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UNIT – I
ENVIRONMENT AND BIODIVERSITY

Syllabus
Definition, scope and importance of environment – need for public awareness. Eco-
system and Energy flow– ecological succession. Types of biodiversity: genetic, species
and ecosystem diversity– values of biodiversity, India as a mega-diversity nation – hot-
spots of biodiversity – threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-
wildlife conflicts – endangered and endemic species of India – conservation of
biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ.

1.0 Introduction
The term ‘environment’ originated from the French word ‘environ’ meaning ‘to
surround’. From this, the environment means the area in which something exists or lives.
Environment is defined as the social, cultural and physical conditions that surround,
affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people, animals or plants. It
encompasses both the living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of the earth. The
environment consists of four segments.
 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Lithosphere
 Biosphere

Figure – 1: Concept of Environment

Atmosphere It is the blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
Hydrosphere It is composed of various water bodies on the earth. It includes the
oceans, lakes, rivers, etc.
Lithosphere It contains various types of soils and rocks on earth.
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Biosphere It is composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment, viz. atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. The biosphere
is the earth’s zone of air, soil, and water that is capable of supporting life.
1.1 Categories of Environment
The categories of environment are categorized in to three:
1. Cultural Environment
2. Physical Environment
3. Biological Environment

Cultural Environment : The study of cultural environment (i.e. social environment,

economic environment and political environment) has been
allocated to sociologists, economists and managers.
Physical Environment : Environmentalists take care of the physical environment
(lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere)
Biological Environment : Biologists and doctors are in charge of studying our
biological environment

Figure – 2: Types of environments and interactions between the elements

The components of the environment are classified in terms of biotic and abiotic
components based upon living components and nonliving components respectively.

1.2 Relationship between humans and environment

Based on the development of human society, the human–environment relationship is
changing. These relationships from prehistoric to modern periods is summarised below in four
stages.

(A) Stage I: Period of Hunting and Food Gathering

In this period, the basic requirements of basic humans were limited to food and shelter.
There was a very friendly relationship between humans and their environment because of
limited requirements, very low population and disorganised society.
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But, the innovation of fire and invention of tools and weapons made humans capable of
exploiting natural resources. Sometimes, humans intentionally used fire to clear the forest for
creating habitats and to drive away dangerous animals from his surroundings.
(B) Stage II: Period of Animal Domestication and Pastoralism
In this period, humans learnt to domesticate animals for milk, meat, etc. They also
started living a community life. This ultimately led to the destruction of forests and exploitation
of environmental resources.

(C) Stage III: Period of Plant Domestication and Agriculture

The emergence of socially organised human communities, human civilisations
(specially, river-valley civilisations), farming practices (specially domestication of plants and
primitive type of agriculture), gradual increase of human population and domestic animals led
to the spread of human population and destruction of natural ecosystems.

Figure – 3: Human–environment relationship: (A) Urban growth (B) Industrial

expansion
(D) Stage IV: Period of Science, Technology and Industrialisation
In this period, humans started exploiting natural resources in a uncontrolled and
indiscriminate manner for urban growth and industrial expansion. In this period, the aggressive
relationship between humans and their natural environmental was initiated. This has created
most of the present ecological and environmental problems.

1.2.1 Impact of Technology and Development on Environment

Technology and development help us
(i) To provide better transport and delivery,
(ii) To speed up production and manufacture of goods,
(iii) To do effi cient farming for making food, and
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(iv) To make faster and reliable communication, etc.

Due to technology advancements, trade and commerce fl ourished at faster rates and
brought about globalisation. As trade and commerce grew, it increased the greed of humans
which resulted in direct and indirect impact on the environment.

(i) Direct Impacts

These impacts are pre-planned. Both positive and negative consequences of any
programme are known in advance. Suppose deforestation is done either for cropland or for
commercial purposes. It leads to accelerated rate of soil erosion, resulting in loss of soil fertility
and floods. However, these effects can be stopped by afforestation of the deforested area. Thus,
direct impacts are reversible.

A : Environment worsen due to

resource exploitation
B : Twisting Point
C : Environment improves due to
public involvement and
innovative, integrated
solutions
Figure 4: Impact of technology and development on environment

(ii) Indirect Impacts

The indirect impacts of humans on the environment are mainly due to industrial
development. These indirect impacts are not immediately noticeable but are experienced after
long time. Sometimes, such effects are not reversible. Majority of the indirect impacts on the
environment are related to pollution and environmental degradation.

1.3 Environmental Studies

Environmental education refers to organised efforts to teach how natural environment
functions and, particularly, how human beings can manage their behaviour and ecosystems in
order to live sustainably.
Environmental science is the systematic study of the scientific principles, economic
influences and political action, and inter-relationship among living organisms (biotic
components) and nonliving things (abiotic components) which affect the environment.

Identification of Scientific, Developing solutions

social or economic environmental problems
environmental problems
Figure – 5: Major aspects of environmental science
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Both theoretical and practical aspects of human impact on the world are studied in
environmental science. The theoretical aspects of environmental science identify threats to our
survival and our future generations. For example, how ozone-layer depletion injures plant and
marine life and even reduces our immunity to diseases is studied in theoretical aspects.The
practical aspects of environmental science suggest solutions to the identified environmental
problems.

