCC108 and these can be adequately used for statistical
analysis. Qualitative analysis can also be carried out using various
techniques. We will discuss qualitative research in next unit.

The above concepts and components are relevant as they provide a

background about research, which will assist you carrying out research in
applied social psychology.

Check Your progress II

1) What are the different types of variables?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2.4 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN APPLIED

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Let us now discuss about various types of quantitative research that can be
used in applied social psychology.

Descriptive research

Descriptive research involves description of certain phenomenon or event. It

mainly involves observation and recording about the phenomenon or event.
Descriptive research helps the researcher describe certain behavioural
40
 Introduction to
patterns and it can be effectively used when manipulation of variables that Applied Social
are being studied is not possible. Psychology

The data that is collected in descriptive research could either be qualitative,

quantitative or both. Qualitative data can be organised on the basis of
emerging patterns and descriptive statistics (discussed in later units of this
course can be used to analyse the quantitative data.

There are three main categories of descriptive research, viz, naturalistic

observation, case study and surveys. These are discussed as follows:

1) Naturalistic Observation: This involves observation as well as

recording of behaviour in a natural setting. As such there is no control
and the researcher is involved in mere observation of the phenomenon or
event. For example, researcher can observe a group of children playing
or may want to study crowd behaviour. In such a case, he/ she can
effectively use naturalistic observation, that will provide valuable
information about how individuals behave in a natural set up.
Naturalistic observation has higher ecological validity (that is, findings
can be applied in realistic situations).

2) Case Study: In case study, a single individual or situation is studied in

an in-depth manner. For example, a person having certain psychological
disorder or a rare chronic illness is studied. As such it is not possible to
make any predictions based on the case study method. While using this
method, the researcher‟s bias could creep in, that can have an impact on
the way research is carried out.

3) Survey method: In survey method, it is possible to contact a large

number of individual and carry out a survey. For example, a survey can
be carried to get feedback about a certain product from general public.
Questionnaires or interview can be used to collect data from the
participants. It is important that the questions that have been framed are
adequate, clear and easy to understand.

Correlational research

Correlational research is mainly used to study relationship between variables.

For example, we mat carry out study to understand the relationship between
Family environment and self concept of children. Correlation ranges from –
1.00 to + 1.00. Here, the 0 indicates lack of relation ship and 1 indicates
strong correlation. The signs – and + indicate whether the relationship is
negative or positive respectively. Though correlations provides adequate
information about the relationship between the variables and its direction and
degree, it provides no information about cause and effect relationship
between the variables.

41
Applied Social Experimental research
Psychology: An
Introduction
In experimental research the independent variable can be manipulated. The
research or experiment is carried out under controlled condition. Thus, the
interference of extraneous variable (s) can be controlled. Randomisation can
be used in order to select the sample. It has high internal validity and thus it
can be said that the changes in dependent variable (s) are as a result of
independent variable(s) and not extraneous variable(s). Though, it has lower
external validity (as the study is carried out under controlled conditions, the
results as such cannot be generalised to other situations).

Non-experimental research

A lot of research in applied social psychology is carried out using non-

experimental research. In this research independent variable cannot be
manipulated. The control is also low. It may not be possible to use
probability sampling and thus mainly the non-probability sampling
techniques are used. Non-experimental researches have high external
validity, but low internal validity. An example of non-experimental research
in applied social psychology would be the Mental health and Perceived
Social Support of Individuals who recovered from COVID19.

Field experiments

These are researches that are carried out in natural setting but it is possible to
manipulate independent variable and there is some control possible. For
example, a research can be carried out in classroom or work setup. The
external validity of this research is high, though it may not be possible to
select the sample using randomisation. Internal validity would be lower
compared to the experimental research. An example of field experiment
could be the effectiveness of an intervention strategy developed to help
employees deal with work stress. In this research, there can be two groups,
experimental and control group. The experimental group will receive the
intervention strategy, whereas the control group will not. Here a pretest-
posttest design could be used.

Field Studies

These researches are non - experimental in nature. The study is carried out in
naturalistic setting. The researcher cannot manipulate the independent
variable(s). It is not possible to select sample using randomisation. The
internal validity of field experiments is low, though the external validity is
high. An example of field study could be the Psychological hardiness and
Psychological wellbeing of Health professionals.

Box 2.1: Internal and External Validity

Internal Validity: Internal validity denotes that the changes in dependent

variable (s) are as a result of independent variable(s) and not extraneous
variable(s).
42
 Introduction to
External validity: External validity denotes whether the results can be Applied Social
generalised to other situations or population. External validity is of two types, Psychology
ecological validity and population validity. Ecological validity denotes
whether generalisation of the results can be carried out to other situations and
population validity denotes whether generalisation of the results (of the study
carried out a certain group of participants) can be carried out to the
population.

Check Your Progress III

1) State the three main categories of descriptive research.

………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………...

2.5 ACTION RESEARCH

This is yet another significant research that can play an important role in
applied social psychology.

Action research was developed and promoted for application in psychology

by Kurt Lewin in 1946 (Lafreniere et al., 2012). It can be termed as a
research having certain purpose. Here the focus is mainly on how the
research will benefit the participants. Kurt Lewin who is also credited with
contribution to the development of applied social psychology, also
emphasised the use of action research. Lewin believed that a research rather
than leading to a book, could lead to an action that results in benefit to the
participants and society in general.

The focus of action research is thus on intervention as is that of applied social

psychology.

Action research can be described as a method that can be used in designing

research studies that not only inform the practice but also influences it
(Reason and Bradbury, 2006). Winter and Munn-Giddings (2001, page 8)
define action research, as a “study of a social situation carried out by those
involved in that situation in order to improve both their practice and the
quality of their understanding”.

According to Meyer (2000), the main strength of action research is its focus
on seeking solutions to certain practical problems. And this is done by
carrying out research and then developing and implementing an intervention
base don the results of the research.

43
Applied Social Let us highlight the features of action research (Koshy, 2010).
Psychology: An
Introduction
1) Action research involves action, evaluation and also critical reflections.
1) It is collaborative and participative in nature and can be carried out by
individuals with common purpose.
2) It is specific to a context and a situation.
3) Reflections can be developed based on the participants‟ interpretations.
4) There is creation of knowledge through action and during application.
5) It can involve problem solving if the solution results in improvement of
practices.
6) Findings in action research are not conclusive or absolute in nature.

