Viet Nam National University Ho Chi Minh City

University of Science
Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications

Chapter 3:
Angle Modulation and Demodulation

Dang Le Khoa
Email: [email protected]
 Overview

⚫ Angle modulation
⚫ FM modulation
–Principle
–Signal spectrum
⚫ FM detection
– Frequency discriminator
– Phase-locked loop
 FM Basics
⚫ VHF (30M-300M) high-fidelity broadcast
⚫ Wideband FM, (FM TV), narrow band FM (two-way radio)
⚫ 1933 FM and angle modulation proposed by Armstrong, but
success by 1949.
⚫ Digital: Frequency Shift Key (FSK), Phase Shift Key (BPSK,
QPSK, 8PSK,…)
⚫ AM/FM: Transverse wave/Longitudinal wave
 Angle Modulation vs. AM
⚫ Summarize: properties of amplitude modulation
– Amplitude modulation is linear
just move to new frequency band, spectrum shape does not
change. No new frequencies generated.
– Spectrum: S(f) is a translated version of M(f)
– Bandwidth ≤ 2W
⚫ Properties of angle modulation
– They are nonlinear
spectrum shape does change, new frequencies generated.
– S(f) is not just a translated version of M(f)
– Bandwidth is usually much larger than 2W
 Angle Modulation Pro/Con Application
⚫ Why need angle modulation?
– Better noise reduction
– Improved system fidelity
⚫ Disadvantages
– Low bandwidth efficiency
– Complex implementations
⚫ Applications
– FM radio broadcast
– TV sound signal
– Two-way mobile radio
– Cellular radio
– Microwave and satellite communications
 Instantaneous Frequency
•Angle modulation has two forms
- Frequency modulation (FM): message is represented as the
variation of the instantaneous frequency of a carrier
- Phase modulation (PM): message is represented as the
variation of the instantaneous phase of a carrier

s(t ) = Ac cos i (t ) , 1 di (t )

fi (t ) =
where Ac : carrier amplitude, i (t ) : angle (phase) 2 dt

s(t ) = Ac cos  2 f ct +  (t ) 
where  (t ) is a function of message signal m(t ).
 Phase Modulation
⚫ PM (phase modulation) signal

s (t ) = Ac cos  2 f ct + k p m(t ) 
 (t ) = k p m(t ), k p : phase sensitivity
k p dm(t )
instantanous frequency fi (t ) = f c +
2 dt
 Frequency Modulation
⚫ FM (frequency modulation) signal
s(t ) = Ac cos  2 f ct + 2 k f 0 
t


m ( ) d 
k f : frequency sensitivity
instantanous frequency fi (t ) = f c + k f m(t )

angle i (t ) = 2  fi ( )d
t

0 (Assume zero initial phase)

= 2 f c t + 2 k f  m( ) d
t

0
 FM Characteristics
⚫ Characteristics of FM signals
– Zero-crossings are not regular
– Envelope is constant
– FM and PM signals are similar
Relations between FM and PM

 m( )d
t
FM of m(t )  PM of
0

dm(t )
PM of m(t )  FM of
dt
FM/PM Example (Time/Frequency)
 Frequency Modulation
⚫ FM (frequency modulation) signal
s(t ) = Ac cos  2 f ct + 2 k f 0 
t


m ( ) d 
k f : frequency sensitivity
instantanous frequency fi (t ) = f c + k f m(t )

angle i (t ) = 2  fi ( )d
t

0 (Assume zero initial phase)

= 2 f c t + 2 k f  m( ) d
t

m(t ) = Am cos(2 f mt ) fi = fc + k f Am cos(2 f mt )

 t

1 d 1 d  2 f ct  1 
d 2 k f 0 Am cos(2 f m ) d 
fi = = +
2 dt 2 dt 2 dt
1
= fc + 2 k f  Am cos(2 f m )  Let  =t
2
 Example
Consider m(t)- a square wave- as shown. The FM wave for this m(t) is
shown below. t
FM ( t ) = A cos(c t + k f  m(  )d ).
-
t
Assume m(t) starts at t = 0. For 0  t  T2 m(t) = 1 ,  m( )d = t and
0
T
t 2 t
for T
2
t T m(t) = - 1 ,  m( )d =  m( )d +  m( )d = T2 - (t - T2 ) = T - t.
T
0 0 2