1.3.1 Scope of Environmental Studies

The scope of environmental studies is so wide that it is related to every science and
scientific aspects in general and biology in particular.
The scope of environmental studies in numerous fields is given below:
a) Conservation and management of natural resources (like forest resources, water
resources, etc.)
b) Conservation of biodiversities (like conservation of genetic diversity, species
diversity, ecosystem diversity, landscape diversity, etc.)
c) Control of environmental pollutions (like air pollution, water pollution, soil
pollution, solid waste pollution, noise pollution, electronic waste pollution, e-
pollution, etc.)
d) Control of human population
e) Replacement of development (like green revolution, urbanisation,) economic
growth, (industrialisation, etc.) with sustainable development

Figure 6: Scope of environmental studies

1.3.2 Objectives of Environmental Studies

a) Acquire the skills for identifying and solving environmental problems
b) Participate in improvement and protection of the environment
c) Develop the ability to evaluate measures for the improvement and protection of
environment
d) Acquire an attitude of concern for the environment
e) Gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic understanding and knowledge
about the environment and its allied problems.
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1.3.3 Importance of Environmental Studies

1) World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing countries.
2) The natural resources endowment in the earth is limited.
3) The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources are advanced.
4) The study helps to leaving the resources to the future generations.
5) The corruption on natural resources lead to pollution of all types and at all levels.
6) The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living things.
7) The people should take a responsibility for the deteriorating environment.
8) Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction.
9) The urban area, coupled with industries, is major sources of pollution.
10) The study helps to protect the wild life in the forest areas.
11) The study enables the people to understand the complexities of the environment.
12) It enable the people to adapt appropriate activities and pursue sustainable development.
13) The study motivates students to get involved to participate in various environmental
and management projects.
14) It is a high time to reorient educational systems and courses towards these needs.
15) Environmental studies take a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human
interactions with the natural environment.
16) Environmental study is a key instrument for bringing about the changes in the
behaviours and lifestyles required to achieve sustainability.

1.3.4 Purpose of environmental education to engineers

Engineering graduates entering industry for planning, extraction, design and
manufacturing, all have some common and some unique regulations for their environmental
effects.
Engineers are capable of finding solutions for climate change and other environmental
problems. This is because, engineers use principles of chemistry and biology to solve
environmental problems.
The duties of an environmental engineer range from planning and designing an
effective waste-treatment plant, to study the effects of pollution on humans. A sales engineer
in the environmental engineering field may be responsible for the sale of air pollution control
products to factories. In addition to sale, they often assist with the design and modification of
their products based on customer feedback.
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1.4 Need for public awareness

Humans are responsible for depletion of natural resources; degradation of the vital life-
supporting systems (like air, water, soil, etc.); ecological imbalance; deteriorated environment,
etc. Solid waste disposal, oil pollution, water pollution, air pollution, Chernobyl disaster,
Bhopal gas tragedy, smog, etc., are some of the examples which are threatening human
survival.

Figure 7: Need for awareness of environment in public

It ensures that everyone knows about the consequences on nature. To protect global
environment for sustainable development, we should do the following:
1) Preserve Forest Cover : People should minimise cutting of trees and using
timber for aesthetic work.
2) Preserve Natural Resources : People should not unnecessarily extract natural
resources such as mineral resources, water
resources, etc.
3) Conserve Energy : People should not harness too much energy from
burning of fossil fuels.
4) Maintain Ecological Balance : People should work to create interaction between
green revolution and industrial evolution by
growing green belts around industrial areas,
maintaining wildlife sanctuaries and national
parks.
5) Practice Green Technology: : Everyone from a farmer in the village to a policy
planner in the government should use green
technology that incorporates
(a) treatment of air emissions
(b) treatment of waste waters
(c) waste reduction management
(d) use of renewable energy resources like
solar energy on priority, etc.

1.5 Environmental degradation

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through destruction
of wildlife, depletion of natural resources and the destruction of ecosystems.
The main causes of environmental degradation are the following:
1) Population (P) : More population leads to resource exploitation and
environmental degradation.
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2) Affluence (A) : Rich people misuse the resources, and cause

environmental pollution. Poor people exploit natural
resources and so they also cause environmental
degradation.
3) Technology (T) : Industrialisation and heavy consumption of natural
resources leads to environmental degradation.

To sum up, environmental degradation (ED) is a function of P, A and T.

𝐸𝐷 = 𝑓(𝑃 × 𝐴 × 𝑇)

1.6 Ecosystem
The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact
with each other and the surrounding environment.

Structural features
Composition and organization of biological communities and abiotic components
constitute the structure of an ecosystem.

I. Biotic Structure
The plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic
component. These organisms have different nutritional behaviour and are accordingly known
as Producers or Consumers, based on how they get their food.

Producers:-
Producers are also known as Autotrophs. They make their own food and do not depend
on any of the other organisms. Producers include the plants present in the ecosystem which
have the ability to generate the energy required by them on their own through photosynthesis,
in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. All other living beings depend on plants for their
energy requirement and oxygen.
Photoautotrophs are green plants and trees. They make their own food from the
sunlight. The majority of the living organisms observed in the ecosystem are these
Photoautotrophs.
Examples: Green plants, Trees, Green algae, Bacteria

Consumers:-
Consumers are also known as Heterotrophs. Consumers include herbivores, carnivores,
and omnivores.

Primary Consumers : Herbivores

They feed directly on producers and hence also known as
primary consumers.
Eg: rabbit, insect, man.
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Secondary Consumers : Carnivores

They feed on other consumers. If they feed on herbivores
they are called secondary consumers.
Eg: Frog, snake, big fish etc.
Tertiary Consumers : Omnivores
They feed on both plants and animals.
Eg: humans, rat, fox, many birds.
: Detritivores
They feed on the parts of dead organisms, wastes of living
organisms, their castoffs and partially decomposed matter
Eg: Beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.

Figure 8: Structure of Ecosystem

Decomposers:-
They derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic molecules to simpler
organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients.
Examples: Various bacteria and fungi.

II. Abiotic Structure

The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure.
It includes climatic factors, edaphic (soil) factors, geographical factors, energy, nutrients and
toxic substances.
(a) Physical factors : The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of
sun hours, average temperature, maximum-minimum
temperature, annual rainfall, wind, latitude and altitude, soil
type, water availability, water currents etc. are some of the
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important physical features which have a strong influence on

the ecosystem.
(b) Chemical factors : Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, level
of toxic substances, salts causing salinity and various organic
substances present in the soil or water largely influence the
functioning of the ecosystem.
We can clearly see the striking differences in solar flux, temperature and precipitation
(rainfall, snow etc.) pattern in a desert ecosystem, in a tropical rainforest and in tundra
ecosystem.
Tundra ecosystems are treeless regions found in the Arctic and on the tops of
mountains, where the climate is cold and windy, and rainfall is scant.

