o Frost weathering / Cryofracturing (The

CONTENT
freeze-thaw cycle) :
I. WEATHERING AND EARTH’S HEAT o liquid water seeps into cracks -> freeze ->
expands (ice works as a wedge) -> slowly
II. MAGMA AND METAMORPHISM widens the crack -> splits the rock -> ice

III. PLATE TECTONICS (CRUSTAL DEFORMATION),

SEAFLOOR SPREADING, OCEAN BASIN
FORMATION

IV. TYPES OF STRESS THAT INFLUENCE ROCK

BEHAVIOR, CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY &
PLATE TECTONICS melts -> erosion which carries the tiny rock
fragments lost in the split.
V. STRATIFIED ROCKS, RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE
DATING

o Temperature changes can also contribute to

Weathering and Earth’s Heat mechanical weathering in a process called
thermal stress.
o Heat: rock expands; Cold: rock contracts
 Weathering – the breaking down or dissolving o Changes in temperature can cause the rock
of rocks and minerals on the surface of the to weaken and overtime to crumble.
Earth. Ex: Rocky desert landscapes are particularly
o Agents of weathering: Water, ice, vulnerable to thermal stress.
acids, salts, plants, animals, and
changes in temperature
 Once a rock has been broken down, a process 2.) Chemical Weathering – changes the molecular
called erosion transports the bits of rock and structure of rocks and soil.
mineral away.
o No rock can resist the forces of o Carbonation – carbon dioxide from the air or
soil sometimes combines with water. This
weathering and erosion. Together,
produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid,
these processes carved landmarks
which can dissolve rock (esp limestone)
such as the Grand Canyon,
when it seeps through. It can open up huge
o Weathering and erosion constantly cracks or hollow out vast networks of caves.
change the rocky landscape of Earth. Ex: Carlsbad Caverns National Park, in the
o The length of exposure often U.S.
contributes to how vulnerable a rock is
to weathering. o Karst - the surface rock is pockmarked with
holes, sinkholes, and caves.
2 processes of weathering Ex: Shilin, or the Stone Forest, near
Kunming, China.
o Iron containing rocks can turn into rust into a
process called oxidation. Rust is a
1.) Mechanical Weathering (physical weathering
compound created by the interaction of
and disaggregation) – causes rocks to crumble.
oxygen and iron in the presence of water. As
o Water – in solid (ice) or liquid form; key rust expands, it weakens rock and helps
agent of mechanical weathering. break it apart.

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

 Why is the Earth’s interior Hot?

● Convective transport of heat - within the earth's Metamorphism

liquid outer core and solid mantle
● Conductive transport of heat - through
nonconvecting boundary layers, such as the earth's - Metamorphism comes from the Greek: meta =
after, morph = form so it means “the after form”
plates at the surface.
- refers to the changes in mineral assemblage and
texture that result from subjecting a rock to conditions
such pressures, temperatures, and chemical
3 Main Sources of Heat inside the Earth environments different from those under which the
rock originally formed.
1.) Heat from when the planet formed and accreted,
which has not yet been lost  Metamorphic rocks - start off as igneous,
sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks.
2.) Frictional heating, caused by denser core material o When heat and pressure change the
sinking to the center of the planet; and environment of a rock, the crystals may
respond by rearranging their structure.
3.) Heat from the decay of radioactive elements. o Extreme pressure may also lead to the
formation of foliation, or flat layers in rocks
that form as the rocks are squeezed by
Magma and Metamorphism
pressure.
o Foliation - normally forms when pressure
 Magma – molten or semi-molten natural
was exerted on a rock from one direction.
material from which all igneous rocks are
formed.
o Much of the planet’s mantle consists of
magma.
o contain suspended crystals and gas
bubbles.
o The high temperatures and pressure
under Earth’s crust keep magma in
its fluid state.
o Lava - When magma flows or erupts
onto Earth’s surface,

3 basic types of magma

- Both the temperature and mineral content of magma

affect how easily it flows.

1.) Basaltic magma – high in iron, magnesium, and

calcium but low in potassium and sodium.
o Temperature: 1000oC to 1200oC (1832oF
to 2192oF).

2.) Andesitic magma - has moderate amounts of

these minerals
o Temperature: 800oC to 1000oC (1472oF to
1832oF).

3.) Rhyolitic magma - high in potassium and sodium

but low in iron, magnesium, and calcium.
o Temperature: 650oC to 800oC (1202oF to
1472oF).

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

 If pressure is exerted from all directions, then  Shock metamorphism (impact
the rock usually does not show foliation. metamorphism) –. When an extra-terrestrial
body, such as a meteorite or comet impacts
Types of Metamorphism
with the Earth or if there is a very large volcanic
explosion, ultrahigh pressures can be
 Contact metamorphism –.occurs adjacent to generated in the impacted rock.
igneous intrusions and results from high o These ultrahigh pressures can produce
temperatures associated with the igneous minerals that are only stable at very high
intrusion. pressure, such as the SiO2 polymorphs
o only a small area surrounding the intrusion is coesite and stishovite.
heated by the magma, metamorphism is o can produce textures known as shock
restricted to the zone surrounding the lamellae in mineral grains, and such
intrusion, called a metamorphic or contact textures as shatter cones in the impacted
aureole. rock

 Regional metamorphism –.occurs over large Plate tectonics, Seafloor spreading,

areas and generally does not show any
and Ocean basin formation
relationship to igneous bodies.
o accompanied by deformation under non-
 Seafloor spreading –. a geologic process in
hydrostatic or differential stress conditions.
which tectonic plates – large slabs of Earth's
o are strongly foliated, such as slates, schists,
lithosphere– split apart from each other.
and gniesses.
o Occurs at divergent plate
boundaries.
 Cataclastic metamorphism –. occurs as a
o As tectonic plates slowly move away
result of mechanical deformation, like when two
from each other, heat from the
bodies of rock slide past one another along a
mantle's convection currents makes
fault zone.
the crust more plastic and less dense.
o Heat is generated by the friction of sliding
The less-dense material rises, often
along such a shear zone, and the rocks
forming a mountain or elevated area of
tend to be mechanically deformed, being
the seafloor. Eventually, the crust
crushed and pulverized, due to the
cracks. Hot magma fueled by mantle
shearing.
convection bubbles up to fill these

 Hydrothermal metamorphism –. altered at

high temperatures and moderate pressures by
hydrothermal fluids
o Common in basaltic rocks that generally
lack hydrous minerals.
o Results in alteration to such Mg-Fe rich
hydrous minerals as talc, chlorite,
serpentine, actinolite, tremolite, zeolites,
and clay minerals.
o Ex: Rich ore deposits
fractures and spills onto the crust. This
 Burial metamorphism –. When sedimentary bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid
rocks are buried to depths of several seawater to form igneous rock. This
kilometers, temperatures greater than 300°C rock (basalt) becomes a new part of
may develop in the absence of differential Earth's crust.
stress. New minerals grow (Zeolites), but the
rock does not appear to be metamorphosed.

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

 Structural Features of Earth Movement

1.) Folds - A bend or flexure in a rock can be likened

to waves on the ocean.
o Anticline - The crust of a rock 4.) Faults - This refers to the surface along which a
o Syncline - the downfolds or trough of the rock body has been broken and has been displaced.
rock
Types of faults
o Symmetrical folds - when the limbs are
mirror images of each other  Thrust fault –. a low angle (45 or less) in which
o Asymmetrical folds – are said to be the hanging wall is moved upward in relation to
overturned if one limb is tilted beyond the the footwall.
vertical. o characterized by the horizontal compression
o Overturned folds (recumbent fold) (?) - rather than by vertical displacement
fold can also "lie on its side" so that a plane
extending through the axis of the fold would  Normal fault (Gravity fault) - a dip slip fault in
be horizontal. which the hanging wall moves downward
relative to the footwall.
2.) Domes and basins - Broad upwards in basement  Reverse fault - is the material above the fault
rock may deform the overlying cover of sedimentary
plane that moves up in relation to the material
strata and generate large folds.
below. It shows the surface area of the crust.
o Dome –
o Basins –
o Ocean basins - partially bounded by the
Types of stress that influence rock
continents, but they are interconnected behavior, Continental Drift Theory
which is why marine scientists refer to a & Plate Tectonics
single “world ocean.”
- The world ocean is divided into the North  Stress - the force applied to a rock and may
and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic, cause deformation.
Indian, and Arctic Oceans. o Where rocks deform plastically, they tend to
- Ocean basins are geomorphologically
fold. Brittle deformation brings about
distinct based on their stage of geological
fractures and faults.
evolution according to the Wilson cycle of
o 3 main types of stress are typical of the 3
young, mature, declining, and terminal
types of plate boundaries:
ocean basin types (Harris and MacMillan-
- COMPRESSION (Convergent)
Lawler).
- TENSION (Divergent)
- SHEAR (Transform)
3.) Joins and Fissures:
o Joint - is a fracture or a little separation
between the rock walls Types of Stress that influenced
o Fissures - cracks or actual gaps between rock behavior
the rock walls.
 Geologic stress - the force (from the pushing
and pulling of plates) that acts on the rocks
thereby creating different behavior or
characteristics.

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

1.) Confining stress - the crust o Continental drifts are
becomes compact, making it look caused by the spreading of
smaller. the seafloor. When
o can cause sinkholes where tectonic plates, also
the inside portion of the ground known as massive slabs of
has already disintegrated rocks, move, this causes
without being apparent. the landmasses, or continents,
o Stress equal from all to drift and move apart from
one another.
direction

2.) Compressional stress - rocks push Plate Tectonics

or squeeze against one another.
o is usually what takes place in
folding, which results in  Arthur Holmes (1890-1965) – as
mountain building. early as 1929, he suggested the
o The stress produced is directed toward the idea of Thermal Convection as the driving force
center. for the movement of the continents.

3.) Tensional stress - rocks are pulled apart.

o It is speculated that this type of stress is
what separated all the continents in the world
during the breaking away of the supergiant
continent called Pangea.

4.) Shear stress - The friction caused by this stress

can cause earthquakes.
o some of the portions of a plate at the edges
may break away in different directions,
eventually making the plate smaller in size.

Continental Drift Theory Thermal convection – as a

substance is heated,
its density decreases
 Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) – in 1912,
and rises to the
developed the concept and hypothesized the
surface until it is
continental drift theory.
cooled and then sinks
o He claimed that there used to be only one
again. The repeating
supergiant landmass (Pangaea). Over time,
process of heating
this continent broke apart into two huge land
and cooling may
masses moved away from each other.
produce a current
that’s strong enough to make the
o Wegener supported his theory with
continents move. The
references from past authors with similar broken pieces can be
ideas, such as Eduard Suess (1831-1914) carried by the same
who also recognized the existence of a currents to
supercontinent lithosphere.
o 2 giant continents (Triassic):
- Laurasia: present- day Northern o The lithosphere is
Hemisphere made up of several
- Gondwanaland (Gondwana): present-day
Southern Hemisphere.

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

 tectonic plates that glide over the away from the ridge as it spreads in both
mantle of the Earth. directions.

o Tectonic plates are composed of 3.) Transform boundaries - where the plates slide
oceanic lithosphere (ocean and past each other and neither plate gets subducted.
sea) and a thicker but less dense
lithosphere (land). Stratified Rocks, Relative and
Absolute Dating
Boundaries
 Stratified rocks - layers of rocks that
- The boundaries of the tectonic plates are the
compacted together.
areas where the highest hazards are. This is where
o Can be formed by either igneous,
the plates have the highest tension and therefore are
metamorphic or sedimentary but
exit points for energy release.
mostly sedimentary
because they undergo
weathering and erosion.
o Strata - have visible
bands of minerals this
band's run and lines that
resemble
Layering whether it is thick or thin
horizontally.
o Ex. Of stratified rocks:
- Basaltic layers, limestone layers,
quartzite layers

o In our prehistory,
archaeologist identifies
the age of fossils
o Ex. Philippines lies on the boundaries of the according to the buried time of them
Philippine plate for example how old they are.
 Stratification - it has different densities of two
THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF BOUNDARIES: rocks (and factors such as crustal movement
soil disturbance and water) and it arrange them
1.) Convergent (collisional) boundaries - where in layers.
plates meet.
o two tectonic plates move towards each
Steps of Stratification
other brought by mantle convection.
o Landforms created:
1.) Weathering - is breakdown of rocks by the help
- Trench formed from subduction.
of many elements such as wind, water, animals,
- Mountain range from subduction or plates
gravity, and heat.
crumples into each other and somehow
o can happen because of abrasion,
pushes upward or sideward.
when water freezes it, root action,
o where most of the destruction of crust takes
heat, etc.
place, specifically in the subduction zone.
2.) Erosion (transport) - After it
2.) Divergent Boundaries - where plates move away breaks down into smaller portion, it
from each other. combined with by elements, It moves
o Plates move apart because of the magma the rocks to other places usually and
o that is being pushed upward in boundaries of bodies of water.
the plates. When this happens, the slowly
moving plates transport newly formed crust

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

 o One of the reasons is because it
happens mostly in bodies of water  Principle of Original Horizontality –
because its below in the land. sedimentary rocks are deposited under the
o can happen also when rocks fall into action of gravity, in approximately horizontal
the ground when there is soil erosion layers, i.e. parallel to the surface to which they
because of gravity. deposit.
o Can be also impact from ocean.
 Principle of Superposition – in a regular
3.) Deposition - when the sediments broken-down sequence of layers, the oldest layer will be on
nto pieces of rocks goes on river beds, ocean floor the bottom of the sequence, while all the other
and other land masses, building up players. layers are successively more recent.

4.) Compaction - Over time the weight of sediments  Principle of Cross-cutting relationships – a
can press down and squeeze layers into smaller geological object (magmatic intrusion) cutting
spaces. other rocks must be younger of the two
o The deposited sediments will decrease, and features.
form together in one layer of sedimentary o the faults (cracks along which a shift of
rock. rocks from one side to the other is
o When the water in cement evaporates, visible) are younger than the rocks
minerals formed between particles, gluing they cut (fault).
them together. It can happen and be
together by means of water and also when  Paleontological Method (index fossils) –
the water is gone.

How to determine the age of a rock?

 Sedimentary rocks – only type of rock that

can preserve fossils.
 Stratigraphy – a branch in geology which
studies the chronology of events and changes
which have determined the development of
the Earth from when it became an
independent spatial body until today.
METHODS TO DETERMINE THE AGE OF
STRATIFIED ROCK:
based on the study and interpretation of animal
1.) Relative dating - method of arranging geological
and vegetal organisms’ evolution during
events based on the rock sequence.
geological history, and in order to determine the
2.) Absolute dating - method that gives an actual
relative age of a rock, the principle of
date of the rock or period of an event.
superposition is used as a starting point, as well
as fossil deposits preserved within a rock.
 Nicolas Steno – In the early mid-1600’s, a o Developed as part of palaeontology –
Danish scientist, he discovered that
science concerned with fossils.
sedimentary rocks settle based on their relative
weight or size in a fluid.
o Heaviest – settle first
DETERMINING THE ABSOLUTE AGE OF A ROCK
o Lightest – settle last (ABSOLUTE DATING)
o last. Any slight changes in the particle
size or composition may result in the  Absolute dating (radiometric dating) -
formation of layers called beds. method used to determine the age of rocks by
o Layering or bedding – distinct quality measuring its radioactive decay.
of sedimentary rocks
o Strata – the layered rocks.

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings

o A radioactive isotope in the rock
decays into a stable daughter isotope.
o The decay occurs at a predictable
rate, so the age of the sample could
be determined.
o The determination of absolute age of
rock is based on the radioactive decay
of isotopes.

o Radioactive elements emit α and β

particles, & γ rays, rays, thus causing
their mass to reduce over time, shifting
eventually to stabile isotopes.
o The final stabile product (isotope) can
be compared in quantity to the original
radioactive element.

Yashika Sei O. Tolentino STEM K - Kings