EE 370: Communications Engineering I Chapter 5: Angle Modulations and Demodulations

Chapter 5
Angle Modulation and Demodulation
(Figures included in this lecture notes are extracts from the text book
Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems by B.P. Lathi and Zhi
Ding, Copyright © 2009 by Oxford University Press, Inc.)
EE 370: Communications Engineering I Chapter 5: Angle Modulations and Demodulations

Contents
1. Angle (exponential) Modulation [Non-linear]
2. Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Wave
3. Generation of FM Waves
4. Demodulation of FM Signals
6. Superheterodyne analog AM/FM Receivers
7. FM Broadcasting System
 5.1 Angle Modulation
In AM signals, the amplitude of a carrier is
modulated by a signal m(t), and, hence, the
information content of m(t) is in the amplitude
variations of the carrier. Because a sinusoidal
signal is described by amplitude and angle
(angle includes frequency and phase), there
exists a possibility of carrying the same
information by varying the angle of the
carrier. This in effect is a nonlinear
modulation technique.
3
 5.1Angle Modulation
The Concept of Instantaneous Frequency
A general sine wave signal can be expressed as

ϕ (t ) = A cosθ (t )
θ(t) is the generalized angle. For a sine wave with fixed
frequency and phase:
θ (t ) = ωt + θ 0
can be represented as a linear function of time with a slope ω : angular
speed, ω = 2πf.

In general ω is the derivative of the angle. That is

dθ (t ) t
θ (t ) = ∫ ω (α )dα
( )
ωt = and
−∞
dt

4
 5.1 Angle Modulation
The Concept of Instantaneous Frequency

Figure 5.1 Concept of instantaneous frequency.

5
 5.1 Angle Modulation
• Phase Modulation (PM)
The message signal is modulating the phase of the carrier signal:

θ (t ) = ω c t + θ 0 + k p m(t )

without loosing generalization, we can omit the initial phase θ0 and we get the
following PM signal :

φPM ( t ) = A cos ωc t + k p m ( t ) 

dθ (t ) •
ω i (t ) = = ω c + k p m(t )
dt

ωi is called the instantaneous frequency of the modulated signal.

6
 5.1 Angle Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
The message signal is modulating the frequency of the carrier signal:

θ (t ) = ∫ [ωc + k f m(α )]dα

t
ω i (t ) = ω c + k f m(t ) −∞

ϕ FM (t ) = A cos ωc t + k f ∫ m(α )dα 

t t
θ (t ) = ωc t + k f ∫ m(α )dα  −∞ 
−∞

7
 5.1 Angle Modulation
• General Concept of Angle Modulation
t
ϕ (t ) = A cos[ω c t + ψ (t )] ψ (t ) = ∫ m(α )h(t − α )dα
−∞

Figure 5.3 Generalized phase modulation by means of the filter H(s) and recovery of the message
from the modulated phase through the inverse filter 1/H(s).

h(t) = kpδ(t) phase modulation

h(t) = kf u(t) frequency modulation
Further, according to the equations above we can say
that the PM and FM are equivalent in certain ways

• FM with m(t) = a PM with ∫m(t).

• PM with m(t) = a FM with m’(t). 8
 5.1 Angle Modulation
• General Concept of Angle Modulation

Figure 5.2 Phase and frequency modulation are equivalent and

interchangeable. 9
5.1 Angle Modulation

Figure 5.4 FM and PM waveforms.

5.1 Angle Modulation

Figure 5.5 FM and PM waveforms.

 5.1 Angle Modulation
Power in Angle Modulated signal

Regardless the values of kp or kf, the expected

power of the modulated signal is given by: A2/2.

See example 5.1 and 5.2 of the text book

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 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Waves
To determine the bandwidth of an FM wave :

t ) j ωc t + k f a ( t ) jωc t jk f a ( t )

a(t ) = ∫ m(α )dα φFM ( t ) = Ae = Ae e
−∞

)
φFM ( t ) = Re φFM ( t ) 

expanding the factor e f ( ) in power series and

jk a t

substituting into the above expression we get

 k 2f 2 k 3f 3 
φFM ( t ) = A cos ωct − k f a ( t ) sin ωc t − a ( t ) cos ωc t + a ( t ) sin ωc t + ....
 2! 3! 

