Nervous System Functions of the Nervous System

2 main parts of Nervous System - Central 1. Sensory input – gathering information

Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
To monitor changes occurring inside
Central Nervous System – Gives order and outside the body (changes =
stimuli)
Glial Cells – Provide support, nutrition,
insulation, and help with signal transmission in 2. Integration – to process and interpret
the nervous system sensory input and decide if action is
needed
Astrocytes – Support, regulate ions. The most
3. Motor output – a response to
abundant and versatile glial cells
integrated stimuli. The response
Microglial Cells – Defend, acts as the main activates muscles or glands
source of immune defense
Central Nervous System
Ependymal Cells – Line cavities, in your brain
1. Brain
and spinal cord, create, secrete and circulate
2. Spinal Cord
cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and
cushions those organs Peripheral Nervous System

Oligodendrocytes – Wrap and insulate, form 1. Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
myelin sheath, wrap around neurons producing
an insulating barrier called the myelin sheath
Functional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Sensory (afferent) division
Satellite Cells – Surround neuron cell bodies, do
mainly in the peripheral system what astrocytes 1. Nerve fibers that carry information to
doing in the central system they surround and the central nervous system
support cell bodies Motor (efferent) division
Schwann Cells – Insulate, help form myelin 1. Nerve fibers that carry impulses away
sheath, similar to oligodendrocytes they wrap from the central nervous system
around axons and make that insulating myeline 2. Two subdivisions: Somatic nervous
sheath system = voluntary and Autonomic
Axon – is like a talker, a nerve fiber, portion of a nervous system = involuntary
neuron that carries nerve impulses away from Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or
the cell body Glia)
Dendrites – the listeners they pick up Astrocytes
messages, news, gossip from other cells and
convey that information to the cell body 1. Abundant, star – shaped cells
2. Brace neurons
3. Form barrier between capillaries and
neurons
 4. Control of the chemical environment of Large nucleolus
the brain (CNS)
4. Extensions outside the cell body
Nerve Tissue: Support Cells Dendrites – conduct impulses
Microglia (CNS) toward the cell body
Axons – conduct impulses away
1. Spider – like phagocytes from the cell body (only 1!)
2. Dispose of debris
Axon and Nerve Impulses
Ependymal Cells (CNS)
Axons end in axonal terminals
1. Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
2. Circulate cerebrospinal fluid Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Axonal terminals are separated from the next
1. Produce myelin sheath around nerve neuron by a gap
fibers in the central nervous system
1. Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
Neuroglia and Neurons neurons
1. Neuroglia divide 2. Synapse – junction between nerve
2. Neurons do not Nerve Fiber Coverings
3. Most brain tumors are gliomas
4. Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia Schwann Cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly
cells, not the neurons – roll like fashion

Support Cells of the PNS Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along
the axon
Satellite Cells
Sclerosis – myelin sheath hardens to a tissue,
1. Protect neuron cell bodies this is considered an autoimmune disease
Schwann Cells Neuron Cell Body Location
1. Form myelin sheath in the peripheral Most are found in the central nervous system
nervous system
1. Gray matter – cell bodies and
Nervous Tissues: Neurons unmyelinated fibers
Neurons = nerve cells 2. Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within
the white matter of the central nervous
1. Cells specialized to transmit message system
2. Major regions of neurons
Cell body – nucleus and Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the
metabolic center of the cell central nervous system
Processes – fibers that extend
from the cell body (dendrites
and axons)
3. Cell body
Nucleus
 The exchange of ions initiates an action
potential in the neuron
Functional Classification of Neurons
The Reflex Arc
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Reflex – rapid, predictable and involuntary
 Carry impulses from the sensory
responses to stimuli
receptors
o Cutaneous sense organs Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron,
o Proprioceptors – detect stretch to an interneuron, to an effector
or tension
Types of Reflexes and Regulation
Motor (efferent) neurons
Autonomic reflexes
 Carry impulses from the central nervous
 Smooth muscle regulation
system
 Heart and blood pressure regulation
 Interneurons (association neurons)
 Regulation of glands
 Found in neural pathways in the central
 Digestive system regulation
nervous system
 Connect sensory and motor neurons Somatic reflexes