The instantane ous frequency is i ( t ) = c + k f m( t ) = c + k f for 0  t  T2

and i ( t ) = c − k f for T2  t  T .
i max = c + k f and i min = c − k f

m(t)

0 T 2T t →

FM ( t )

t →
 Frequency Deviation
⚫ Frequency deviation Δf
– difference between the maximum instantaneous and carrier frequency
– Definition: f = k f Am = k f max | m(t ) |
– Relationship with instantaneous frequency

single-tone m(t ) case: f i = f c + f cos(2 f mt )

general case: f c − f  fi  f c + f
– Question: Is bandwidth of s(t) just 2Δf?
No, instantaneous frequency is not
equivalent to spectrum frequency
(with non-zero power)!

S(t) has ∞ spectrum frequency

(with non-zero power).
 Modulation Index
⚫ Indicate by how much the modulated variable (instantaneous
frequency) varies around its unmodulated level (message
frequency)
max | ka m(t ) |
AM (envelope): ,
A1
max | k f m(t ) |
FM (frequency):  =
fm
⚫ Bandwidth

a(t ) =  m( )d

t

−

 k 2f 2 k 2f 3 
 (t ) = Re( (t )) = Acos wct − k f a(t ) sin wct − a (t ) cos wct + a (t ) sin wct...
 2! 3! 
 Narrow Band Angle Modulation
Definition k f a (t )  1

Equation  (t ) = Acos wct − k f a(t ) sin wct 

Comparison with AM
Only phase difference of Pi/2
Frequency: similar
Time: AM: frequency constant
FM: amplitude constant

Conclusion: NBFM signal is

similar to AM signal
NBFM has also bandwidth
2W. (twice message signal
bandwidth)
Example
Block diagram of a method for generating a narrowband FM
signal.
 Wide Band FM
⚫ Wideband FM signal
m(t ) = Am cos(2 f mt )
s(t ) = Ac cos  2 f ct +  sin(2 f mt ) 
⚫ Fourier series representation

s(t ) = Ac J n (  ) cos  2 ( f c + nf m )t 
n =−

Ac
S( f ) = J n (  )  ( f − f c − nf m ) +  ( f + f c + nf m ) 
2 n =−

J n ( ) : n-th order Bessel function of the first kind

Example
 Bessel Function of First Kind

1. J n (  ) = (−1) n J − n (  )
2. If  is small, then J 0 (  )  1,

J1 (  )  ,
2
J n (  )  0 for all n  2

3. J
n =−
2
n ( ) = 1
 Bessel functions of the First Kind

Modulation Carrier Side freq pairs

index

 J0 J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6

0 1.00 - - - - - -
0.25 0.98 0.12 - - - - -
0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03 - - - -
1 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02 - - -
1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01 - -
2 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 - -
2.4 0 0.52 0.43 0.2 0.06 0.02 -

22
 Spectrum of WBFM
⚫ Spectrum when m(t) is single-tone

s(t ) = Ac cos  2 f ct +  sin(2 f mt )  = Ac J n (  ) cos  2 ( f c + nf m )t 
n =−

Ac
S( f ) = J n (  )  ( f − f c − nf m ) +  ( f + f c + nf m ) 
2 n =−

⚫ Example 2.2
 Bandwidth of FM
⚫ Facts
– FM has side frequencies extending to infinite frequency →
theoretically infinite bandwidth
– But side frequencies become negligibly small beyond a point
→ practically finite bandwidth
– FM signal bandwidth equals the required transmission
(channel) bandwidth
⚫ Bandwidth of FM signal is approximately by
– Carson’s Rule (which gives lower-bound)
 Carson’s Rule
⚫ Nearly all power lies within a bandwidth of
– For single-tone message signal with frequency fm

BT = 2f + 2 f m = 2( + 1) f m
– For general message signal m(t) with bandwidth (or highest
frequency) W

BT = 2f + 2W = 2( D + 1)W
f
where D = is deviation ratio (equivalent to  ),
W
f = max  k f m(t ) 
 FM Modulator and Demodulator
⚫ FM modulator
– Direct FM
– Indirect FM
⚫ FM demodulator
– Direct: use frequency discriminator (frequency-voltage
converter)
– Ratio detector
– Zero crossing detector
– Indirect: using PLL
⚫ Superheterodyne receiver
⚫ FM broadcasting
 FM Direct Modulator

⚫ Direct FM
– Carrier frequency is directly varied by the message through
voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
– VCO: output frequency changes linearly with input voltage
– A simple VCO: implemented by variable capacitor
– Capacitor Microphone FM generator
 FM Direct Modulator cont.
⚫ Direct method is simple, low cost, but lack of high stability &
accuracy, low power application, unstable at the carrier frequency
Capacitance changes with LC oscillator frequency:
the applied voltage: 1 1
fi (t ) = =
C (t ) = C0 + Cm(t ) 2 LC 2 LC0 + LCm(t )
1  C 
= 1 − m (t )  + O (t 2
)
2 LC0  2C0 
f 0 C
 f0 − m(t )
2C0
= f 0 − f m(t )
⚫ Modern VCOs are usually implemented as PLL IC
⚫ Why VCO generates FM signal?
 Indirect FM
⚫ Generate NBFM first, then NBFM is frequency multiplied for
targeted Δf.
⚫ Good for the requirement of stable carrier frequency
⚫ Commercial-level FM broadcasting equipment all use indirect
FM
⚫ A typical indirect FM implementation: Armstrong FM
⚫ Block diagram of indirect FM
 Indirect FM cont.
⚫ First, generate NBFM signal with a very small β1
v(t ) = Ac cos(2 f1t ) − 1 Ac sin(2 f1t )sin(2
m(t)  f mt )
 Indirect FM cont.
⚫ Then, apply frequency multiplier to magnify β
– Instantaneous frequency is multiplied by n
– So do carrier frequency, Δf, and β
– What about bandwidth?

fi right
= n fi left
 Analysis of Indirect FM

1. Input: v(t ) = Ac cos 2 f1t + 2 k f  m( )d  ,
t

 0 
max | k f m(t ) |
where fi (t ) = f1 + k f m(t ),  = 1
W
2. Nonlinear device outputs frequencies: nf1 + nk f m(t )
vo (t ) = a1v(t ) + a2v 2 (t ) + + anv n (t ) +

3. Bandpass filter select new carrier f c = nf1


s(t ) = Ac cos 2 nf1t + 2 nk f  m( )d 
t

 0 
max | nk f m(t ) |
where new fi (t ) = nf1 + nk f m(t ),  =
W
 Armstrong FM Modulator
⚫ Invented by E. Armstrong, an indirect FM
⚫ A popular implementation of commercial level FM
⚫ Parameter: message W=15 kHz, FM s(t): Δf=74.65 kHz.
⚫ Can you find the Δf at (a)-(d)?

Solution:
(a) f = 14.4 Hz. (b) f = 72  14.4 = 1.036 kHz.
(c) f = 1.036 kHz. (d) f = 72  1.036 = 74.65 kHz.
 FM Demodulator
⚫ Four primary methods
– Differentiator with envelope detector/Slope detector
FM to AM conversion
– Phase-shift discriminator/Ratio detector
Approximates the differentiator
– Zero-crossing detector
– Frequency feedback
Phase lock loops (PLL)
 FM Slope Demodulator
⚫ Principle: use slope detector (slope circuit) as frequency
discriminator, which implements frequency to voltage
conversion (FVC)
– Slope circuit: output voltage is proportional to the input frequency.
Example: filters, differentiator

freqency in s(t) voltage in x(t)