13
 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves
the FM signal is expressed as an unmodulated carrier plus
spectra of a(t), a2(t), … an(t), … centered at ωc.
Let M(ω) be the spectrum of m(t) with bandwidth B.
The bandwidth of a(t) is also B because the integration is
equivalent to only a multiplication by 1/jω .
a2(t) has a bandwidth of 2B (M(ω)*M(ω))
a3(t) has a bandwidth of 3B

M
an(t) has a bandwidth of nB
Conclusion: FM signal has infinite bandwidth. (theoretically)
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 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves

Special cases:

• Narrow-Band Angle Modulation

The angle modulation is not linear in general. However, if
|kf a(t)| << 1 only the 1st two terms are important in the
above equation.

φFM ( t ) ≈ A cos ωct − k f a ( t ) sin ωc t 

This is a linear modulation. It is like an AM wave* with
bandwidth = 2B. This is called Narrow Band FM (NBFM).

* However the waveform is entirely different from AM 15

 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves
Narrow-Band Angle Modulation

Similarly the narrow band PM (NBPM) is given by:

φPM ( t ) ≈ A cos ωc t − k p m ( t ) sin ωc t 

The narrow band angle modulation is similar to AM (same

bandwidth, carrier plus spectrum centered on ωc).
The difference: in angle modulation the sideband spectrum is
π/2 phase shifted with respect to the carrier. The waveform is
completely different.
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5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves
• Wide-Band Angle Modulation

Figure 5.6 Estimation of FM wave bandwidth.

 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves
Reference to Fig. 5.6, with a staircase approximation to m(t),
1  ω + ωc + k f m(t k ) 1  ω − ωc − k f m(t k )
[ ]
rect (2 Bt ) cos ωc t + k f m(t k )t ⇔ sinc   + sinc  
2  4 B  2  4 B 
1  k f mp 
BFM ≈ (2k f m p + 8πB ) = 2 + 2 B  Hz
2π  2π 
mmax − mmin mp
Peak frequency deviation (Hz) ∆f = k f = kf
2 ⋅ 2π 2π
BFM ≈ 2(∆f + 2 B )Hz
which is an overestimation due to staircase approximation

Considering NBFM ∆f ≈ 0. Then above reduces to, BFM ≈ 4 B Hz

However we previously found for NBFM, BNBFM ≈ 2 B Hz

Therefore a better approximation is BFM ≈ 2(∆f + B ) Hz

This result is known as Carson’s rule

 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves

• Wide-Band Angle Modulation (summary)

This is the situation where we cannot ignore the higher
order terms because (|kf a(t)| << 1) is not satisfied. (can
be due to high kf ).
In this case the bandwidth of the FM signal is found to be
given by the following approximation:

 k f mp 
BFM = 2(∆f + B ) = 2 + B  Carson’s rule
 2π 

For truly wideband case, ∆ f >> B BFM ≈ 2∆ f

19
 5.2 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Waves
Carson’s rule can be also be expressed in terms of the
deviation ratio β
∆f
BFM = 2 B(β + 1) where β =
B
Deviation ratio β in FM plays the role of modulation index µ in AM

Wide Band Phase Modulation

All the analysis developed for the FM can be applied to

•
the PM by replacing mp by m p and kf by kp. That is
 k p m& p 
BPM = 2 ( ∆f + B ) = 2  + B
 2π 
Examples 5.3 – 5.5 (pg. 217-220)
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 5.3 Generation of FM Wave
Narrow-Band FM and PM wave generation

Figure 5.8 (a) Narrowband PM generator.

(b) Narrowband FM signal generator.
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 5.3 Generation of FM Wave
Indirect Method of Armstrong
We start with the generation of a NBFM with
frequency deviation ∆f as described previously.
Then we use a frequency multiplier ( x N ) to obtain
a WBFM. After filtering using a bandpass filter
centered at Nfc, we get an FM signal with N ∆f.

Sometimes the frequency increase of the carrier is

not needed.