Functional Attributes
The major functional attributes of an ecosystems are as follows:
(i) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure
(ii) Energy flow
(iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
(iv) Primary and Secondary production
(v) Ecosystem development and regulation

Food chain
A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism
eats another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The
flow of nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a
food chain.
Some common examples of simple food chains are:
 Grass → grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
 Phytoplanktons → water fleas → small fish → Tuna (Pond ecosystem)
 Lichens → reindeer → Man (Arctic tundra)
In nature, we come across two major types of food chains:
Grazing food chain : The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts
with green plants, passes through herbivores and then to
carnivores. Example: Grass → Rabbit → Fox
Detritus food chain : It starts with dead organic matter and consumed by
decomposers. Partially decomposed dead organic matter
and even the decomposers are consumed by Detritivores
and their predators.

Food Web
Food web is an interconnected several food chains. A food web is similar to a food
chain but the food web is comparatively larger than a food chain. Occasionally, a single
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organism is consumed by many predators or it consumes several other organisms. Due to this,
many trophic levels get interconnected.

Figure 9: Food Chain

Figure 10: Food web

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S. No. Grazing Food Chain Detritus food chain

1 It starts from the living green plants It starts from the dead organic matter
2 Flow of energy is low through this Flow of energy is high through this
type of food chain type of food chain
3 It binds to inorganic nutrients It discharges to inorganic nutrients
4 It is directly dependent on the influx Energy received from the organic
of solar radiation waste

Significance of food chains and food webs

Food Chain
 Food chain help us to appreciate the energy flow mechanism in the ecosystem
 Food chain understand the movement of toxic substances in the ecosystem.
 Food chain helps us to understand the problems of bio-magnification.
 Food chain help understand the feeding relationship and the interaction between
organisms in any ecosystem.
Food Web
 Food webs show plants are the foundation.
 Food webs explain the flow of energy and nutrients.
 A food web is several food chains connected together
 A food web shows the connection of many different paths of plants and animals.

Ecological pyramids
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with
producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an ecological
pyramid.
Ecological pyramids are of three types:
a) Pyramid of numbers
b) Pyramid of biomass
c) Pyramid of Energy

Pyramid of numbers:
It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. We may have
upright or inverted pyramid of numbers, depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain
as shown in Fig.
A grassland ecosystem (Fig. 11a) and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of
numbers. The producers in the grasslands are grasses are small in size and very large in number.
So the producers form a broad base.
The herbivores in a grassland are insects which are gradually less and less in number
and becomes gradually narrower forming an upright pyramid. Similar is the case with the
herbivores, carnivores and top carnivores in pond which decrease in number at higher trophic
levels.
In a forest ecosystem, big trees are the producers, which are less in number and hence
form a narrow base. A larger number of herbivores including birds, insects and several species
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of animals feed upon the trees (on leaves, fruits, flowers, bark etc.) and form a much broader
middle level. The secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number than
herbivores while top carnivores like lion, tiger etc. are still smaller in number. So the pyramid
is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle (Fig. 11b).

Figure 11: Pyramid of numbers (a) grassland (b) forest (c) Parasitic food chain.

Parasitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid of number. The producers like a few
big trees harbour fruit eating birds acting like herbivores which are larger in number. A much
higher number of lice, bugs etc. grow as parasites on these birds while a still greater number of
hyperparasites like bugs, fleas and microbes feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid
(Fig. 11c).

Figure 12: Pyramid of biomass (a) Grassland (b) Pond.

Pyramid of biomass:
It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food chain. The
pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted. Fig. 12(a, b) show pyramids of biomass in
a forest and an aquatic ecosystem. The pyramid of biomass in a forest is upright in contrast to
its pyramid of numbers. This is because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while
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the consumer’s total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels, resulting in
broad base and narrowing top.
The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass (Fig. 12b). The total
biomass of producers is much less as compared to herbivores and tertiary carnivores (big fish).
Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex.

Pyramid of Energy:
The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of
pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic relationships and it is
always upright.
At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form
of heat, respiration etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on.
Hence, there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive trophic level as we move
from producers to top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright as shown
in Fig. 13.

Figure 13: Pyramid of energy

Energy flow in an ecosystem

Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain and this energy flow
which keeps the ecosystem going. The most important feature of this energy flow is that it is
unidirectional or one-way flow.

Energy flow models:

The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be explained
with the help of various energy flow models.

Universal energy flow model

As the flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at every level. The
loss of energy is mainly the energy not utilized (NU). This is the energy lost in locomotion,
excretion etc. or it is the energy lost in respiration (R) which is for maintenance. The rest of the
energy is used for production (P).
Universal energy flow model I = Energy input
As the flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss A = assimilated energy
of energy at every level. The loss of energy is mainly the energy P = Production
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not utilized (NU). This is the energy lost in locomotion, excretion NU = Energy not used.
etc. or it is the energy lost in respiration (R) which is for
maintenance. The rest of the energy is used for production (P).

Figure 14: Universal energy flow model

Single channel energy flow model:

The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner through a single channel of
green plants or producers to herbivores and carnivores. Fig. 16 depicts such a model and
illustrated the gradual decline in energy level due to loss of energy at each successive trophic
level in a grazing food chain.