The main characteristics of action research are thus, its participatory aspect,
democratic tendency and contribution to the area of knowledge as well as
social change. The participatory aspect focuses on the perception and
willingness of the participants to change and also play an active role in the
research process. With regard to democratic tendency, in action research, all
the participants are equal. And the findings of an action research will not only
help in adding o the existing fund of knowledge of the subject area but will
also help in bringing about social change. The intervention strategies
developed based on the results of the research can help deal effectively with
the problem.

The main phases in action research are planning, fact finding and execution
(Ronald J Fisher, 1982). Planning mainly involves developing better
understanding of the situation. Fact finding phase involves collection of data
and the execution or action phase involves development of an action plan or
intervention strategy.

Action research can be of varied types (Shetgovekar, 2018), including:

- Diagnostic action research: The problem or issue is analysed or
diagnosed in order to understand it better.
- Participant action research: The persons who will implement the action
or on whom the intervention strategy will be implemented are involved in
the research process. This also helps deal with any resistance.
- Empirical action research: As an action is taken, the same is to be
regularly monitored. And to do so an external researcher may also be
appointed.
- Experimental action research: Experimental action research is utilised in
order to study the effectiveness of an action or intervention strategy.

The process of action research involves, identifying the problem, developing

an action plan, data collection and analysis, deriving conclusions leading to
modification of theory. The process can be repeated with modified theory
44 being put to evaluation, ultimately leading to reporting of the results.
 Introduction to
Check Your progress IV Applied Social
Psychology
1) What is action research?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2.6 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Research in psychology is necessarily carried out on humans and in this
regard it is important to follow certain ethical issues while carrying out
research, in order to ensure that they are treated in respectful way.

Before we go on to discuss various ethical issues, let us look at two of the

experiments that raised questions related to ethics in research.

A research was carried out by John Watson in order to study whether

emotional responses are learned. The study was carried out on a young child
named Albert. In the study Albert was repeatedly exposed to a white rat.
Initially, he did not show any negative reaction to the white rat. However,
when the exposure to the white rat was accompanied repeatedly with a loud
noise, Albert displayed negative reaction to the white rat. Further, as the
study continued, Albert displayed negative reactions towards stimuli that
were similar to the white rat like a white rabbit and fur coat.

This study raised some serious ethical issues as there is no mentions whether
any informed consent was taken from the parents/guardian of Albert (Albert
being a minor). Further, ethical issues can also be raised with regard to
whether it was really fair to subject Albert to such conditions and instilling
fear in him, that could have repercussions later in his life.

Yet another study was carried out by Zimbardo and is known as Stanford
Prison Experiment. In this research, Zimbardo attempted to study
participant’s group behaviour, how they adopted the abusive roles in the
process of following certain orders. In this study, a simulation of prison was
created and the participants were divided in to two groups, prisoners and
guards. The participants also signed a contract and received monitory
benefits. The guards were give instructions by Zimbardo (who acted as a
warden of the prison) to maintain order amongst the prisoners (though any
physical aggression was not allowed). The experiment had to be ended within
a few days as role was internalised by the participants to such an extent that
the guards were displaying aggressive behavior that negatively affected the
participants who played the role of prisoners.
45
Applied Social This experiment as well raised certain ethical issues, as the beneficence of the
Psychology: An
Introduction participant was at stake.

Thus, the above two experiments and many more led to more and more focus
on ethical issues in research in order to ensure wellbeing of the participants.

As such, the origin of ethical codes can be found in the Hippocratic oath that
was written way back in 400 BC. Though, ethics in research received
attention mainly after certain studies, as discussed above, raised questions
regarding safety as well as welfare of the participants in research. The
experiments carried out by Nazis during World War II also lead to
development of the Nuremberg Code (that mainly focused on informed
consent and coercion) that was a result of the Nuremberg war crime trials.
Besides, there were other studies as well that raised ethical issues, like the
Tuskegee syphilis study that was conducted by the U. S. Public Health
Services in 1930s on African Americans, having low income, who suffered
from syphilis. The participants were not aware that they were suffering from
syphilis and were not given any treatment (Penicillin) as they participated in
the study.

t an t r stu n w v p nt c i r n is a ct s cia
int racti n was carri ut n Spitzin 1940s. The study involved two
groups of children whose development were studied from birth onwards. One
of these groups were babies in orphanages who were deprived of any human
contact and appropriate care. The other group of babies (from prison
nursery) belonged to incarcerated mothers, who received care from their
mothers. The results of the study indicated that social deprivation had an
impact on the development of the children.

Thus, such studies brought ethical issues and concern for safety and welfare
of participants in the light. The Belmont Report was presented by U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare in 1979, where three ethical
principles were highlighted:
- Respect for persons: Recognising the autonomy of the participants and
protecting those with lower autonomy.
- Beneficence: Maximising benefits and minimising any harm and risk to
the participants.
- Justice: Fairness in terms of who receives the benefits of research and
faces risks.

These ethical principles were later stated as regulations by Department of

Health and Human Services and the Food and Drug Administration. In 1991,
they were adopted by the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human
Subjects.

46
 Introduction to
American Psychological Association proposed their own ethical standards in Applied Social
1953, that were revised from time to time. And these are the ethical issues Psychology
that we mainly follow while we conduct research.

Ethics as such are relevant at every stage of research. Any research is to be

carried out keeping in mind the risk and benefit ratio. If the risks are high and
benefits are low, there is no point in carrying out the research. If the benefits
are high and risks are low, provided that the minimal risks are taken care of,
the research can be initiated. If the benefits and risks both are low, then again
there is no use of carrying out the research. If the benefits and risks, both are
high, then the decision with regard to whether the research should be carried
out or not is difficult. But such researches can be carried out by managing the
risks. Besides the vulnerability of the population also needs to be kept in
mind. For example, children can be considered as vulnerable population.

In psychology and also in applied social psychology research, deception

could also used. Deception can be defined as “efforts by researchers to
withhold or conceal information about the purpose of a study from the
persons who participate in it” (Baron and Byrne, 1995, page. 31). Though
deception needs to be avoided, it may not be possible to do so in case of
certain researches. Using deception could also raise certain ethical issues as
the participants may not be pleased when they come to know about the actual
objective(s) of the research and may in fact resent for participating in
research and may avoid participating in any research in future. Further,
deception may lead to the participants being subjected to stress and anxiety.
If deception cannot be totally avoided then it should be ensured that the
participants don't face any serious risk during the research and debriefing
needs to be provided. In debriefing, after the data is collected from the
participants, information about the research is provided to them, their doubts
are clarified and privacy and confidentiality are assured.