Solution: after the multiplier we insert a mixer to

down convert the carrier to the wanted one.
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 5.3 Generation of FM Wave

Figure 5.10 Block diagram of the

Armstrong indirect FM transmitter.
Also see Example 5.7
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 5.3 Generation of FM Wave
Direct Generation Using a VCO
Frequency varies linearly varies with control voltage.
FM wave is generated by using message signal
m(t) as the a control signal.
1
ωi (t ) =ω c + k f m(t ) or f i (t ) = f c+ k f m(t )
2π
1) Using an OP-AMP and Hysteresis Comparator

2) Variation of L or C of a tank of a resonant circuit :

reverse biased semiconductor (i.e. diode) can be
used as a variable capacitor.

24
 5.3 Generation of FM Wave
1) Direct Generation Using VCO
Varactor Diode: capacitance
is changed by the m(t)

VCO circuit diagram

 5.3 Generation of FM Wave
2) Direct Generation using VCO

26
 5.3 Generation of FM Wave
2) Direct Generation using VCO

27
 5.3 Generation of FM Wave

2) Direct Generation using VCO

Also we can use variable inductor. It can be

achieved by winding two inductors in the same
core. Then controlling the inductance of the inner
inductor by injecting a current in the outer one.

28
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
In an FM signal the information resides in the instantaneous
frequency :
ωi = ωc + k f m ( t )

Method 1:
A network with a response linear to ω would be able to
detect the message signal.

Example : |H(ω)| = aω + b centered around the

carrier frequency in the FM band.

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 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave

|H(ω)| = aω + b

Method 2:

Direct
Differentiation
Method

Figure 5.12 (a) FM demodulator frequency response. (b) Output of a differentiator to the input FM wave.
(c) FM demodulation by direct differentiation. 30
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
FM signal is:

ϕ FM (t ) = A cos ω c t + k f 
t

 ∫−∞ m (α )dα


The differentiator output will be:

d d  
ϕ FM (t ) = {ϕ FM (t )} =  A cosω c t + k f
t
&
dt dt   ∫−∞ m (α )dα
 

ϕ& FM (t ) = − A ωc + k f m(t ) sin ωct + k f ∫ m(α )dα 

[ ]  t

 −∞ 

31
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave

The above expression shows that the output is

FM and AM modulated. See figure 5.12b. Since
ωc > kfm(t) all the time, an envelop detector can
be used to extract m(t) as shown in the previous
figure.

Problem: A must be a constant. If not (due to

channel noise, fading, …), it must be fixed before
demodulation.

Solution: Bandpass limiter

32
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
Bandpass limiter

33
 5.4. Demodulation of FM Wave
Input: distorted FM signal

Output of the hard limiter: A(t) >=0

Output of the bandpass filter:

34
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
Practical Frequency Demodulators

1. Differentiation
2. Slope detection
3. Ratio detector
4. Zero-crossing detectors
5. Phase-Locked Loop (PLL):

1. Differentiation: OPAMP differentiator can be used to

convert frequency variation to amplitude variation
that can be detected using a simple envelop detector.

35
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
2. Slope detection: Any tuned circuit which has a
linear segment of positive slope in the frequency
response under or above the resonance can be used
instead of the OPAMP differentiator.

Examples: high pass RC filter

1
tuned RLC filter: ωc < ωo =
LC

Limitation: narrow bandwidth.

 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
High pass RC filter.

Figure 5.13 (a) RC high-pass filter. (b) Segment of positive slope in amplitude response
j 2πfRC
H(f )= ≈ j 2πfRC if 2πfRC << 1
1 + j 2πfRC
Thus for small RC constants such that 2πfRC<<1 the RC filter approximates a
differentiator.
dφ FM (t )
φFM (t ) k0
dt Envelope Demodulated
H( f )=j2πfRC Signal
Detector
Φ FM ( f ) k0 jω Φ FM ( f )

k0 = RC and ω = 2π f
37
 5.4 Demodulation of FM Wave
3. Ratio detector: balanced demodulator. Not very
sensitive to the amplitude variation of the FM signal.
widely used in the past.

4. Zero-crossing detectors: frequency counter that

measures the instantaneous frequency by counting
the rate of zero-crossing.

5. Phase-Locked Loop (PLL): because of its low cost

and good performance, it is widely used in FM
receivers.

