FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECH) BICHI, KANO STATE.

SCHOOL OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TECHNICAL (SOSET)

COURSE CODE: TEM 322

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WELDING

Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused using heat, pressure or

both forming a join as the parts cool. Welding is usually used on metals and thermoplastics but

can also be used on wood. The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment.

The parts that are joined are known as parent material. The material added to help form the join

is called filler or consumable. Consumables are usually chosen to be similar in composition to

the parent material, thus forming a homogenous weld. However, there are occasions, such as

when welding brittle cast irons, when a filler with a very different composition and, therefore,

properties are used. These welds are called heterogeneous. The completed welded joint may be

referred to as a weldment.

Parent Metal: Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding.

Weld Metal:

All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.

Heat Affected Zone (HZA):

The part of the parent metal affected by the weld or thermal cutting heat, but not melted.

Weld Zone:

A zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.

WELDING EQUIPMENTS

Welding equipment refers to the tools, machines, and accessories used in the welding process. It

encompasses a wide range of devices needed to perform welding effectively and safely. Some

common welding equipment and their functions include:

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1. Welding Machine/Power Source: The welding machine or power source provides the

electrical energy required for the welding process. There are different types of welding

machines, such as arc welders, MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welders, TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)

welders, and resistance welders, each suited to different welding techniques.

2. Welding Electrode or Filler Material: In most welding processes, a consumable

electrode or filler material is used to join the workpieces. The type of filler material

depends on the welding process and the materials being joined.

3. Welding Torch or Gun: The welding torch or gun is the handheld tool that directs the

heat and electrical current to the workpiece. It may also feed the filler material in

processes like MIG and TIG welding.

4. Welding Helmet and Protective Gear: Welders need to protect themselves from the

intense light, sparks, and heat generated during welding. A welding helmet with a

darkened lens, along with other protective gear such as gloves, aprons, and welding

jackets, is essential for safety.

5. Welding Gas: Some welding processes, like MIG and TIG welding, require the use of

shielding gases, such as argon, helium, or carbon dioxide, to protect the weld area from

atmospheric contamination and improve the quality of the weld.

6. Welding Table or Workbench: A stable surface for holding the workpieces during

welding is necessary to ensure precise and secure welding. Welding tables or

workbenches are often made of heat-resistant materials and may include fixtures to hold

the workpieces in place.

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 7. Clamps and Fixtures: Clamps and fixtures help hold the pieces being welded in the

correct position and alignment during the welding process, ensuring accuracy and quality

in the weld.

8. Welding Safety Equipment: Safety is paramount in welding. In addition to helmets and

protective gear, safety equipment may include welding curtains or screens to protect

bystanders from harmful rays, fire extinguishers, and ventilation systems to remove

fumes and gases.

9. Welding Accessories: Various accessories, such as wire brushes, chipping hammers,

welding pliers, and wire feeders, aid in the preparation and execution of welding tasks.

10. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Welders should wear appropriate PPE,

including safety glasses, ear protection, and steel-toed boots, to protect against potential

hazards in the welding environment.

APPLICATION OF WELDING

Welding is a versatile joining process used in a wide range of applications across various

industries. Its primary purpose is to permanently bond two or more pieces of material together.

Some common applications of welding include:

i. Welding is extensively used in the construction industry to join steel and other

metals in the fabrication of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure projects.

ii. Welding plays a crucial role in automobile and aircraft industries, to fabricate

machinery, equipment, and components.

iii. Shipbuilders rely on welding to assemble the structural components of ships and

vessels.

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 iv. Welding is critical for the construction and maintenance of pipelines, drilling rigs,

and offshore platforms used in the exploration and extraction of oil and gas

resources.

v. The railroad industry uses welding to build and repair tracks, locomotives, and

rolling stock.

vi. Welding is used in the fabrication of agricultural equipment such as tractors,

plows, and irrigation systems, as well as for repairing farm machinery.

SAFETY PRECAUTION

Welding is a process that involves the use of high temperatures, intense light, and potentially

hazardous fumes and gases. Therefore, it's essential to follow strict safety precautions to protect

yourself and others from potential risks. Some crucial welding safety precautions:

1. Wear Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

 Welding Helmet: Use a welding helmet with a darkened, auto-darkening lens to

protect your eyes from the intense light and radiation generated during welding.

 Protective Clothing: Wear flame-resistant clothing, such as welding jackets,

pants, and sleeves, to shield your body from sparks and heat.

 Gloves: Use welding gloves made of heat-resistant materials to protect your

hands from burns and sparks.

 Footwear: Wear steel-toed, heat-resistant boots to protect your feet from falling

objects and hot metal.

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  Respirator: When working in confined spaces or environments with poor

ventilation, use a respirator to protect against welding fumes and gases.

 Ear Protection: In environments with loud noise, wear hearing protection, such

as earplugs or earmuffs.

2. Ensure Proper Ventilation:

 Work in well-ventilated areas to disperse welding fumes and gases. If working

indoors, use local exhaust ventilation or mechanical ventilation systems to remove

contaminants.

3. Check for Flammable Materials:

 Remove or properly cover any flammable materials, such as paper, cardboard, or

solvents, from the welding area to prevent fires.

4. Inspect Equipment Regularly:

 Before starting work, inspect your welding equipment, including the welding

machine, cables, hoses, and torch, for any damaged or frayed components. Repair

or replace any defective parts.

5. Secure Workpieces:

 Ensure that workpieces are securely clamped or held in place to prevent

accidental movement during welding.

6. Understand Welding Hazards:

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  Be aware of the specific hazards associated with the welding process you are

using, whether it's arc welding, MIG welding, TIG welding, or another method.

Understand the risks of electric shock, burns, and eye injuries.

7. Maintain a Safe Distance:

 Keep bystanders and unauthorized personnel at a safe distance from the welding

area to protect them from sparks and radiation.

8. Use Welding Screens or Curtains:

 Employ welding screens or curtains to shield others from the welding arc and

protect them from UV radiation.

9. Know Emergency Procedures:

 Be familiar with the location and use of fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and

emergency eyewash stations. Ensure that you and your coworkers know how to

respond to welding-related emergencies.

10. Stay Informed and Trained:

 Regularly update your knowledge and skills through welding safety training

programs. Ensure that you are aware of the latest safety guidelines and best

practices.

11. Follow Manufacturer's Instructions:

 Adhere to the manufacturer's guidelines and recommendations for your welding

equipment and consumables. This includes proper setup, maintenance, and usage.

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 12. Never Weld on Containers That Held Hazardous Materials:

 Welding on containers that previously held flammable or toxic materials can lead

to dangerous reactions. Avoid such containers unless they have been thoroughly

cleaned and purged.

ADVANTAGES OF WELDING:

Welding is superior to other metal joining methods because:

 it is a permanent pressure-tight joint

 occupies less space

 it gives more economy of material

 it has less weight

 it withstands high temperatures and pressure equal to joined material

 it can be done quickly

 It gives no color change to joints.

 It is the strongest joint and any type of metal of any thickness can be joined.

WELDING PROCESSES:

Some of the most common welding processes:

i. Electric Arc Welding Process:

This is a process of welding in which the heat energy is obtained from electricity. An

electric arc is formed when both the terminals of an electric circuit are brought together

and then separated by a small gap. When a high current passes through an air gap from

one conductor to another, it produces very intense and concentrated heat in the form of a

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 spark. The temperature of this spark (or arc) is app. 3600°C, which can melt and fuse the

metal very quickly to produce a homogeneous weld. The types of electric arc welding

include metallic arc welding, carbon arc welding, Tungsten inert arc welding, submerged

arc welding, and plasma welding.

Figure 1: electric welding set-up

ii. Gas welding Process:

This term relates to a group of welding processes wherein welding is produced by heating

with a gas flame or flames, with or without the application of pressure and with or

without the use of filler wire. The most common gases are oxygen and acetylene, and

certain fuel gases hydrogen, LPG, Coal gas, etc. are used. The gas welding process can

classified into the following: Oxy-acetylene gas welding, Gas metal arc welding

(GMAW), Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

i. Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding:

In these types of gas welding, two gaseous are a channel to welding containing a

mixing chamber, helping to mix the gases and produce a flame. Oxy-acetylene

welding has two cylinders containing acetylene and oxygen gas. These gases flow
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 in different indicated hoses to the torch. It is common and most use gas welding

techniques. It produces the highest flame temperature of all fuel gases. The oxy-

acetylene flame can be classified into:

Figure 2: Oxy-acetylene welding setup

 Neutral flame:

Oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportion in the blowpipe and

complete combustion takes place in this flame. It is used to weld most common

metals, i.e. mild steel, cast iron, stainless steel, copper, and aluminum.

 Oxidizing flame:

It contains an excess of oxygen over acetylene as the gases come out of the

nozzle. It is used for the welding of brass and the brazing of ferrous metals.

 Carburizing flame:

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 It receives an excess of acetylene over oxygen from the blowpipe. It is useful for

welding steel pipes, and flame cleaning.

Figure 3: different types of flames

ii. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

Commonly known as MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding, GMAW uses a continuous wire electrode

fed through a welding gun. An inert gas, such as argon or a mixture of gases, shields the weld

pool from atmospheric contamination. GMAW is known for its speed and is used in industries

like automotive and manufacturing.

iii. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW):

Also called TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding, GTAW uses a non-consumable tungsten

electrode to create an electric arc. A separate filler rod is added to the weld pool as needed.

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GTAW is known for its precision and cleanliness, making it suitable for aerospace, nuclear, and

high-purity applications.

WELDING DEFECTS

A defect or fault does not allow the finished joint to withstand or carry the required load. Weld

defects can be classified into:

i. External defects:

The defects which can be seen with bare eyes or with a lens on the top of the weld bead,

on the base metal surface or the root side of the joint are called external defects.