There are certain significant ethical issues that need to be considered before
any research is carried out, these are discussed as follows:

Beneficence and Non-maleficence: A research needs to be carried out by

keeping in mind its benefits to the participants (beneficence) and it should be
ensured that the participants are not subjected to any harm (non-
maleficence). Thus, any risk to the participants is to be identified and
eliminated and if there is any minimal risk, the participants need to be
informed about the same and their consent for participation in the research
needs to be taken,

Privacy and Confidentiality: In any research, privacy and confidentiality of

the participants is to be maintained. The researcher needs to take adequate
care to ensure that the identity of the participants is not revealed. The
participants may seek privacy and may not want others to know that they
participated in the research. For instance, an employee may participate in
certain research being carried out in his/ her organisation but may not want
47
Applied Social other employees to know about the same. Confidentiality is equally important
Psychology: An
Introduction as is privacy, where, information and details regarding the participants are
not shared by the researcher with others. One way in which privacy and
confidentiality can be assured is by using codes instead of the names of the
participants.

Anonymity: Anonymity denotes that even the researcher may not be able to
identify the participant. In anonymity, the participants may have objection to
others knowing that they participated in the research, but may have no
problem with their performance details being shared.

Informed Consent:As discussed earlier, the participants need to be informed

about the details of the research, and this is done by taking informed consent
from the participants. According to Berg (1998, page 47) informed consent
means “the knowing consent of individuals to participate as an exercise of
their choice, free from any elements of fraud, deceit, duress, or similar unfair
inducement or manipulation”.Though, when deception is used in
psychological research, obtaining informed consent could be a challenge, as
is also true when a study is carried out with the help of naturalistic
observation. An informed consent needs to provide details about the research
including the duration, procedure and benefits of participating (including
incentives, if any) in research. It also needs to mention the participants right
to decline from participating in research or to leave or withdraw even after
the research has started. Any consequences with regard to denying to
participate in research or withdrawing from the research also need to be
explained in the informed consent. The participants also need to be updated
with any risks that they may face during their participation. If there are any
limitations with regard to confidentiality, the same also needs to be
mentioned in the informed consent. Lastly, the details of contact person
whom the participants can contact in case if they have any query also need to
be mentioned in the informed consent.

Ethical issues are significant at every stage of research right from selecting
the research problem, finalising the research design, sample to data collection
and analysis and reporting of the research. While the research is being written
and reported, the researcher needs to ensure that there is no plagiarism and
that the sources cited in the research are duly acknowledged.

For detailed information on the Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct given by American Psychological Association, refer to the fol-
lowing link https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

48
 Introduction to
CheckYourProgress V Applied Social
Psychology
1) List the three ethical principles that were highlighted in the Belmont
Report.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2.4 LET US SUM UP

In the present unit, we mainly focus on the methodological approach to
applied social psychology. Research methods employed in psychology can
also be employed in applied social psychology. In the unit we defined
research and discussed about the goals and characteristics of psychological
research. Various research concepts and components were also discussed.
The quantitive research in applied social psychology was then highlighted.
The unit also discussed action research that plays an important role in applied
social psychology. Lastly the ethics in psychological issues were also
explained.

2.5 REFERENCES
American Psychological Association. (2010). American Psychological
Association ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Assessed
on 15/11/2014, from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx Berg. B.
(2009). Qualitative Research. Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston: Allyn
& Bacon

Barnett J (1994) The nurse-patient relationship. In Gillon R (Ed) Principles of

Health Care. Chichester, John Wiley and Sons.

Best, J. W and Kahn, J. V. (1999). Research in Education. New Delhi:

Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

Bordens, K. S and Abbott, B. B. (2011). Research Designs and Methods: A

Process Approach. New Delh: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited.

Broota, K.D. (1992) Experimental Design in Behavioural Research, Wiley

Eastern Limited.

Burns, Robert B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods. New Delhi: Sage

publication Ltd.

49
Applied Social Ethics and Research on Human Subjects: International Guidelines,
Psychology: An
Introduction Proceedings of the XXVIth CIOMS Conference, Geneva, Switzerland, 5-7
Feb 1992, Edited by Z. Bankowski& R. j. Levine

Gabriel, D. (2013). Inductive and deductive approaches to research retrieved

from http://deborahgabriel.com/2013/03/17/inductive-and-deductive-
approaches- to-research/ on 15th March, 2019 at 8:30 am.

Goodwin, C. J. (2003). Research in Psychology: Methods and Designs.

Hoboken,New Jersey: Wiley.

History Module: The Devastating Effects of Isolation o Social behaviour

assessed on 20/11/2014 on
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu06.html

Jackson, S.L. (2009). Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking

Approach 3rd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Kerlinger, Fred, N. (1995). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Bangalore:

Prism Books Pvt. Ltd. for information on research, research designs, types of
research and methods of data collection.

Koshy, V (2010) Action Research for Improving Educational Practice. A

Step-by-step guide.London: Sage.

Lafreniere, K. D; Page, S and Senn, C. Y. (2012). Applying Social

Psychology to Community. n F. W. Schneider, J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts
(Eds.), Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and
practical problems.Delhi: Sage.

Majumdar, P.K. research Methods in Social Science. New delhi: Viva Books.

Mcbride, B. M. (2010). The Process of Research in Psychology. Sage

Publications: USA Wilson-

Meyer, J. (2000) ‘Using qualitative methods in health related action

research’, British

Medical Journal, 320: 178–181.

Meyer, J. (2006) ‘Action research’, in K. Gerrish and A. Lacey (eds), The

Research Process

in Nursing. Oxford: Blackwell.

Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational Citizenship behavior: The good soldier

syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Reason, P. and Bradbury, H. (2008) The SAGE Handbook of Action

Research: Participative

Inquiry and Practice (2nd edition). London: SAGE.

50
 Introduction to
Ruane, J. M. (2016). Introducing Social Research Methods: Essentials for Applied Social
Getting the Edge. United Kingdoms: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Psychology

Shetgovekar, S. (2018). Am Introduction to Social Psychology. Delhi: Sage.

Sieber, J. E &Tolich, M. B. (2013). Planning Ethically Responsible Research.

Sage Publication: USA.

Winter, R. and Munn-Giddings, C. (2001) A Handbook for Action Research

in Health and Social Care. London: Routledge.

2. 6 KEY WORDS
Action research: Winter and Munn-Giddings (2001, page 8) define action
research, as a „study of a social situation carried out by those involved in that
situation in order to improve both their practice and the quality of their
understanding‟.