Structural Classification of Neurons  Activation of skeletal muscles

Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the Brain

cell body, 99 percent of our neurons are
multipolar neurons with three or more A brief slowing of brain blood flow may cause
processes sticking out from the soma unconsciousness

Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite An interruption in blood flow for 1 to 2 minutes
impairs neuronal function
Unipolar neurons – have a short single process
leaving the cell body Total deprivation of oxygen for about 4 minutes
causes permanent injury
How Neurons Function (Physiology)
Regions of the Brain
Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
Cerebral Hemispheres – Left and Right
Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse Hemispheres
The plasma membrane at rest is polarized Diencephalon

 Fewer positive ions are inside the cell Brain Stem

than outside the cell
Cerebellum
Starting a Nerve Impulse
Major Parts of the Brain
Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the
neuron’s membrane Brain Stem

A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) Cerebellum

to flow inside the membrane
Diencephalon – Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Functions of the Cerebral Lobes
Epithalamus
Frontal Lobes – higher intellectual process for
Cerebrum concentrating, planning, complex problem
solving, and judging the consequences of
Longitudinal Fissure – separates the right and
behavior. Control movements of voluntary
left cerebral hemispheres
skeletal muscles
Transverse Fissure – separates the cerebrum
Parietal Lobes – provide sensations of
from the cerebellum
temperature, touch, pressure, and pain
Several Sulci – divide each hemisphere into involving the skin. Function in understanding
lobes speech and in using words to express thoughts
and feelings
Gyri or Convolutions – cortical region rolls and
folds upon itself Temporal Lobes – responsible for hearing,
interpret sensory experience and remember
Fissures – the deepest grooves between folds visual scenes, music, and other complex sensory
Sulci – the shallower grooves between folds patterns

Longitudinal Fissure – separates the cerebrum Occipital Lobes – responsible for vision,
into right and left halves (cerebral hemispheres) combine visual images with other sensory
experiences
Lissencephaly
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
Smooth brain
Somatic Sensory Area – receives impulses from
Sulci and gyri are absent the body’s sensory receptors
Associated with intellectual disability, Primary Motor Area – sends impulses to
developmental delay, and seizures skeletal muscles
Lobes of the Cerebrum Broca’s Area – involved in our ability to speak
Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum Sensory Areas
into lobes
Several lobes of the cerebrum interpret
Surface lobes of the cerebrum impulses that arrive from sensory receptors,
 Frontal Lobe producing feelings or sensations
 Parietal Lobe  Sensory areas for taste are located near
 Occipital Lobe the bases of the central sulci along the
 Temporal Lobe lateral sulci
Insula – serves as a crossroads for translating  The sense of smell arises from centers
sensory information into appropriate emotional deep within the cerebrum
responses, responsible for some of the  The sensory speech area or Wernicke’s
qualities that makes us human area is in the temporal lobe, adjacent to
the parietal lobe near the posterior end
of the lateral sulcus, usually in the left
hemisphere
 Association Areas Wernicke’s (Posterior Language) Area (Area 22,
and Possibly Areas 39 and 40)
Analyze and interpret sensory experience
It is active as you translate words into thoughts
Oversee memory, reasoning, verbalizing,
judgment, and emotion Unlike those who have CVAs in Broca’s area,
people who suffer strokes in Wernicke’s are can
1. Frontal Lobes control higher intellectual still speak, but cannot arrange words in a
process coherent fashion (fluent aphasia, or “word
2. Parietal Lobes help in understanding salad”)
speech and choosing words to express
thoughts and feelings Common Integrative Area (Areas 5, 7, 39, and
3. Wernicke’s area “general interpretative 40)
area,” near where the occipital,
This area integrates sensory interpretations
parietal, and temporal lobes meet –
from the association areas and impulses from
integrating visual, auditory and other
other areas, allowing the formation of thoughts
sensory information, and then
based on a variety of sensory inputs
interpretating a situation
4. Temporal lobes and the regions of the Prefrontal Cortex (Frontal Association Area)
posterior ends of the lateral sulcus (Areas 9, 10, 11, and 12)
store memory of visual scenes, music,
Concerned with the makeup of a person’s
and other complex sensory patterns
personality, intellect, complex learning abilities,
5. Occipital lobes that are adjacent to the
recall of information, initiative, judgment,
visual centers are important in
foresight, reasoning, conscience, intuition
analyzing visual patterns and combining
mood, planning for the future, and
visual images with other sensory
development of abstract ideas
experiences, as when one recognizes
another person or an object. Premotor Area (Area 6)
Somatosensory Association Area (Areas 5 and 7) This area deals with learned motor activities of
This area permits you to determine the exact a complex and sequential nature
shape and texture of an object by feeling it, to It generates nerve impulses that cause specific
determine the orientation of one object with groups of muscles to contract in a specific
respect to another as they are felt, and to sense sequence, as when you write your name. This
the relationship of one body part to another area also serves as a memory bank for such
Auditory Association Area (Area 22) movements