I - Solar energy input

GPP - Gross primary
production
NPP - Net primary
production
NU - Energy not used
NA - Energy not
assimilated e.g.
excretion
R - Respiratory loss

Figure 15: One-way energy flow model

Double channel or Y-shaped energy flow model:

In nature, both grazing food chain and detritus food chain operate in the same
ecosystem. In a forest ecosystem the huge quantity of biomass produced cannot be all
consumed by herbivores. Rather, a large proportion of the live biomass enters into detritus
(dead) compartment in the form of litter. Hence the detritus food chain is more important there.
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Ecological succession
Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in the community
structure and function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment
and ultimately concluding in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.
Ecological successions starting on different types of areas are named differently as
follows:
Hydrarch : Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, wetland
Mesarch : Starting in an area of adequate moisture.
Xerarch : Starting in a dry area with little moisture. They can be of the
following types:

Lithosere : starting on a bare rock

Psammosere : starting on sand
Halosere : starting on saline soil

Process of Succession
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as
follows:

a) Nudation:
It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may be caused
due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost
etc. (Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities
(biotic factors).

b) Invasion:
It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through dispersal
or migration, followed by establishment. Dispersal of the seeds, microorganisms etc. is brought
about by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds develop and grow on the land. As growth
and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups or
aggregations.

c) Competition and coaction:

As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both inter-specific (between
different species) and intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water and nutrition.
They influence each other in a number of ways, known as coaction.

d) Reaction:
The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and in turn,
they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent and this is
known as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the
existing species and favour some new species, which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to
several seral communities.
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e) Stabilization:
The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called climax
which is in equilibrium with the environment. The climax community is characterized by
maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually beneficial) linkages between organisms and are
maintained quite efficiently per unit of available energy.

A. Hydrosere (Hydrarch):
This type of succession starts in a water body like pond. A number of intermediate
stages come and ultimately it concludes in a climax community which is a forest. The pioneer
community consists of phytoplanktons, which are free floating algae, diatoms etc. Gradually
these are replaced by rooted submerged plants followed by rooted-floating plants.
Growth of these plants keep on adding organic matter to the substratum by death and
decay and thus a layer of soil builds up and shallowing of water takes place. Then Reed swamp
(marshy) stage follows in which the plants are partly in water and partly on land. This is
followed by a sedge meadow stage of grasses then by a woodland consisting of shrubs and
trees and finally by a forest acting as climax.

B.Xerosere (Xerarch):
This type of succession originates on a bare rock, which lacks water and organic matter.
Interestingly, here also the climax community is a forest, although the intermediate stages are
very different.
The pioneer community here consists of crustose and foliose lichens. These lichens
produce some weak acids and help in disintegrating the rock, a process known as weathering.
This growth helps in building up gradually some organic matter, humus and soil. Then comes
the community of mosses, followed by herbs, shrubs and finally the forest trees. Throughout
this gradual process there is a slow build-up of organic matter and water in the rock layer.
Thus, succession tends to move towards mesic conditions (moderate condition),
irrespective of the fact, whether it started from a dry (Xeric) condition or a moist (hydric)
condition and it culminates in a stable climax community, which is usually a forest.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms
and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur.

Levels of Biodiversity
Units of biodiversity may range from the genetic level within a species to the biota in a
specific region and may extend up to the great diversity found in different biomes.

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the product of recombination of genetic material in the process of
legacy. It changes with time and space. Sexual reproduction is important in maintaining genetic
diversity as it gives unique offspring by combining genes of humans. Mutation of genes,
genetic drift and gene flow are also responsible for genetic diversity.
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Species Diversity
Species diversity is defined as the number of different species present in an ecosystem
and relative abundance of each of those species.

Types of species diversity:

Species richness: Number of different species present in an ecosystem. Tropical areas
have greater species richness as the environment is conducive for a large number of species
Species evenness: Relative abundance of individuals of each of those species. If the
number of individuals within a species is fairly constant across communities, it is said to have
a high evenness and if the number of individuals varies from species to species, it is said to
have low evenness. High evenness leads to greater specific diversity

Ecosystem diversity
 Ecosystem diversity refers to the differences in environments found within a given
geographic area.
 It also refers to the interaction of biotic (biodiversity) and abiotic (complexity)
properties in a system (geodiversity).
 It refers to the diversity of ecosystems found in a given area or around the entire
world. The term "ecological diversity" refers to the diversity of both terrestrial and
marine ecosystems.
Ecological diversity may also account for differences in a biological community's
complexity, such as the number of different positions, trophic levels, and other ecological
processes. Ecosystem diversity, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, lakes, and oceans, is an
indicator of biological diversity on a global scale.
Ecological diversity is the broadest measure of biodiversity, and there is a great deal of both
species and genetic diversity within each ecosystem.

Biogeographical classification of India

India has different types of climate and topography in different parts of the country and
these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna. India has a rich heritage
of biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among the plant rich nations of the world.
It is very important to study the distribution, evolution, dispersal and environmental
relationship of plants and animals in time and space. Biogeography comprising of
phytogeography and zoogeography deals with these aspects of plants and animals. In order to
gain insight about the distribution and environmental interactions of flora and fauna of our
country, it has been classified into ten biogeographic zones. Each of these zones has its own
characteristic climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.

1 Trans-Himalayas : The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibetean plateau.

It accounts for 5.7% of the country's landmass.
2 Himalayas : The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The
Himalayas cover 7.2% of the country's landmass
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3 Desert : The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is
comprising both the salty desert of Gujarat and the sandy
desert of Rajasthan. Deserts occupy around 6.9% of the
country's land mass. The kinds of deserts found in India are:
 The desert of western Rajasthan
 The desert of Gujarat
 The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu &
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Indian
deserts have more diversified fauna.
4 Semi-arid : This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It
covers approximately 15.6% of the country's landmass.
5 Western Ghats : The Western Ghats are a mountain range that runs along the
western cost of India. They are a range extending north-
south from southern tip of Gujarat in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south. The mountains cover an area of
about 160,000 sq. km. It covers about 5.8% of the country's
landmass.
6 Deccan plateau : It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada valley.
Three sides of the plateau are covered by mountains slopes
towards east. It is the one of largest zones covering the
southern and south-central plateau with mostly deciduous
trees. It covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.
7 Gangetic plain : This plain covers the area between the south Himalayas to
the tropic of cancer. This region experience 600 mm rainfall
annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and
it covers 11% of the country's land mass.
8 North-east India : These are pains and non-Himalayan ranges of north-eastern
India and have a wide variety of vegetation. It covers around
5.2% of the country's land mass.
9 Islands : The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has
almost 300 big and small islands. Among these, only five
islands are inhabited. Only tribes are found in the island of
Nicobar. It occupy 0.03% of the country's biomass.
10 Coasts : The Lakshadweep islands are included in this but the area
of these islands is negligible.