Research:Research can also be described as an analysis and recording of

controlled observation that is objective and systematic in nature. And this
analysis and recording can result in generalisations, and also development of
theories.

Research designs:Kerlinger (1995, page 280) “Research designs are

invented to enable researchers to answer research questions as validly,
objectively, accurately and economically as possible

Sample: Sample can be defined as the group of individuals who participate

in the research.

Variables: Variable means something that varies. It can also be explained as

quantity or a number that will vary or will have different values.

2. 7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) List the goals of psychological research

The goals of psychological research are:
- Description,
- Explanation
- Prediction
- Control
- Application

Check Your progress II

1) What are the different types of variables?

The different types of variables are: 51
Applied Social - Independent variable: Variable that is manipulated by the
Psychology: An
Introduction researcher is independent variable.
- Dependent variable:In a research, variable that is measured for any
changes when independent variable is manipulated is dependent
variable.
- Extraneous variable:Variables that may impede or interfere in the
relationship between independent variable and dependent variable
are called extraneous variables.

Check Your Progress III

1) State the three main categories of descriptive research.

There are three main categories of descriptive research, viz, naturalistic

observation, case study and surveys.

Check Your progress IV

1) What is action research?

Action research can be termed as a research having certain purpose. Here

the focus is mainly on how the research will benefit the participants.

CheckYourProgress V

1) List the three ethical principles that were highlighted in the Belmont
Report.

The Belmont Report was presented by U.S. Department of Health,

Education and Welfare in 1979, where three ethical principles were
highlighted:
- Respect for persons: Recognising the autonomy of the participants
and protecting those with lower autonomy.
- Beneficence: Maximising benefits and minimising any harm and
risk to the participants.
- Justice: Fairness in terms of who receives the benefits of research
and faces risks.

2. 8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the significance of research in applied social psychology.
2) Describe any three research concepts and components
3) What is population and sample? Describe various sampling techniques.
4) Describe descriptive and experimental research.
5) Describe action research.
6) Highlight the ethics in psychological research.
52
Applied Social discussed with experts and decided to carry out a study on female survivals
Psychology: An
Introduction of domestic violence. Based on her discussion with her supervisor, she
decided to use an in-depth interview method to collect relevant information
from the participants.

Sonal worked as a counsellor with a Non GovernmentalOrganisation that

worked to create health related awareness amongst people in a village in
Bihar. She wanted to understand the awareness about reproductive health
amongst women in the village. In order to do so, she decided to create focus
groups and collect information from the women participants.

John was a psychology faculty in a college. He wanted to understand the use

of social media by adolescent students in his college. He decided to use
interview method to collect information on the use of social media by the
adolescent students.

As can be seen in the above examples, the methods of data collection used
are interview and focus groups. These and many more can be described as the
methods of qualitative research. In the previous unit, we discussed about
research in general as well as we focused on quantitative research. In the
present unit, we will discuss about qualitative research, methods of data
collection and data analysis in qualitative research.

In psychology, the focus is often on quantitive methods of research, that we

discussed in the previous unit. But we also need to focus on the qualitative
research that can help us collect relevant information and data. Often mixed
methods approach is also employed where both qualitative method and
quantitative method are employed in the research.

3.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: AN

INTRODUCTION
It is important to remember that the approach, method, design, sampling
technique, tools for data collection and analysis that you use for your
research are selected based on the research objectives. There are many
research areas that cannot be suitably studied with the help of quantitive
methods and qualitative research methods are more adequate. The focus of
quantitative research is on numbers (you studied about quantitative research
in BPCC105 and also discussed various statistical analysis under BPCC104).
With regard to qualitative research, the data is non-numerical. It helps
provide an in-depth knowledge and information about the area of research. It
also helps bridge the gap created as a result of the limitations of quantitative
research. Qualitative research helps in providing a qualitative understanding
of certain events, phenomenon or behaviour. The types of data in qualitative
research (Flick, 2014) are:
- Talk data: A lot of qualitative research depends on talk. The very first
approach in this regard is interviews, where the interviewee has to respond
54
 Qualitative Research in
to certain questions. The second is narratives, where the participants are Applied Social
asked narrate about their experience or their life histories after certain Psychology
event, for example after death of a significant person. Interviews could
also combine questions and narratives. The third approach is focus group,
where discussions are stimulated or questions are asked in groups. The
data thus collected can either be noted down or recorded using audio
visual aids so that they can be analysed later on.
- Data beyond talk: We know that not all behaviour is verbal but there is
also a significant aspect, that is nonverbal behaviour. And this can very
well be studied with the help of observation. Observation can also be noted
and recorded with help of various method including checklist or with the
help of visual aids.
- Use of existing data: Various records, documentations, research articles
etc. are already available can be studied. Besides the above there are also
books, videos, films and photographs that can be studied.

Thus, the verbal data that mainly denotes the words can be collected using
methods like interview, narrative interviews (interviews and narratives are
used in combination as well), focus groups and so on and data beyond words
can be collected using methods like observation ethnography and so on.
Besides, information can also be collected with the help of photographs,
videos, films and documents. The selection of the method of collecting verbal
data will mainly depend on the research question. Though it also depends on
whether the interviewer will be able to apply the type of interview and
whether the interview type is suitable for the interviewees.

Analysing data in qualitative research is complex. There are two important

approaches in this regard, the first is coding and categorisation and the other
is investigation of data in a context. Coding can be explained as a process
where, the statements from an interview are identified and labeled by putting
them in categories (Flick, 2014). In coding mainly the grouping of the data is
carried out and then they are categorised. And this can be done with
statements, observations and even documents. These categories can be
predefined before the the analysis or during the analysis. Various softwares
like ATLASti, NVivo, MAXQDA, etc. can be used in order to code and
categorise the data.

With reference to investigating data in context, the context of the data is

focused on and the responses, narratives etc are analysed based on the
context.

Often, as per the objectives of the research, both quantitative and qualitative
research approaches can be used to study a certain research area, this is also
referred to as mixed methods approach. Triangulation can also be carried out.
According to Flick (2014, page 183), triangulation can be defined as “the
combination of different methods, study groups, local and temporal settings
and different theoretical perspectives in dealing with phenomenon” 55
Applied Social Triangulation includes formalisation of relation between quantitative and
Psychology: An
Introduction qualitative research, enhancing the quality of qualitative research and
adequately carrying out qualitative research. The types of triangulation are as
follows:
- Data triangulation: This denotes utilisation of various data sources. In
this context we can differentiate between time, space and persons. Thus an
event of phenomenon can be studied on different dates, in different places
and from different individuals.
- Investigator triangulation: In order to reduce biases, different
interviewers/ observers are employed.
- Theory triangulation: The data is approached through multiple
perspectives and hypothesis with an aim to multiply the possibilities of
generating knowledge.
- Methodological triangulation: Methodological triangulation can be
categorised in to within- method and between-method. An example of
within-method includes measuring an item in a questionnaire using
different sub-scales. And an example of between-method includes
combining questionnaire with an interview method.

Thus, by using triangulation, the methodological and theoretical access of the

area of research selected by the researcher can be extended. Though it needs
to be remembered that it requires investment of effort and resources

Check Your Progress I

1) List the types of data in qualitative research.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

3.3 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Let us now look at some of the methods of qualitative research that can be
adequately used in applied social psychology. Qualitative research mainly
involves data that is not numerical or is based in interviews, observation,
written evidences and records and so on. Qualitative research are also
exploratory in nature and have an inductive approach. the methods of
qualitative research are described as follows:
56
 Qualitative Research in
3.3.1 In-depth interview Applied Social
Psychology
We discussed briefly about interview when we described the methods of data
collection in unit 2. Here we will discuss in-depth interview as a method of
qualitative research. In-depth interview mainly includes asking questions and
these questions are open ended rather than close ended. Interviews are often
carried out face to face and there is one (or sometimes more than one)
interviewer and one interviewee. One of the main advantages of this method
is that as it is face to face, the interviewer is able to observe the interview.
Thus along with verbal information, a lot of non-verbal information is also
collected. There are three main types of interview, structure, unstructured and
semi structured. Structured interview is also referred to as standardized
interview. This type is standardised, as the name suggests and includes
predefined questions that are sequenced in certain predefined order and also
worded in certain way. Thus, there is not much freedom to the interviewer to
make any changes to the questions asked. Unstructured interview is termed as
unstandardised interview, this type of interview is more flexible and as such
questions are not predetermined and the interviewer has full freedom to ask
the questions in the way and sequence that he/ she wants to. This in a way
provides the necessary freedom to the interviewer to make any modifications
as per the demand of the situation. Semistructured interview is a combination
of structured and unstructured interview. There will be an interview schedule
that is predetermined, but the interviewer has full freedom to modify and
make changes in it. It is very important that before the interview begins, the
interviewer not only works on the interview schedule but also collects
background information about the participant(s). During the interview
listening and observation skills are very important as they will help the
interviewer collect relevant information. As the interview starts, the rapport
formation process also is significant as a good rapport with the participant
will help interviewer gather more information.

The questions asked during the interview need to clear and specific and care
need to betaken that the interviewee has understood the question. After
developing the questions you can also carry out „piloting‟, that is, taking
opinion from the experts regarding the questions developed by you. the
questions can be critically analysed by the experts and suggestions cab be
given to delete, modify or improve them. The questions can also be
administered to a small group of participants (as per the population of the
research) to check their effectiveness. The questions can then be finalised for
the research

Some of the types of questions, that could be asked are as follows:

- Warmup questions: These can be used to create rapport with the
participants. For example: How are you? How was your day?
- Demographic questions: These are questions asked to collect
demographic details of the participants, like age, religion and so on.
57
Applied Social - Core questions:The questions that pertain to the main objective of the
Psychology: An
Introduction research or subject area of the research are termed as core questions. The
interviewer needs to ensure that maximum information is collected with
the help of these core questions. And in this regard, the interviewer can use
probes and prompts as well.
- Clarifying questions: Such questions can be used to further clarify certain
points or aspects that were reflected in answers to the core questions.

The response can be written down or even recorded (with prior permission of
the interviewee) so that they can be analysed later on.

The responses received can be thematically analysed. During the interview

process, the interview needs to be careful about interviewers bias.

3.3.2 Narrative Interviews

This can be termed as one of the major approaches in qualitative research. As
described by Schütze, it can be described as a method for collecting narrative
data. In narratives, initially how the whole situation started is denoted and
then the relevant event from the narrative are selected and presented in a
sequence as they occurred and the final situation is mentioned.

An interesting distinction can be made between „research on narratives‟ and

„research with narratives‟. Research on narratives denotes that the research is
carried out on the narratives. Here narratives are analysed in order to
understand their construction and how they work. Whereas, research with
narratives denote that narratives are used in order to collect data regarding
certain issue.

There are various ways of using narrative data in qualitative research and
these include,
- analysing the written or recorded narratives, that already exist.
- stimulating narratives during interviews or focus group discussions.
- analysis of narratives that take place during an interview.
- Stimulating narratives in the interviews. Thus, there is an integration of
narratives in the interview.

In narrative interview, the participant is asked to narrate the history related to

the area of interest (based on the research objective) and the interviewer
records this extempore narration and ensures that the narrative is consistent
story of the events that occurred from beginning till the end. Such an
interview begins with generative questions that are used to stimulate the
narration. These are followed by narrative probing, where certain details that
could have been left out during the narration are elicited. The last stage is
balancing phase. In this the view point and theoretical accounts of the
interviewee is taken. They can explain why certain things happened the way
they happened.
58
 Qualitative Research in
Though a lot of relevant information can be collected using narrative Applied Social
interviews but there are disadvantages as well. The interviewee may not be Psychology
adequately narrate the events. The interviewer as well needs to be adequately
skilled to use the method.

Narratives can be analysed at four levels, personal, interpersonal, positional

and ideological (Flick, 2014, page 286).
- Personal: What information is revealed about the individuals biography
and life history.
- Interpersonal: The co-constructing process of events or issues that is seen
as a shared achievement of the narrator and the person who is listening.
- Positional: Denotes how the narrator positions himself/ herself towards
the event or issue that they narrated.
- Ideological: Denotes the contribution narratives constitution and
delimitation of social groups and how boundaries are maintained.