Allows you to recognize a particular sound as Frontal Eye Field Area (Area 8)
speech, music, or noise It controls voluntary scanning movements of
Orbitofrontal Cortex (Area 11) the eyes – like those you just used in reading
this sentence
This area allows you to identify odors and to
discriminate among different odors
 Primary Motor Area (Area 4) Functional Differences Between the Two
Each region in the primary motor area controls
Cerebral Hemispheres
voluntary contractions of specific muscles or Left Hemisphere Functions
groups of muscles
 Receives somatic sensory signals from
Broca’s Speech Area (Areas 44 and 45) and controls muscles on right side of
body
The coordinated contractions of your speech
 Reasoning
and breathing muscles enable you to speak your
 Numerical and scientific skills
thoughts
 Ability to use and understand sign
Injury to language areas of the cerebral cortex language
results in aphasia an inability to use or  Spoken and written language
comprehend words
Right Hemisphere Functions
Dominant
 Receives somatic sensory signals from
In most people the left hemisphere is dominant and controls muscles on left side of
for; body
 Musical and artistic awareness
 Language – related activities of speech,
 Space and pattern perception
writing
 Recognition of faces and emotional
 Reading
content of facial expressions
 Complex intellectual functions requiring
 Generation emotional content of
verbal, analytical, and computational
language
skills
 Generation mental images to compare
In other people, the right hemisphere is spatial relationships
dominant for;  Identifying and discriminating among
odors
 Language – related abilities, or the
hemispheres are equally dominant Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Broca’s area in the dominant hemisphere Cerebral areas involved in special senses
controls the muscles that function in speaking
 Gustatory area (Taste)
Non – Dominant  Visual area
 Auditory area
Carrying on basic functions
 Olfactory area
Specializes in nonverbal functions, such as
Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
motor tasks that require orientation of the body
in space, understanding and interpreting  Speech/language region
musical patterns, and nonverbal visual  Language comprehension region
experiences  General interpretation area
Controls emotional and intuitive thinking
 Layers of the Cerebrum Brain Stem

Gray matter Parts of the brain stem

 Outer layer  Midbrain

 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies  Pons
 Medulla Oblongata
White matter
Centers in Medulla
 Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
 Example: corpus callosum connects Cardiac center – impulses originating in the
hemispheres cardiac center are transmitted to the heart on
peripheral nerves, altering heart rate
Basal Nuclei – internal islands of gray matter
Vasomotor center – certain cells of the
Regulates voluntary motor activities by
vasomotor center initiate impulses that travel
modifying info sent to the motor cortex
to smooth muscle in the walls of certain blood
Problems = i.e., unable to control muscles, vessels and stimulate the smooth muscle to
spastic, jerky contract