Value of Biodiversity
The value of biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social
and aesthetic value is enormous. We get benefits from other organisms in innumerable ways.
Sometimes we realize and appreciate the value of the organism only after it is lost from this
earth. Very small, insignificant, useless looking organism may play a crucial role in the
ecological balance of the ecosystem or may be a potential source of some invaluable drug for
dreaded diseases like cancer or AIDS.
 20

The multiple uses of biodiversity or biodiversity value has been classified as follows:
1 Consumptive value : It is the direct utilization of timber, food, fuelwood
and fodder by local communities. The diversity of
organisms provide food, clothing, shelter,
medicines, proteins, enzymes, papers, sports goods,
musical instruments, beverages, narcotics, pets, zoo
specimens, tourism and raw material for business
prospects etc.
2 Productive value : These are the commercially usable values where the
product is marketed and sold. It may include lumber
or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by
scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops
and domesticated animals.
These may include the animal products like tusks of
elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silk-
worm, wool from sheep are traded in the market.
Many industries are dependent upon the productive
use values of biodiversity e.g.- the paper and pulp
industry, Plywood industry, Railway sleeper
industry, Silk industry, textile industry, ivory-
works, leather industry, pearl industry etc.
3 Social values : These are the values associated with the social life,
customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the
people. Many of the plants are considered holy and
sacred in our country like Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal,
Mango and Lotus. The leaves, fruits or flowers of
these plants are used in worship or the plant itself is
worshipped.
The tribal people are very closely linked with the
wild life in the forests. Their social life, songs,
dances and customs are closely woven around the
wildlife. Many animals like Cow, Snake, Bull,
Peacock, Owl etc.
4 Ethical and moral values : Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation.
Based on the importance of protecting all forms of
life against illegal activities like cloning of animals,
smuggling of valuable biodiversity instances, bio-
piracy, illegal trade etc. In India, several generations
have preserved nature through local traditions.
5 Aesthetic value : Biodiversity is a direct source of pleasure and
aesthetic satisfaction – its contribution to quality of
life, outdoor recreation and scenic enjoyment. They
provide opportunities for recreational activities such
 21

as hiking, river pushing, rock climbing, and

trekking, and nature photography. The designing of
thousands of new horticultural species, wild life
conservation, landscape luxury, national parks,
zoological and botanical gardens, snake, crocodile,
and butterfly parks are manipulated novel curios
species added to the existing aesthetics.
6 Option value : Keeping future possibilities open for their use is
called ‘option value’. It is impossible to predict
which of our species or traditional varieties of crops
and domestic animals will be of greatest use in the
future. Important ecosystem services and uses for
plants and animals are still unknown and await
discovery. It becomes valuable if targets are based
on policy of obtaining wealth from wastes.
7 Ecosystem service value : Recently, a non-consumptive use value related to
self-maintenance of the ecosystem and various
important ecosystem services has been recognized.
It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like
prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods,
maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients,
fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as
carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction of
the threat of global warming etc. Different
categories of biodiversity value clearly indicate that
ecosystem, species and genetic diversity all have
enormous potential and a decline in biodiversity will
lead to huge economic, ecological and socio-
cultural losses.

Global biodiversity
Global biodiversity is the measure of biodiversity on planet Earth and is defined as the
total variability of life forms.
Roughly 1.5 million species are known till date which is perhaps 15% or may be just
2% of the actual number. Tropical deforestation alone is reducing the biodiversity by half a
percent every year. Mapping the biodiversity has therefore, been rightly recognized as an
emergency task in order to plan its conservation and practical utilization in a judicious manner.
Terrestrial biodiversity of the earth is best described as biomes, which are the largest
ecological units present in different geographic areas and are named after the dominant
vegetation e.g. the tropical rainforests, tall grass prairies, savannas, desert, tundra etc.
The tropical rainforests are inhabited by teeming millions of species of plants, birds,
insects as well as mammals. More than one-fourth of the world’s prescription drugs are
extracted from plants growing in tropical forests. Out of the 3000 plants identified by National
 22

Cancer Research Institute as sources of cancer fighting chemicals, 70% come from tropical
rain forests.
There is an estimated 1,25,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests. The Silent
Valley in Kerala is the only place in India where tropical rain forests occur. Temperate forests
have much less biodiversity, but there is much better documentation of the species. Globally,
we have roughly 1,70,000 flowering plants, 30,000 vertebrates and about 2,50,000 other groups
of species that have been described.

India as a Mega-Diversity nation

India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries in the world. The Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (2000) records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000
species of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.

Endemism:
Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as endemic. India shows
a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic
to India. Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism.

Center of origin:
A large number of species are known to have originated in India. Nearly 5000 species
of flowering plants had their origin in India. From agro-diversity point of view also our country
is quite rich. India has been the center of origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320 species
of wild relatives of cultivated crops, thereby providing a broad spectrum of diversity of traits
for our crop plants.

Marine diversity:
Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs,
back waters etc. there exists a rich biodiversity. More than 340 species of corals of the world
are found here. The marine diversity is rich in mollusks, crustaceans (crabs etc.), polychaetes
and corals. Several species of Mangrove plants and seagrasses (Marine algae) are also found
in our country.
A large proportion of the Indian Biodiversity is still unexplored. There are about 93
major wet lands, coral reefs and mangroves which need to be studied in detail. Indian forests
cover 64.01 million hectares having a rich biodiversity of plants in the Trans-Himalayan, north-
west, west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, western ghats, coasts, deserts, Gangetic
plains, Deccan plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. Due to very
diverse climatic conditions there is a complete rainbow spectrum of biodiversity in our country.

Hotspots of biodiversity
The areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are
termed as hot spots of biodiversity. The term was introduced by Myers in 1988. According to
him, an area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% of the plant species as
endemics. There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level out of which two are
present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.
 23

About 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and found
in these hotspots. Myers recognized 25 hot spots as shown in Table 4.3. Two of these hotspots
lie in India extending into neighbouring countries namely, Indo-Burma region (covering
Eastern Himalayas) and Western Ghats - Sri Lanka region.
The Indian hot spots are not only rich in floral wealth and endemic species of plants but
also reptiles, amphibians, swallow tailed butterflies and some mammals.
% of global % of global
S. No. Hotspots
plants vertebrates
1 Tropical Andes 6.7 5.7
2 Mesoamerican forest 1.7 4.2
3 Caribbean 2.3 2.9
4 Brazil’s Atlantic Forest 2.7 2.1
5 Choc of Panama western Ecuador 0.8 1.5
6 Brazil’s Cerrado 1.5 0.4
7 Central Chile 0.5 0.2
8 California Floristic Province 0.7 0.3
9 Madagascar 3.2 2.8
10 Coastal forest of Kenya 0.5 0.4
11 Western African Forests 0.8 1.0
12 Cape Floristic Province 1.9 0.2
13 Succulent Karoo 0.6 0.2
14 Mediterranean Basin 4.3 0.9
15 Caucasus 0.5 0.2
16 Sunderland 5.0 2.6
17 Wallace 0.5 1.9
18 Philippines 1.9 1.9
19 Indo-Burma Eastern Himalayas 2.3 1.9
20 South-Central China 1.2 0.7
21 Western-Ghats Sri Lanka 0.7 1.3
22 South-western Australia 1.4 0.4
23 New Caledonia 0.9 0.3
24 New Zealand 0.6 0.5
25 Polynesia/Micronesia 1.1 0.8
Total 44.4 35.3

(a) Eastern Himalayas:

They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species diversity and endemism.
There are numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in Sikkim which are extremely rich in
endemic plant species. In an area of 7298 Km2 of Sikkim about 4250 plant species are found
of which 60% are endemic.
The forest cover of Eastern Himalayas has decreased to about 1/3rd of its original cover.
Certain species like Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm was sighted only twice in this
region in the last 70 years.
 24

Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its contiguous regions of
Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active center of organic evolution
and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the world’s recorded flora 30%
are endemic to India of which 35,000 are in the Himalayas.

(b) Western Ghats:

It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant species. 62% amphibians and 50% lizards
are endemic to Western Ghats.
Forest tracts upto 500 m elevation covering 20% of the forest expanse are evergreen
while those in 500-1500 m range are semi evergreen. The major centers of diversity are
Agastyamalai Hills and Silent Valley – the New Amambalam Reserve Basin. It is reported that
only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has been deforested or
degraded, which raises a serious cause of alarm, because it means we have already lost a huge
proportion of the biodiversity.

Threats to Biodiversity
Destruction of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period the
earth has experienced mass destruction. During evolution, species have died out and have been
replaced by others. The process of destruction has become particularly fast in the recent years
of human civilization. In this century, the human impact has been so severe that thousands of
species and varieties are becoming extinct annually.
Let us consider some of the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity.

(a) Loss of habitat

Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of biodiversity loss.
Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the past 10,000 years for
conversion into agriculture lands, pastures, settlement areas or development projects.
Severe damage has been caused to wetlands thinking them to be useless ecosystems.
The unique rich biodiversity of the wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are under the most
serious threat today. The wetlands are destroyed due to draining, filling and pollution thereby
causing huge biodiversity loss.
The loss of habitat is in instalments so that the habitat is divided into small and scattered
patches, a phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation. Due to habitat fragmentation many
song birds are vanishing.
Marine biodiversity is also under serious threat due to large scale destruction of the
fragile breeding and feeding grounds of our oceanic fish and other species, as a result of human
intervention.

(b) Poaching
Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e. poaching
is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered
species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal
products worth millions of dollars per year continues.
 25

(c) Man-Wildlife conflicts

Human-wildlife conflict is defined as “any interaction between humans and wildlife
that results in negative impacts of human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation
of wildlife populations, or on the environment.”
The major causes of Man-Wildlife conflicts are as follows:
 Agricultural Expansion
 Human Settlement
 Overgrazing by Livestock
 Deforestation
 Illegal grass collection and poaching

Elephant 2021-22 2020-21 2019-20

Human Killed by Elephants 533 461 585
Deaths of Elephants by Trains 12 14 19
Deaths of Elephants by electrocution 65 76 81
Deaths of Elephants by poaching 14 9 6
Elephants death by poisoning 14 9 06

Tigers 2021-22 2020-21 2019-20

Human Killed by Tigers 31 44 50
Natural Deaths of Tigers 4 20 44
Poaching Deaths of Tigers 4 8 17
Unnatural Deaths of Tigers 2 0 3
(excluding poaching)
Tigers death under scrutiny 104 71 22
Seizure 13 7 10

Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict

 Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles,
tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc. to tactfully deal with any imminent
danger.
 Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started, along
with substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.
 Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof trenches to
prevent the animals from straying into fields.
 Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate food, fruit
and water should be made available for the elephants within forest zones.
 Wild life corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals during
unfavourable periods. About 300 km2 area is required for elephant corridors for their
seasonal migration.
 In Similipal Sanctuary, Orissa there is a ritual of wild animal hunting during the months
of April-May for which forest is burnt to flush out the animals. Due to massive hunting
 26

by people, there is a decline in prey of tigers and they start coming out of the forest in
search of prey. Now there is WWF-TCP initiative to curb this ritual of “Akhand Shikar”
in Orissa.

Endangered species of India

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
publishes the Red Data Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and
animals.
In India, nearly 450 plant species have been identified in the categories of endangered,
threatened or rare. Existence of about 150 mammals and 150 species of birds is estimated to be
threatened while an unknown number of species of insects are endangered.
A few species of endangered reptiles, birds, mammals and plants are given below:

(a) Reptiles : Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise, python

(b) Birds : Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian
Hornbill, Siberian White Crane
(c) Carnivorous Mammals : Indian wolf, red fox, Sloth bear, red panda,
tiger, leopard, striped hyena, Indian lion, golden cat,
desert cat, dugong
(d) Primates : Hoolock gibbon, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur,
Capped monkey, golden monkey
(e) Plants : A large number of species of orchids,
Rhododendrons, medicinal plants like Rauvolfia
serpentina, the sandal wood tree Santalum, Cycas
beddonei etc.

The Zoological Survey of India reported that Cheetah, Pink headed duck and mountain
quail have already become extinct from India.
 A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch
e.g. Dodo, passenger pigeon.
 A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical
level or whose habitats, have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not
protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
 A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous
decline due to overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such a species is still
abundant, but under a serious threat of becoming endangered if causal factors are
not checked.
 Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are
categorized as rare species. These taxa are usually localized within restricted areas
i.e. they are usually endemic. Sometimes they are thinly scattered over a more
extensive area.
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Passenger pigeon Dodo

Figure 16: Extinct

Spotted owl Tortoise The Great Indian Bustard

Black rhinoceros Red panda

Dugong Tiger
 28

Green sea turtle Snow leopard

Peacock Cheetah
Figure 17: Endangered

Endemic species of India

India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus possesses a large number of endemic
species. Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country 7000 are endemic. Thus, Indian
subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and
Western Ghats.
Some of the important endemic flora include orchids and species like Sapria
himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes khasiana, Pedicularis perroter etc. Some endemic plant
species are shown in Plate V.
A large number out of a total of 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic.
The Western Ghats are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads etc.) and reptiles (lizards,
crocodiles etc.). About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
Different species of monitor lizards (Varanus), reticulated python and Indian Salamander and
Viviparous toad Nectophhryne are some important endemic species of our country.

Toothbrush orchid endemic to sikkim Nepenthes Khasiana

(Pitcher Plant)
Endangered and Endemic
 29

Endangered and Endemic orchid of eastern Platycerium, rare and endemic to

Himalayas manipur
Figure 18: Endemic and endangered plants.

Conservation of Biodiversity
The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical,
aesthetic, ecological and optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.
Gradually we are coming to realize that wildlife is not just ‘a game to be hunted’, rather it is a
‘gift of nature’ to be nurtured and enjoyed. A number of measures are now being taken the
world over to conserve biodiversity including plants and wildlife.

There are two approaches of biodiversity conservation:

(a) In situ conservation (within habitat):
This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in nature itself. e.g. Biosphere
Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc.

(b) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats):

This is done by establishment of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens,
culture collections etc.
 30

In-situ conservation
In-situ conservation is the process of preserving a threatened plant or animal species in
its natural habitat. National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, natural reserves, biosphere reserves,
and sacred grooves are examples of in-situ conservation techniques. In addition to ensuring the
sustainability of the environment and ecology, this method safeguards the local population.

Types of In-Situ Conservation Areas

National Parks:
These areas are maintained by the government and reserved for the betterment of
wildlife, cultivation, grazing, forestry; and habitat manipulation is not allowed.

Sanctuaries:
They are tracts of lands with or without Lake Share where wild animals/fauna can take
refuge without being hunted. Other activities like collection of forest products, harvesting of
timber, private ownership of lands, tilling of land, etc. are allowed.

Biosphere Reserves:
They are multipurpose protected areas that are meant for preserving genetic diversity
in representative ecosystems of various natural biomes and unique biological communities by
protecting the wild populations, traditional lifestyles of tribals,, and domesticated plant/animal
genetic resources. They are specified protected areas in which multiple uses of the land are
permitted.

Advantages
 It is an inexpensive to preserve biological variety.
 The species is allowed to develop in its native environment
 This significantly lowers the cost of conservation activities.
 Safeguard the complete ecosystem
 Needs a sufficient number of herbivores to provide food for the predators in order
to protect a population of carnivores.
 Plenty of green vegetation helps to keep the number of herbivores stable.

Disadvantages
 Fragmented endangered habitats may not have enough space to survive.
 It significant decline in genetic diversity.
 Threaten the local organisms.
 The developing area can present a chance for poachers to do harm.

Ex situ Conservation:
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties, the wild
relatives of crops and all the local varieties with the main objective of conserving the total
genetic variability of the crop species for future crop improvement or afforestation
programmes.
 31

Ex-situ Conservation - Concept

 This method involves removing threatened animals and plants from their native
environment and relocating them to a designated location where they can be
protected and given specialised care.
 This is accomplished by zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks,
and seed banks.
 Many species of animals are nevertheless kept alive in zoological parks despite
going extinct in the wild.
 Ex-situ conservation has recently gone beyond the preservation of vulnerable
species.
 Now, utilizing cryopreservation technology, gametes of endangered species can be
kept in viable and fertile form for extended periods of time.
 In vitro fertilization of eggs and tissue culture techniques for plant propagation are
also possible.
 In seed banks, seeds of several genetic strains of commercially significant plants
can be preserved for a long time.
 The key focus of the national gene bank at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), Delhi, is the long-term preservation of rare accessions as base
collections for future generations, particularly in the form of seeds.

Ex-situ Conservation - Facilities

a) Botanical Gardens
 This is a technique for ex-situ conservation of endangered and threatened species
in their local habitats.
 Governments at various levels, educational institutions, and international assistance
are all involved in maintaining this.
 More than 80,000 species can be found in more than 1500 botanic gardens and
arboreta around the globe.
 There are currently tissue culture labs, seed banks, and other ex-situ technologies at
many of these botanical gardens.

b) Zoological Parks (Zoos)

 Around the world, there are more than 800 professionally run zoos that house
around 3000 different species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
 These zoos frequently feature advanced captive breeding programmes.
 Breeders and genetic engineers have a ready source of genetic material thanks to
the protection of crop plants', animals', or microbes' wild ancestors.
 Many tropical islands have a large number of indigenous animal species, and they
also have a highly spectacular record of agro-biodiversity.

c) Wildlife Safari Parks

 A safari park, sometimes known as a wildlife park, is a zoo-like commercial is an
ex-situ conservation technique.
 32

 A zoo-like establishment frequently referred to as a "wildlife park," a safari park is

an example of ex-situ conservation.
 It is a drive-in tourist attraction where visitors can ride in vehicles provided by the
establishment or drive their own cars while watching animals roam freely.
 A safari park is bigger than a zoo and smaller than a game reserve. For instance, the
750-acre African Lion Safari in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (3.0 km2).

d) Seed Banks
 Seeds are kept in seed banks in order to protect genetic variety for the future.
 They often contain jars of seeds from various plant species and are vaults that are
bomb, flood, and radiation proof.
 Seeds must be kept in storage for a variety of reasons. In order to boost crop output,
disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutritional quality, flavor, and other traits,
plant breeders need certain genes to be preserved.
 Another is to prevent the genetic diversity of rare or threatened plant species from
being lost in an effort to ex situ conserve biodiversity.
 The seeds are normally stored in low humidity and cold (about -20°C) conditions.