3.3.3 Focus Group

In this method of qualitative research, certain questions or issues are
discussed by a group of participants. Focus groups can be structured or
unstructured and the group could be heterogeneous or homogeneous in
nature. It may involve experts (referred to as Delphi group) who discuss
certain important issues (for instance, health educators could discuss about
certain health related issues of a certain community) or could be individuals
from certain community/ area discussing about certain issue (like women
empowerment). The size of the group will depend on the objective(s) of the
research (though an ideal size would be twelve and for Delphi groups it could
be around four participants) and the participants may or may not know each
other. One of the main advantages of this method is that a lot of information
is gathered. Though, there are disadvantages as well, as there could issues
related to encouraging the participants to contribute equally and actively.
And though this method in a way gives more control to the participants,
ethical issue of confidentiality cannot be maintained. Besides, there is also
the problem of social desirability on part of the participants that can impact
the outcome of the study. The researcher needs to play a role of coordinator
in order to facilitate and promote effective discussion and also to avoid any
conflict between the participants. He/ she also needs to develop suitable
rapport with the participants and provide proper information and instructions.
Audio and visual aids can also be used to record the whole discussion that
can later be analysed.

3.3.4 Participant Observation

As the name suggests, in participant observation, the observer participates
along with other participants in the activities/events/ phenomena being
studied so that he/ she is able to gather first hand information and interpret it
effectively. Thus, the researcher is actively involved in activities carried out 59
Applied Social by the participants. This type of observation is often used by social
Psychology: An
Introduction anthropologist and can be used to study tribal groups (Majumdar, 2015). To
take an example, if the researcher is studying rituals and practices of certain
community during a festival, then he/ she will actively participate in the
same. As the researcher is actively involved he/ she is able to gather relevant
information about the day to day activities, rituals, practices etc. of the
community/ group. Though, seeking entry to the group could pose a
challenge besides creating rapport with the community/ group. Some of the
advantages of this method include opportunity to observe the behavior of the
individuals in a natural set up, and opportunity to built rapport and closeness
with the community/ group members that enables the researcher to collect in-
depth information and develop deeper understanding. Further, as the
researcher is actually participating, he/ she gets an original perspective about
the events, phenomena, rituals etc. To mention some of the disadvantages,
this method could be very time consuming. Also exiting the community/
group could be a challenge as the researcher forms a bond with the
participants. Another disadvantage of this type is that if the participants are
aware about the observer then their behaviour and interaction may get
affected as they may not be spontaneous. Though, to deal with this,
„deception‟ can be used where the participants are not aware that they are
being studied. But this can give rise to certain ethical issues and due care
needs to be taken to protect the privacy and rights of the participants. The
researcher also needs to be careful in noting down the observations and
interpreting them. These need to be done as objectively as possible to avoid
any bias and subjective interpretations. Also the researcher needs to be
adequately trainedand skilled to carry out effective observations. He/ she also
needs to carry out a background study about the community/ group so that
he/ she is able to study the events, phenomena, practices etc. from right
perspective.

3.3.5 Ethnography
This approach mainly focuses on the study of a particular community. It is
more of a kind of close field observation and basically tries to study a socio
cultural phenomena. This method mainly involves study of participants in
their naturalistic environment. Observation is widely used in ethnography and
it is also less structured in nature. The researcher also plays an active role and
more often than not participant observation is used. Various other methods
like interview, using documental sources are also employed in ethnography
besides observation. One of the main advantages of ethnography is that
primary data is collected first hand and thus its validity is higher. Though its
disadvantages include, lack of generalisation, inability to study cause and
effect relationship, ineffective description of what is observed and some
ethical issues (for instance, when deception is used by the researcher) may
also crop up while using this method. Further, employing ethnography is also
complex, as the researcher may find it difficult to decide what to study and
why to study it. Further, when the problem and objectives of the study have
60
Applied Social problem and objectives of the study. Also it is important to review the
Psychology: An
Introduction literature in this regard so that the researcher has adequate background
knowledge (though this is true with any research). The case study is
necessarily complex as any unit will have numerous dimensions like
personal, social, economical, political and so on. Once the focus of the case
study is clear, then the methods of data collection can be finalised. As stated
earlier, varied methods of data collection can be used in case study. However,
which methods are to be used will depend on the research questions and the
research problem and objectives. The researcher will also need to decide
about whether a single case will be taken or a small sample. This again will
be determined by the research problem and objectives. Once the data is
collected, the researcher can start organising and analysing it and while doing
so the research questions and the main focus of the research needs to be kept
in mind. Otherwise the main focus of the research can get lost in the large
and in-depth amount of information gathered with the help of case study.
Once the data is analysed, the researcher can then focus on preparation of
report with interpretations, evidence and conclusions.

Check Your Progress II

1) List the types of interview.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

1) What is grounded theory?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH
Data analysis in qualitative research can be complex. It mainly involves
description of an event or phenomenon. There could also be comparison of
cases in this context. It also involves explanation, that is, identification of
reasons for the differences in two or more cases. And then a theory can be
developed with regard to the event or phenomenon. According to Flick
62
 Qualitative Research in
(2014, page 370) qualitative analysis can be defined as “ interpretation and Applied Social
classification of linguistic (or visual) material with the following aims: to Psychology
make statements about implicit and explicit dimensions and structures of
meaning making in the material and what is represented in it”. In this context
when we refer to meaning making it denotes subjective as well as social
meaning. Qualitative data analysis may include both rough as well as detailed
analysis of the material.

Data management is an important aspect before the researcher starts with

analysis of data. In BPCC104, in the context of statistical analysis of data, we
discussed how the raw data needs to be classified and tabulated. In a similar
manner, in qualitative research, the researcher needs to prepare and organise
the data so that it is available for analysis.

Let us now look at some ways in which data analysis can be carried out:

3.4.1 Grounded Theory Coding

We briefly discussed about grounded theory in methods of qualitative
research. In this section we will explain the grounded theory coding.
Grounded theory coding denotes the procedure that is followed for data
analysis in order to develop a grounded theory (Flick, 2014). The data is
interpreted keeping in mind its collection or how the material was sampled.

The grounded theory analysis includes memoing (or memo writing) that can
be described as production of evidence by means of writing. They mainly
include data conceptualisation in a narrative form. They could also mention
the studies carried out in the area of interest as well as diagrams, quotes that
are mainly used in order to link the concepts or to structure and conceptualise
them. For memo writing there is no standard procedure that is followed but a
lot depends on the researcher. The basic principles of memo writing as stated
by Lempert, 2007 (as cited in Flick, 2014, page 401) include:
- The focus is not on application and confirmation, but on discovery and
development of theory.
- Memo writing and diagramming of the concept is a relevant aspect of data
analysis and they assist in further data collection and analysis.
- Memos are often written and read and rewritten that help reach abstract
levels of theorizing.

In the context of memoing, it is also important to write field notes and these
could include observation notes (related to perceptions in the field),
methodological notes (application of methods and structuring of a situation),
theoretical notes (memos) and personal notes (maintaining a research diary or
journal).