Involved in Huntington’s and Parkinson’s Respiratory center – it maintains breathing

disease rhythm and adjusts the rate and depth of
breathing
Diencephalon
Other nuclei – are centers for the reflexes
Made of three parts: associated with coughing, sneezing, swallowing,
Thalamus – the relay station for sensory and vomiting
impulses. Relay and filter all ascending (sensory) Limbic System – establish emotions and related
information. Coordinate voluntary and drives. Control reflexes associated with eating.
involuntary motor behavior Store and retrieve long – term memories
Hypothalamus – production of hormones, EEG – electroencephalogram, useful both in
control of the ANS, regulation of emotional and studying normal brain functions. Diagnosing a
behavioral patterns, regulation of eating and variety of brain disorders
drinking, control of body temperature, and
regulation of circadian rhythms and states of Alpha waves – a characteristic of normal resting
consciousness adults, occurs at a frequency of about 8 – 13
cycles per second. Alpha waves are present in
Epithalamus – houses the pineal body the EEGs of nearly all normal individuals when
(endocrine gland). Includes the choroid plexus - they are awake and resting with their eyes
forms cerebrospinal fluid closed. These waves disappear entirely during
Melatonin – to promote sleepiness, it sleep.
contributes to the setting of the body’s Beta waves – its frequency is between 14 and
biological clock, which is controlled by the 30 Hz, they generally appear when the nervous
suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus system is active – that is, during periods of
Habenular nuclei – involved in olfaction, sensory input and mental activity. It typically
especially emotional responses to odors accompanies intense concentration
Theta waves – These waves have frequencies of Cerebrospinal fluid
4 – 7 Hz, they normally occur in children and
Blood brain barrier
adults experiencing emotional stress. They also
occur in many disorders of the brain Meninges
Delta waves – Its frequency is 1 – 5 Hz, it occurs Dura mater
during deep sleep in adults and in certain
pathological issues, but they are normal in  Double – layered external covering
awake infants. When produced by an awake o Periosteum – attached to
adult, they indicate brain damage, surface of the skull
o Meningeal Layer – outer
Reticular Formation covering of the brain
Extends from the upper part of the spinal cord,  Folds inward in several areas
throughout the brain stem, and into the lower  Arachnoid Layer
part of the diencephalon, both ascending o Middle layer
(sensory) and descending (motor) functions o Web – like
 Pia mater
Reticular Activating System - consists of sensory o Internal layer
axons that project to the cerebral cortex, helps o Clings to the surface of the
maintain consciousness and is active during brain
awakening from sleep
Three Extensions of the Dura Mater Separate
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Parts of the Brain
1. Mechanical force Falx cerebri – separates the two hemispheres
2. Mild TBI, also called a concussion, (sides) of the cerebrum
causes a loss of consciousness or
altered mental status, disturbed sleep Fax cerebelli – separates the two hemispheres
and problems with memory and of the cerebellum
balance may follow – temporary
Tentorium cerebelli – separates the cerebrum
condition
from the cerebellum
3. Repeated blows to the head, can cause
chronic traumatic encephalopathy, this Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
more serious condition can lead to
Similar to blood plasma composition
depression, headaches, and dementia
4. Severe TBI occurs in combat situations Formed by the choroid plexus/es
and is also called as “blast – related
brain injury”. It may affect cognition Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
(thinking) many years later Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and
Protection of the Central Nervous System central canal of the spinal cord