Techniques for Plants

Cryopreservation
Seeds, pollen, tissue, and embryos are all stored in liquid nitrogen during plant
cryopreservation. Compared to all other methods of ex situ conservation, this method allows
for practically unlimited storage of the material without deterioration over a far longer time
frame. Through cryoconservation of animal genetic resources, cryopreservation is also
employed to conserve livestock genetics. Many species cannot be cryopreserved due to
technical limits, but plants are the subject of several studies in the discipline of cryobiology,
which is an area of ongoing research.

Seed Banking
 The preservation of seeds in a setting with controlled humidity and temperature is
called seed banking.
 For taxa with conventional seeds that can withstand desiccation, this method is
employed.
 Facilities for seed banks range from climate-controlled walk-in freezers or vaults to
sealed boxes.
 Normally, taxa with resistant seeds that cannot tolerate desiccation aren't kept in
seed banks for a very long time.

Field Gene Banking

 Field Gene Banking refers to a sizable open-air planting used to preserve the genetic
variety of wild, domesticated, or forest species.
 In most cases, field gene banks conserve species that are either impossible or
difficult to conserve in seed banks.
 33

 Field gene banks can be used to cultivate and pick offspring of species preserved
via various ex situ methods.

Cultivation Collections
 Cultivation Collections refers to plants that are cared for horticulturally in a built
landscape, usually a botanic garden or arboretum.
 Although plants are kept in their natural habitat, this method is comparable to field
gene banks in that collections are often not as large or genetically varied.
 These collections are vulnerable to disease spread, genetic drift, artificial selection,
and hybridization. Frequently, cultivated collections contain species that cannot be
preserved using other ex situ methods.

Inter situ
 Horticulture is used to take care of the plants, but the surroundings are kept as close
to natural as possible.
 This happens in both semi-natural and restored habitats.
 This method is mainly applied to uncommon taxa or those that are found in severely
degraded habitats.

Tissue Culture
 In tissue culture, somatic tissue can be kept in vitro for a short while.
 This is carried out in a setting with controlled lighting and temperature to manage
cell development.
 Tissue culture is mostly utilized for clonal growth of vegetative tissue or immature
seeds as an ex situ conservation strategy.
 This makes it possible for clonal plants to grow from a tiny amount of parent tissue.
 34

Techniques for Animals

 Similar methods are used to protect endangered animal species and breeds.
 Gene Banks: In genebanks, which are composed of cryogenic facilities used to
store living sperm, eggs, or embryos, animal species can be conserved.
 Cryopreservation: For instance, the Zoological Society of San Diego has created
a "frozen zoo" to retain such samples from more than 355 species, including
mammals, reptiles, and birds, using cryopreservation techniques.
 Interspecific Pregnancy: Interspecific pregnancy is one such method that could
help endangered species reproduce.
 It involves implanting embryos of an endangered species into a female of a related
species and allowing to bring the embryo to term. For the Spanish ibex, it has been
done.

Advantages
 Organisms are completely protected from predators and poachers.
 Individuals' health can be tracked and medical assistance can be provided as
required.
 Populations can be divided more effectively in the case of a disaster.
 Genetic diversity of the population can be measured.
 Selective breeding programmes can be implemented.
 Modern reproductive technology can increase the chances of reproductive success.
 Animals and plants can be bred to increase their numbers if they are in danger of
extinction.
 Research on an endangered species' reproductive physiology, way of life, and
ecology is made simpler.
 Funds for additional conservation efforts might be raised by using conservation
sites as attractions.
 Educational activities can take place at conservation areas.

Disadvantages
 Genetic diversity in captive populations is minimal.
 As the creatures are residing outside of their normal habitat, nutritional problems
could occur.
 Animals can be exposed to a wide variety of various diseases.
 Animals might not behave normally.
 Attempting to reproduce at times may become difficult.
 Appropriate environmental conditions for survival could be challenging to attain.
 Acceptance by the species' current wild members may present challenges.
 35

Difference between In situ and Ex-situ Conservation

S. No. In situ Conservation Ex situ Conservation
1 It means the conservation of biodiversity It means the conservation of biological
in their natural habitats itself. diversity outside their natural areas
2 Protected areas are the sanctuaries and Artificial conditions are created to make
national parks. their habitat almost like a natural habitat.
3 It aims to enable biodiversity to maintain It involves the maintenance of genetic
itself within the context of the ecosystem. variation (Genetic Conservation) away
from its original location.
4 Establish a protected area network, with Established botanical and zoological
appropriate management practices, gardens, conservation stands; banks of
corridors to link fragments restore germplasm, pollen, seed, seedling, tissue
degraded habitats within and outside. culture, gene, and DNA, etc.
5 It involves the reduction of biotic pressure It identifies and rehabilitates threatened
rehabilitation species; launched augmentation,
reintroduction, or introduction programs.
6 It helps in the multiplication of the species This method will enhance the probability
through the process of evolution and of reproductive success for endangered
adaptation. species.
7 It provides greater mobility to the animal It provides less mobility to the organism
species because of the large habitat area. because of the small habitat area.
8 Example- National parks, biosphere Example- Zoo, aquarium, seed banks,
reserves, parks, sanctuaries. botanical gardens, etc.