Besides memoing, coding is also relevant in grounded theory. Coding

denotes “developing categories, properties and relations between them”
(Flick, 2014, page 403). The main purpose of coding is identification of
63
Applied Social structures in the material. There are various ways in which the coding can be
Psychology: An
Introduction carried and some of the approaches are Strauss and Corbin’s approach to
coding, Glaser’s approach that includes theoretical coding, Charmaz’s
approach to coding, to name a few.

There are three main steps involved in coding, open coding (initial coding as
referred by Charmaz), structured coding (referred to as theoretical coding by
Glaser and axial coding by Strauss and Corbin or focused coding by
Charmaz) and selective coding that is the last step (but Glaser has put it
before theoretical coding in his approach). The process of coding will
culminate when there is theoretical saturation, that is, the coding process does
not lead to new theoretical insights.

3.4.2 Thematic Analysis

When we collect data using a method like in-depth interview, the responses
need to be analysedand in this context thematic analysis can be adequately
used.

Braum and Clarke (2006, as cited in Flick, 2014, page 421) define thematic
analysis as “ a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns
(themes) within data. It minimally organises and describes your data set in
(rich) detail. However, frequently it goes further than this, and interprets
various aspects of the research.

Thematic analysis can be carried out keeping in mind (Flick, 2014 page 421)
the following:

1) Theme can be explained as something that is relevant based on the

research question and that can be viewed on some meaning/ patterned
response within the set of data.

2) The main aim of the analysis is a description of data that is detailed and
rich as well as an in-depth analysis of a certain aspect.

3) Distinction needs to be made between inductive thematic analysis and

theoretical thematic analysis. Inductive thematic analysis involves
development of the codes and themes based on the data. Theoretical
thematic analysis is based on the analytical or theoretical interest of the
researcher.

4) We also need to differentiate between semantic themes and latent

themes. Semantic themes are related to the explicit or surface meaning of
the data. These are basically the meanings that are expressed by the
respondent verbally. Whereas, latent themes are much more in-depth and
involves identification of the underlying meaning, ideas, assumptions,
conceptualisations and so on. Thus, in latent themes, the underlying
aspect or meaning of the explicit meaning of data is examined.

64
 Qualitative Research in
5) Decision regarding whether the approach of data analysis will be realist Applied Social
or constructionist is taken in order to achieve epistemological clarity. Psychology

6) Distinction also needs to be made between the research questions and the
questions asked during the interview.

Thus, in thematic analysis the main point is to identify the patterns of

meaning that repeatedly occur. And while doing so, the following steps are
important:

Step 1 Become familiar with the data: Based on the responses or material
of the participants, a transcript can be prepared and it is to be read several
times.

Step 2 Initial codes need to be generated: Based on the material, codes are
to be developed. This can be done keeping in mind the semantic and latent
themes. Also it is important to ensure that the context of excerpt is focused
on and any statement can be simultaneously coded for different themes.

Step 3 Themes are to be identified: The codes can be sorted in to different

themes and relevant data excerpt can be collated in the themes.

Step 4 Themes are to be reviewed: Themes can be broken in to sub themes

in order to refine the development of the codes system. And in this regard
less significant themes can be left out. The focus can be either on the whole
data set or the excerpt.

Step 5 Themes are to be named and defined: In this step, thematic maps
can be created, These maps serve as visual representations of the themes as
well as sub themes and also indicate the links between them. Suitable title
also need to be provided to the themes so that what they represent is clear,

Step 6 Report is to be prepared: Based on the above steps a report is

prepared

3.4.3 Qualitative Content Analysis

Qualitative content analysis can be used to analyse material from interview
responses to newspaper article and so on. Any textual material can be
analysed with the help of qualitative content analysis. The main goal of
content analysis is to reduce the material. Content analysis mainly uses the
categories that are taken from theoretical model. Shereier (2014 as cited in
Flick, 2014 page 429) defined qualitative content analysis as “a method that
can be used for systematic description of meaning of qualitative data. It is a
method that is systematic and flexible and can be used to reduce the data”.

The steps involved in qualitative content analysis (Scherier, 2014) are as

follows;

Step 1 Research question is decided

Step 2 Material is selected
65
Applied Social Step 3 A coding frame is to be built
Psychology: An
Introduction Step 4 Segmentation is carried out
Step 5 Trial coding
Step 6 Coding frame is evaluated and modified:
Step 7 Main analysis
Step 8 Presentation and interpretation of the findings

In the above steps, building a coding frame is an important step. In this, Base
don the material that is selected, structuring and generating is carried out.
Structuring involves development of main categories and generating involves
creating sub categories for the main categories. The categories can be
developed based on the existing literature available or on the basis of area of
interest of the research. Development of categories base don the material that
is analysed is to be carried out only in certain cases. The categories also need
to be labels and a brief description also need so be provided

According to Mayring, the procedure for content analysis (Flick, 2014 page
430) mainly involves the following:

Step 1 Material is defined: The interview or the parts of the material that os
important in answering the research questions are selected.

Step 2 Situation of the data collection is analysed: This includes focusing

on how the material was generated, the persons involved in the generation of
the material, individuals present during the situation, the origin of the
document and so on.

Step 3 Formal characterisation of the material: The focus here is on

whether the material documented with the help of a recording or a protocol,
during the editing of the text whether there was any influence on the
transcription.

Step 4 Direction of the analysis: The direction of the analysis for the text is
to be denotes and what interpretations are to made from them are defined.
Thus the research question is defined again and the intentions of the
researcher with regard to the text material is also mentioned.

Step 5 Based on the theories, the research question is further

differentiated: It is important that the research questions are defined and
categories are identified before the process of analysis of material starts.

Step 6 Defining analytic units: In this context we need to understand coding

unit, contextual unit and analytic unit. Coding unit denotes, the smallest
element of the text that may be analysed, the minimal part of the material
which may fall under in certain category. Contextual unit denotes, the largest
element of the material that may fall in certain category. Analytic unit
denotes the passage s that analyses in a sequence.

66
 Qualitative Research in
Step 7 Actual analysis and interpretation: The analysis of the material is Applied Social
carried out and the results are interpreted based on the research questions. Psychology
Questions related to validity are also taken care of.

3.4.3.1 Techniques of Qualitative Content Analysis

Let us now focus on some of the techniques of qualitative content analysis.

Summarising qualitative content analysis: In this technique, the

paraphrasing of the material is carried out. The passage having same meaning
are dropped, which helps in reducing the material. In order to do so,
reformulation of paraphrases are carried out on abstract and general level.
Some of the rules involve din this context are:
- In the context of paraphrasing, the passages with less or no content are
deleted. Further, the context is also translated in to a coherent level of
language. The paragraphs are also converted to short version on the basis
of grammar.
- Generalisation is carried out of the paraphrases and predicates on abstract
level. The paraphrases that are above the intended level of abstraction are
retained.
- The initial reduction is carried out where the paraphrases within the
analytic unit that have same meanings are deleted. the paraphrases that fall
below the intended level of abstraction are also deleted. The paraphrases
carrying the central contents are retained and in case of any doubts the
theoretical assumptions are referred to.
- In second reduction, bundling is carried out paraphrases that are similar
are summarised in to one statement. Construction/ integration is carried
out where the paraphrases on same issue are also summarised. Further,
paraphrases with different statements on same issue are also summarised.
In case of any doubts the theoretical assumptions are referred to.

Explicative content analysis: In this technique the ambiguous or

contradictory paragraphs are diffused. This is done by involving the context
material in the analysis, In this context, narrow context analysis and wide
content analysis can be described. In narrow content analysis in order to
explain the passage that is under analysis, additional statements from the
existing texts are used. In wide content analysis, information outside the text
is utilised in order to explain the passage that is under analysis. And on the
basis of this analysis, explicating paraphrasing is formulated and put to test.

Structuring content analysis: In this technique a formal structure or types in

the material are identified. Structuring is carried out on the basis of formal,
typifying, scaling level or as per the content. It mainly involves
categorisation of data based on a criteria that is previously determined. The
steps in structuring content analysis include identifying the analysis material,
67
Applied Social defining the structuring dimensions, defining the category system, screening
Psychology: An
Introduction of the material and extracting the fragments and revising the categories.

Check Your Progress III

1) What is thematic analysis?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2) List the techniques of qualitative content analysis.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

3.5 LET US SUM UP

To summarise, in the present unit we mainly focused on qualitative research
in applied social psychology. With regard to qualitative research, the data is
non-numerical. It helps provide an in-depth knowledge and information about
the area of research. It also helps bridge the gap created as a result of the
limitations of quantitative research. Qualitative research helps in providing a
qualitative understanding of certain events, phenomenon or behaviour. Types
of data in qualitative research were also discussed. The unit also highlighted
various methods of qualitative research like in-depth interview, narrative
interview, focus group, participant observation, ethnography, Grounded
theory and case study. Further, data analysis in qualitative research was also
explained. Data analysis in qualitative research can be complex. It mainly
involves description of an event or phenomenon. There could also be
comparison of cases in this context. It also involves explanation, that is,
identification of reasons for the differences in two or more cases. Under
qualitative analysis we discussed about Grounded theory coding, thematic
analysis and qualitative content analysis.

68
 Qualitative Research in
3.6 REFERENCES Applied Social
Psychology
Bordens, K. S and Abbott, B. B. (2011). Research Designs and Methods: A
Process Approach. New Delh: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited.
Flick, U. (2014). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Delhi: Sage
Kenneth, M. C and Louise, R. A. (2012). Research Methods in Applied
Social Psychology. In F. W. Schneider, J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.),
Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and
practical problems. Delhi: Sage.
Osakamp, and Schultz, P.W. (1998). Applied Social psychology (2nd ed).
California: SAGE.
Sears, D. O. Peplau, A. L., and Taylor, S. E., (2006) Social Psychology.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Shaw, M. E. and Costanzo, P. R.(1982). Theories of Social Psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Shetgovekar, S. (2018). An Introduction to Social Psychology. Delhi: Sage

3.7 KEY WORDS

Focus group: In this method of qualitative research, certain questions or
issues are discussed by a group of participants.

Grounded theory: Grounded theory focuses on „discovering‟ and studies the

relationship between an empirical investigation and theory.

Grounded theory coding: Grounded theory coding denotes the procedure

that is followed for data analysis in order to develop a grounded theory
(Flick, 2014). The data is interpreted keeping in mind its collection or how
the material was sampled.

In-depth interview: In-depth interview includes asking questions and these

questions are open ended rather than close ended. Interviews are often carried
out face to face and there is one (or sometimes more than one) interviewer
and one interviewee.

Narrative interview: As described by Schütze, it can be described as a

method for collecting narrative data.

Participant observation: In participant observation, the observer

participates along with other participants in the activities/events/ phenomena
being studied so that he/ she is able to gather first hand information and
interpret it effectively.

Qualitative analysis:According to Flick (2014, page 370) qualitative

analysis can be defined as “ interpretation and classification of linguistic (or
visual) material with the following aims: to make statements about implicit 69
Applied Social and explicit dimensions and structures of meaning making in the material and
Psychology: An
Introduction what is represented in it”.

Qualitative content analysis:Qualitative content analysis can be used to

analyse material from interview responses to newspaper article and so on.
Any textual material can be analysed with the help of qualitative content
analysis.

Thematic analysis:Braum and Clarke (2006, as cited in Flick, 2014, page

421) define thematic analysis as “ a method for identifying, analysing and
reporting patterns (themes) within data. It minimally organises and describes
your data set in (rich) detail. However, frequently it goes further than this,
and interprets various aspects of the research.

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) List the types of data in qualitative research.

The types of data in qualitative research are:
- Talk data
- Data beyond talk
- Use of existing data
Check Your progress II

1) List the types of interview

There are three main types of interview, structure, unstructured and semi
structured.

2) What is grounded theory?

Grounded theory focuses on „discovering‟ and studies the relationship

between an empirical investigation and theory. Thus, the data collection
is carried out with an aim to promote development of theory from the
data collected.

Check Your Progress III

1) What is thematic analysis?

Braum and Clarke (2006, as cited in Flick, 2014, page 421) define
thematic analysis as “ a method for identifying, analysing and reporting
patterns (themes) within data. It minimally organizes and describes your
data set in (rich) detail.

70
 Qualitative Research in
2) List the techniques of qualitative content analysis. Applied Social
Psychology
The techniques of qualitative content analysis are
- Summarising qualitative content analysis
- Explicative content analysis
- Structuring content analysis

3. 9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Elucidate qualitative research.
2) Describe in-depth interview and narrative interviews.
3) Explain participant observation as a method of qualitative research.
4) Discuss data analysis in qualitative research.

71
Applied Social
Psychology: An
Introduction

72