Scalp and skin Clear, colorless liquid that protects the brain
and spinal cord from chemical and physical
Skull and vertebral column injuries
Meninges
Carries oxygen, glucose, and other needed Contusion
chemicals from the blood to neurons and
1. Nervous tissue destruction occurs
neuroglia
2. Nervous tissue does not regenerate
The CSF Contributes to Homeostasis in Three
Cerebral edema
Main Ways
1. Swelling from the inflammatory
1. Mechanical protection – shock –
response
absorbing medium that protects the
2. May compress and kill brain tissue
delicate tissues of the brain and spinal
cord from jolts that would otherwise Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
cause them to hit the bony walls of the
cranial cavity and vertebral canal. Buoys 1. Commonly called a stroke
the brain so that it floats in the cranial 2. The result of a ruptured blood vessel
cavity supplying a region of the brain
2. Chemical protection – optimal chemical 3. Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
environment for accurate neuronal that blood source dies
signaling 4. Loss of some functions or death may
3. Circulation – exchange of nutrients and result
waste products between the blood and Neurotransmitters
nervous tissue
Acetylcholine
Choroid plexuses – sites of CSF production
1. Excitatory neurotransmitter at some
Hydrocephalus – when excess CSF accumulates synapses
in the ventricles, the CSF pressure rises, if the 2. Also, an inhibitory neurotransmitter at
condition persists, the fluid buildup compresses other synapses, where it binds to
and damages the delicate nervous tissue. It is metabotropic receptors coupled to G
relieved by draining the excess CSF proteins that open K channels
Blood Brain Barrier Amino Acids
1. Includes the least permeable capillaries 1. Glutamate (Glutamic acid) – excitatory
of the body neurons in the CNS and half of the
2. Excludes many potentially harmful synapses in the brain communicate via
substances glutamate
3. Useless against some substance 2. Aspartate (Aspartic acid) – glutamate
Fats and fat-soluble molecules transporters actively transport
Respiratory gases glutamate back into the synaptic end
Alcohol bulbs and neighboring neuroglia
Nicotine
Anesthesia Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) and Glycine

Traumatic Brain Injuries 1. Important inhibitory neurotransmitters

2. Anti-anxiety drugs such as diazepam
1. Concussion (Vallum) enhance the action of GABA
Slight brain injury
No permanent brain damages
 3. Half of the inhibitory synapses in the Nitric Oxide
spinal cord use the amino acid glycine,
- formed on demand and acts
the rest use GABA
immediately, its action is brief because
Biogenic Amines NO is a highly reactive free Radical
- It exists for less than 10 seconds before
Catecholamines
it combines with oxygen and water to
Norepinephrine (NE) – plays roles in arousal form inactive nitrates and nitrites
(awakening from deep sleep), dreaming, and - Endothelial cells in blood vessel walls
regulating mood. A smaller number of neurons release NO – diffuses into neighboring
in the brain use epinephrine as a smooth muscle cells – relaxation –
neurotransmitter vasodilation – lowering of blood
pressure to erection of the penis in
Dopamine (DA) – active during emotional males
responses, addictive behaviors, and pleasurable
experiences. One form of schizophrenia is due Neuropeptides
to accumulation of excess dopamine
Substance P – found in sensory neurons, spinal
Serotonin – induction in; sensory perception, cord pathways, and parts of brain associated
temperature regulation, control of mood, with pain; enhances perception of pain
appetite, and induction of sleep
Enkephalins – inhibit pain impulses by
Depression – feel sad and helpless, have a lack suppressing release of substance P; may have a
of interest in activities that they once enjoyed. role in memory and learning, control of body
Experience suicidal thoughts temperature, sexual activity, and mental illness