10 Hz j 20
20 Hz j 40
 FM Slope Demodulator cont.
⚫ Block diagram of direct method (slope detector = slope circuit +
envelope detector)

s(t ) = Ac cos 2 f ct + 2 k f  m( )d  , where fi (t ) = f c + k f m(t )

 t

 0 
Let the slope circuit be simply differentiator:

s1 (t ) = − Ac  2 f c + 2 k f m(t )  sin 2 f ct + 2 k f  m( )d 

 t

 0 
so (t )  − Ac  2 f c + 2 k f m(t ) 
so(t) linear with m(t)
Slope Detector

Magnitude frequency
response of
transformer BPF.
 Bandpass Limiter
⚫ A device that imposes hard limiting on a signal and contains a
filter that suppresses the unwanted products (harmonics) of the
limiting process.

⚫ Input Signal
vi (t ) = A(t ) cos  (t ) = A(t ) cos( wct + k f  m(a)da)
t

−

⚫ Output of bandpass limiter

4 1 1 
vo (t ) =  cos (t ) − cos 3 (t ) + cos 5 (t ) 
 3 5 
⚫ Bandpass filter
4
cos( wc t + k f  m(a)da )
t
eo (t ) =
 −
⚫ Remove the amplitude variations
 Ratio Detector
⚫ Foster-Seeley/phase shift discriminator
– uses a double-tuned transformer to convert the instantaneous frequency
variations of the FM input signal to instantaneous amplitude variations. These
amplitude variations are rectified to provide a DC output voltage which varies
in amplitude and polarity with the input signal frequency.
– Example

⚫ Ratio detector
– Modified Foster-Seeley discriminator, not response to AM, but 50%
Zero Crossing Detector
 FM Demodulator PLL
⚫ Phase-locked loop (PLL)
– A closed-loop feedback control circuit, make a signal in
fixed phase (and frequency) relation to a reference signal
Track frequency (or phase) variation of inputs
Or, change frequency (or phase) according to inputs
– PLL can be used for both FM modulator and demodulator
Just as Balanced Modulator IC can be used for most amplitude
modulations and demodulations
 PLL FM
⚫ Remember the following relations
– Si=Acos(wct+1(t)), Sv=Avcos(wct+c(t))
– Sp=0.5AAv[sin(2wct+1+c)+sin(1-c)]
– So=0.5AAvsin(1-c)=AAv(1-c)
 Superheterodyne Receiver
⚫ Radio receiver’s main function
– Demodulation → get message signal
– Carrier frequency tuning → select station
– Filtering → remove noise/interference
– Amplification → combat transmission power loss
⚫ Superheterodyne receiver
– Heterodyne: mixing two signals for new frequency
– Superheterodyne receiver: heterodyne RF signals with local tuner,
convert to common IF
– Invented by E. Armstrong in 1918.
 Advantage of superheterodyne receiver
⚫ A signal block (of circuit) can hardly achieve all: selectivity, signal
quality, and power amplification
⚫ Superheterodyne receiver deals them with different blocks
⚫ RF blocks: selectivity only
⚫ IF blocks: filter for high signal quality, and amplification, use circuits
that work in only a constant IF, not a large band
 FM Broadcasting
⚫ The frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact
multiple of 100 kHz from 87.5 to 108.5 MHz . In most of the
Americas and Caribbean only odd multiples are used.
⚫ fm=15KHz, f=75KHz, =5, B=2(fm+f)=180kHz
⚫ Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
– Random noise has a 'triangular' spectral distribution in an FM
system, with the effect that noise occurs predominantly at the
highest frequencies within the baseband. This can be offset, to a
limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission
and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver.
⚫ Block diagram and spectrum
⚫ Relation of stereo transmission and monophonic transmission
FM Stereo Multiplexing

Fc=19KHz.
(a) Multiplexer in
transmitter of FM stereo.
(b) Demultiplexer in
receiver of FM stereo.

Backward compatible
For non-stereo receiver