Examples include Undercut, Cracks, Blow holes and porosity, Overlap, Mismatch of

parent material, etc.

ii. Internal Defects:

Those defects, which are hidden inside the weld bead or the base metal surface and which

cannot be seen with bare eyes or lens are called internal defects. Examples are, slag

inclusion, lack of root penetration in fillet joints, etc.

DESIGN AND PRODUCTION OF SIMPLE ENGINEERING COMPONENTS

Preparing a cutting list for the production of simple engineering components using welding

involves organizing the layout of your welding project to efficiently use materials and minimize

waste. Here are the steps to prepare a cutting list for welding:

1. Review Your Welding Project:

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 Examine your welding project plan, drawings, or specifications thoroughly to understand

the design, dimensions, and materials required.

2. List the Welded Components:

Create a list of all the components or pieces that need to be fabricated through welding.

Include their names, dimensions, and quantities.

3. Determine Material Requirements:

Identify the type and thickness of the materials needed for each component. Refer to your

project plans or specifications for material specifications.

4. Material Selection:

Choose the appropriate welding materials based on the project's requirements and any

engineering or industry standards.

5. Material Prepping:

Ensure that your materials are clean, free of contaminants, and properly prepared for

welding. This may include cleaning, beveling, or pre-heating depending on the material

and welding process.

6. Layout Space:

Set up a workspace or welding table large enough to accommodate your materials and

components. Ensure it is clean, level, and free of obstructions.

7. Mark Material Dimensions:

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 Measure and mark the dimensions of the components on the material using a measuring

tape, square, and appropriate marking tools. Include any necessary tolerances or

allowances.

8. Layout Diagram (if available):

Some welding projects may include a layout diagram that shows how to position and

orient components for welding. Refer to this diagram if it's provided.

9. Plan Material Usage:

Strategically arrange the components on the material to maximize material usage and

minimize scrap. Consider factors like material grain direction, welding access, and

minimizing heat distortion.

10. Mark Cutting Lines:

Use chalk, soapstone, or other appropriate marking tools to mark the cutting lines on the

material. Ensure the lines are accurate and follow your project's specifications.

11. Cut Material Carefully:

Use appropriate cutting tools such as saws, shears, or cutting torches to cut along the

marked lines. Take care to make accurate cuts, following the lines precisely.

12. Label Components:

After cutting, label each component with its name or identification number to prevent

confusion during assembly.

13. Quality Control:

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 Inspect the cut components for accuracy and quality, checking for any irregularities or

defects that may affect the welding process.

FINISHING PROCESSES OF FABRICATED COMPONENT

Finishing processes for fabricated components are essential steps that come after the fabrication

and welding phases. These processes are crucial for enhancing the appearance, functionality, and

durability of the components. The specific finishing processes required for fabricated

components depend on factors such as the component's material, intended use, industry

standards, and customer requirements. Proper finishing not only improves the aesthetics but also

enhances the functionality, durability, and longevity of the fabricated components. Here are

some common finishing processes for fabricated components:

1. Grinding and Smoothing:

This type of finishing process uses grinders and sanders to remove sharp edges, burrs,

and excess material from welded joints and cut surfaces. This improves safety and makes

the component more visually appealing.

2. Surface Cleaning:

This involves a thorough cleaning of the component's surface to remove any

contaminants, such as oil, grease, or rust. Common methods include solvent cleaning,

degreasing, and abrasive cleaning.

3. Painting and Coating:

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 This involves applying paint, powder coating, or other protective coatings to the

component's surface. These coatings enhance corrosion resistance, provide a finished

appearance, and offer protection against environmental factors.

4. Electroplating and Galvanizing:

Electroplating is a process of depositing a thin layer of metal onto the surface of an object

through the use of electrical current. This technique is widely used for various

applications, including improving the appearance, corrosion resistance, and durability of

objects.

5. Anodizing:

Anodizing is a process used mainly for aluminum components. It forms a protective

oxide layer on the surface, improving corrosion resistance and providing an attractive

finish.

6. Polishing:

Polishing is a finishing process used to enhance the appearance, smoothness, and shine of

a surface by removing imperfections, roughness, and blemishes. It involves the use of

abrasive materials and techniques to achieve a smooth, reflective, and often glossy

surface finish. Polishing is commonly used on a wide range of materials, including

metals, plastics, glass, ceramics, and even certain stones.

7. Buffing:

Buffing is a surface finishing process that enhances the appearance and smoothness of a

material, typically metals, plastics, wood, and sometimes even stone or ceramics. Buffing

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 is similar to polishing, but it specifically involves the use of buffing wheels or pads to

apply a polishing compound or abrasive to the workpiece. The process results in a high-

gloss, smooth, and reflective finish.

8. Deburring:

Deburring is a machining process used to remove burrs, sharp edges, and rough

protrusions from the surface of a workpiece after it has been machined or manufactured.

Burrs are unwanted raised edges or small pieces of material that can result from various

machining processes such as cutting, drilling, milling, or grinding. Removing burrs is

essential for safety, functionality, and the quality of the finished product

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