38
 5.6 Superheterodyne FM/AM
Receiver
[A+m(t)]cos(ωct) [A+m(t)]cos(ωIF t)
Or Or
Acos(ωct+Ψ(t)) Acos(wIF t+Ψ(t))

AM superheterodyne receiver: Intermediate frequency = 455kHz and enelope

detection is used.
monophonic FM receiver: Identical to the superheterodyne AM receiver
except that the intermediate frequency is 10.7MHz and envelope detector is
replaced by a PLL or a frequency discriminator.
39
 5.7 FM Broadcasting System
FCC assigned the following frequency bands for FM
broadcasting.
Frequency range: 88 to 108MHz
Separation: 200 kHz
Max. frequency deviation: 75 kHz
Old FM receivers are monophonic. (one signal m(t))
New FM receivers are stereophonic. (left and right
audio signals, i.e. two different microphones).
more natural effect.
FCC ruled that:
monophonic receivers must be able to receive
stereo FM signals.
Total transmission band for the stereo FM signal =
200kHz with ∆f = 75KHz.
40
 5.7 FM Broadcasting System
Left
Signal Composite
(Base band) Baseband
Signal

19kHz

Right
Signal
(Baseband)

Diagram for stereo FM transmitter

41
 5.7 FM Broadcasting System

Spectrum of a baseband stereo FM signal

42
5.7 FM Broadcasting System

FM stereo receiver

43
 4.8 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
• PLL is used to track the phase and frequency of the carrier
component of an incoming signal.

• Useful for synchronous demodulation of AM signals with

suppressed carrier (no pilot).

• Can be used for demodulation of angle-modulated signals

especially under low SNR conditions.

• Also has applications in clock recovery systems in

digital receivers.
 4.8 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
Three basic components:
1. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
2. Multiplier-works as the phase detector(PD) or phase comparator
3. Loop filter
 4.8 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
ωc is the free running frequency of VCO
Instantaneous frequency of the VCO :
ωVCO = ωc + ceo ( t ) where c is a constant
Further, considering the output of VCO
as Bcos[ωct+θo(t)]:
ωVCO = ωc + θ&o ( t )
Therefore θ&o ( t ) = ceo ( t ) (5.24)

c and B are constants of the PLL.

46
 4.8 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
Although in Figure (a), incoming frequency and the VCO
Output frequency are equal (ωc), the analysis is also valid
when they are different as shown below.
We assume the incoming signal (input to the PLL) be
Asin[ωct+θi(t)].
If the incoming signal happens to be
Asin[ωot+ѱ(t)],
it can still be expressed as Asin[ωct+θi(t)],
where θi(t)=(ωo-ωc)t+ ѱ(t).
Thus the analysis is not restricted to equal frequencies
of the incoming signal and the free-running VCO signal.
 4.8 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
The multiplier output is ABsin[ωct + θi(t)]cos[ωct + θo(t)]

=(1/2)AB (sin[θi(t) - θo(t)]+sin[2ωct + θi(t) + θo(t)]).

The sum frequency term is suppressed by the loop filter.

Hence the effective input to the loop filter is (1/2)AB sin[θi(t) - θo(t)].

If h(t) is the unit impulse response of the loop filter,

t
1
eo(t)=h(t)*(1/2) AB sin[θi(t) - θo(t)] = AB ∫ h ( t − x ) sin θi ( x ) − θ o ( x ) dx
2 0 t
Since θ&o ( t ) = ceo ( t ) , we have θ&o ( t ) = AK ∫ h ( t − x ) sin θ e ( x ) dx
0

where K=cB/2 and θe(t) is the phase error, defined by

θe(t) = θi(t) - θo(t).
These equations suggest the model in part (b) of the Figure 48
5.4 Demodulation of FM, PM Waves with
PLL
When the incoming FM signal is A sin[ωct + θi(t)],
t
θi ( t ) = k f ∫ m (α ) d α .
−∞
Hence, t
θo ( t ) = k f ∫ m (α ) d α − θ ( t )
−∞
e

and assuming a small error θe(t),

• kf
θ o (t ) ≈ k f m(t ) i.e., eo (t ) = m(t )
c
Thus, the PLL acts as an FM demodulator. If the incoming
1
signal is a PM wave, θi ( t ) = k p m ( t ) and o ( )
e t = k p m& ( t ) .
c
In this case the output of the PLL should be integrated to
obtain the message signal m(t).
49