Depression Endorphins – inhibit pain by blocking release of

substance P; may have a role in memory and
Major Depression – experiences symptoms of learning sexual activity, control of body
depression that last for more than two weeks temperature, and mental illness
Dysthymia – experiences episodes of depression Dynorphins – may be related to controlling pain
that alternate with periods of feeling normal and registering emotions
Bipolar Disorder or Manic – Depressive Illness – Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting
experiences recurrent episodes of depression hormones – produced by the hypothalamus;
and extreme elation (mania) regulate the release of hormones by the
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – experiences anterior pituitary
depression during the winter or rainy months, Angiotensin II – stimulates thirst; may regulate
when day length is short blood pressure in the brain. As a hormone
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) causes vasoconstriction and promotes release
– drugs that provide relief from some forms of of aldosterone, which increases the rate of salt
depression. By inhibiting reuptake of serotonin and water reabsorption by the kidneys
by serotonin transporters, SSRIs prolong the Cholecystokinin (CCK) – found in the brain and
activity of this neurotransmitter at synapses in small intestine; may regulate feeding as a “stop
the brain eating” signal. As a hormone, regulates
pancreatic enzyme secretion during digestion, Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
and contraction of smooth muscle in the
Internal gray matter – mostly cell bodies
gastrointestinal tract
- Dorsal (posterior) horns
L – dopa boosts dopamine production in
- Anterior (ventral) horns
affected brain areas
Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Amphetamines – promote release of dopamine
and norepinephrine Meninges cover the spinal cord
Botulinum toxin causes paralysis by blocking Nerves leave at the level of each vertebra
release of acetylcholine from somatic motor
neurons - Dorsal root
o Associated with the dorsal root
Anagent that binds to receptors and enhances ganglia – collections of cell
or mimics the effect of a natural bodies outside the central
neurotransmitter is an AGONIST nervous system
- Ventral root
Isoproterenol (IsuprelR) is a powerful agonist of
epinephrine and norepinephrine. It can be used Peripheral Nervous System
to dilate the airways during an asthma attack
Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous
An agent that binds to and block system
neurotransmitter receptors is an ANTAGONIST
ZyprexaR, a drug prescribed for schizophrenia, Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
is an antagonist of serotonin and dopamine Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
Cocaine – produces euphoria Structure of a Nerve
Alzheimer’s Disease Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
1. Progressive degenerative brain disease Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by
2. Mostly seen in the elderly, but may perineurium
begin in middle age
3. Structural changes in the brain include Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
abnormal protein deposits and twisted Classification of Nerves
fibers within neurons
4. Victims experience memory loss, Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
irritability, confusion and ultimately,
Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses
hallucinations and death
toward the CNS
Spinal Cord
Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away
1. Extends from the medulla oblongata to from the CNS
the region of T12
2. Below T12 is the cauda equina (a
collection of spinal nerves)
3. Enlargements occur in the cervical and
lumbar regions
 Spinal Nerves Parasympathetic – housekeeping activities

There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of - Conserves energy

each vertebra for a total of 30 pairs - Maintains daily necessary body
temperature
Cervical = 8
- Remember as the “D” division
Thoracic = 12 o Digestion
o Defecation
Lumbar = 5
o Diuresis
Sacral = 5
Twelve Pairs of Cranial Nerves
Autonomic Nervous System
Oh, - Olfactory (CN 1) = Sense of smell
The involuntary branch of the nervous system
Oh, - Optic (CN II) = Sense of vision
Consists of only motor nerves
Oh, - Oculomotor (CN III) = Eye movement
Divided into two divisions
To – Trochlear (CN IV) = Eye movement
- Sympathetic division = transmit neurons
Touch – Trigeminal (CN V) = Eye, jaw
- Parasympathetic division = direct action
sensation/movement
Autonomic Functioning
And – Abducens (CN VI) = Eye movement
Sympathetic – Fight or Flight
Feel – Facial (CN VII) = Face, scalp, tongue
- Response to unusual stimulus sensation/movement
- Takes over to increase activities
Vagina, - Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII = Hearing,
- Remember as the “E” division
balance
o Exercise
o Excitement Girls’ – Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) = Taste,
o Emergency swallowing
o Embarrassment
Vagina, - Vagus (CN X) = Autonomic control of
Effects of Sympathetic Activation viscera

- Generalized response in crises Ah – Accessory (CN XI) = Swallowing, pectoral

- Increased alertness girdle movement
- Feeling of euphoria and energy
Heaven – Hypoglossal (CN XII) = Tongue
- Increased cardiovascular activity
movement
- Increased respiratory activity
- Increased muscle tone Hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop