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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Pragmatics
Nowadays, pragmatics is one of the popular linguistics branches among the
people who want to study speaker meanings. Pragmatic scope reviews the speech
act of the speaker. Pragmatics itself is different from semantics that study the
meaning or sense of a sentence. Therefore, pragmatics now have been looked by
many researchers to be studied more deeply.
1. Definition of Pragmatics
Pragmatics is study on the meanings of utterances in relation to speech
situation (Leech, 1983: 6). It also gives understanding on what people said
mainly on implicit meaning. When the speaker said to the hearer they always
have other meaning in their utterances. The meaning can be different from the
literal meaning.
According to Yule (1996: 3), there are four areas that pragmatics is
concerned with :
1. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.
2. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
3. Pragmatics is the study of how to get communicated than is said.
4. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
From Yule's definition, pragmatics is concerned with the study of the
four aspects above. From the first aspect, it can be conclude that pragmatic is
concerned with speaker meaning. Afterward, context can influence the speaker
meaning especially on what people mean in a particular context. Then, it
concerns how listeners can make inferences about what is said in order to
arrive at an interpretation of the speaker's intended meaning. Then, the last is
concerned with relative distance and closeness. Meanwhile, Levinson (1983:9)
states that pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and
context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. It

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means that the relationship between language and context are relevant to the
use of grammars in the study of pragmatics.
According to Leech (1983:13), there are some aspects of speech
situation in communication dealing with pragmatics studies:
1. Addressers or addressees
Both of them refer to addressers and addresses, as a matter of convenience,
as s (‘speaker’) and h (‘hearer’).
2. The context of an utterance
Context has been understood in various ways, for example, to include
‘relevant aspects of the physical or social setting of an utterance. It also
considers the background knowledge that shared by s and h.
3. The goals of an utterance
The goal or function of an utterance is the intended meaning of speaker’s
utterance.
4. The utterance as a form of act or activity: a speech act
Pragmatics deals with verbal acts or performances which take place in
particular situations, in time (illocutionary act).
5. The utterance as a product of verbal act.
The utterances discussed in pragmatics can refer to the product of a verbal
act. For instance, the words "Would you please to get away from here?",
spoken with a polite rising intonation, might be described as a sentence, or
as a question, or a request.
According to Parker (1986: 11), pragmatics is distinct from grammar,
which is the study of the internal structure of language. Pragmatics is the study
of how language is used to communicate. It means that pragmatic is not like
grammar that study on the structure of language which is context independent
but pragmatic is more emphasizes on communication based on the context
dependent. Mey (1993) states that pragmatics is the study of utterance
meaning, the sentence which is used in communication and also the study of
meaning in language interaction between a speaker and hearer. It means that
pragmatics is the study understanding the meaning of utterance and sentence
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which are used in communication between the speaker and hearer. From the
definitions above, pragmatics is study on speaker meaning, between language
and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language
which is the study of the internal structure of language between the speaker
and hearer.
2. The Domains of Pragmatics
Pragmatics has some domains as a branch of linguistics. According to
Horn and Ward (2006), those domains are implicature, presupposition, speech
acts, reference, deixis, and definiteness and indefiniteness.
a. Implicature
Implicature is a component of speaker meaning that constitutes an
aspect of what is meant in a speaker’s utterance without being part of what
is said. What a speaker intends to communicate is characteristically far
richer than what she directly expresses; linguistic meaning radically
underdetermines the message conveyed and understood (Horn and Ward,
2006:1). For the example is when the speaker said “ a hamburger is a
hamburger”. The speaker means that she has no option, either good or bad
to express. Depending on the other aspect of context, additional
implicature (for the example, the speakers thinks all the hamburgers are
the same) might be inferred. That something must be more than just what
the words mean. It is an additional conveyed meaning, called an
implicature (Levinson, 1996: 35).
Grice in Brown (1983: 31) argues that conversational implicatures
is acquire from a general principle of conversation plus a number of
maxims which speakers will normally obey. General principle in the
statement is called cooperative principle. Based on Grice theory in Yule
(1983: 37), the cooperative principles are as follows:
1) Maxim of Quantity
It means that the speakers make their contribution as informative as
is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). The speaker
make their contribution more informative than is required.
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2) Maxim of Quality
It means that the speakers make their contribution one that is true.
The speaker doesn’t say what they believe to be false.
3) Maxim of Relation
It must be relevant with the condition.
4) Maxim of Manner
The characteristics of maxim of manner are being perspicuous,
avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be
orderly.
b. Presupposition
Yule (1983: 26) states that presupposition is pretended as a
relationship between two propositions. Keenan in Yule (1983: 177)
describes that pragmatic presuppositions as a relation between a speaker
and the appropriateness of a sentence in a context.
c. Speech acts
The theory of speech act is actually introduced by an Oxford
philosopher, J.L. Austin, in the late 1930s. Austin in Levinson (1983: 236)
states that there are three basic acts in saying utterances, locutionary act,
illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
d. Reference
Frege in Horn and Ward (2006: 76) states that reference is a kind
of verbal “pointing to” or “picking out” of a certain object or individual
that one wishes to say something about. According to McGinn in Horn
and Ward (2006: 76) “Reference is what relates words to the world of
objects on whose condition truth hinges.”
e. Deixis
Yule (1983: 9) states that deixis is a technical term (from Greek)
for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means 'pointing'
via language. Linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing' is called
a deictic expression. Just like when we as ‘What's that?, we are using
deictic expression (that) to indicate something in the immediate context.
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Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. These forms are
the first to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate
people via person deixis (me, you), or location via spatial deixis (here,
there), or time via temporal deixis (now, then). All these expressions
depend, for their interpretation, on the speaker and hearer sharing the same
context.
f. Definiteness and Indefiniteness.
According to Abbott in Horn and Ward (2006: 122) in English, the
prototypes of definiteness is for article the and indefinite is for article a/an,
and singular noun phrases (NPs) determined by them.
Implicature, presupposition, speech acts, reference, deixis, and
definiteness and indefiniteness are the domains of pragmatics. In this
research, the focus is on the speech acts mainly on the declarative. The
object of the research is the conversation that contains declarative
utterances.
B. Speech Acts
The first theory of speech acts is introduced by J.L. Austin, the Oxford
philosopher in his book “How to Do Things with Words” (1962: 94). Speech acts
is one of the domains in pragmatics, and it is dealing with action performed via
utterance by the speaker. Claiming, denying, making a request, offering something
are the examples of actions which performed via utterance.
1. Definition of Speech Acts
According to Yule (1996:47) speech act is a part of pragmatics that studies
about utterances as an action performed via utterances such as apology,
complaint, compliment, invitation, promise or request. It means that speech act
is an action performed via utterance uttered by the speaker, and the utterances
can be apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise or request. Austin
(1962) states that speech act is a theory of performative language in which to
say something is to do something. It means that speech acts is the theory which
is study in action via utterance. Meanwhile, according to Trask (2007:267),
speech acts is an attempt at doing something solely by speaking. It means that
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speech acts is happen by doing an act with speaking. Speech acts is the study
about utterances as an action performed via utterances
Austin in Horn and Ward (2006: 54-55) substituted a three-way contrast
among the kinds of acts that are performed when language is put to use, namely
the distinction between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. In
this case, there are three kinds of act in language namely; locutionary force,
illocutionary force, and perlocutionary force:
a. Locutionary acts
Sari (1998: 24) defines locutionary act is the act of simply uttering a
sentence from language. According to Austin in Horn and Howard (2006:
54), locutionary acts is acts of speaking, acts involved in the construction of
speech, such as uttering certain sounds or making certain marks, using
particular words and using them in conformity with the grammatical rules of
a particular language and with certain senses and certain references as
determined by the rules of the language from which they are drawn. It means
that locutionary acts is an act that involving the construction of the speech
just like uttering certain utterances same with the grammatical rules of a
particular language. Meanwhile, (Yule, 1996: 48) defines the locutionary act
is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression.
It means that locutionary act is the main utterance that have the literal
meaning of the sentence. Locutionary acts is the actual words uttered by the
speaker in communication.
b. Illocutionary acts
Coulthard (1985; 18) argues that illocutionary act is performed by
saying something, the act is identified by explicit performative. It means that
illocutionary act happens by performing in speaking from the speakers.
According to Austin in Horn and Howard (2006: 54), acts are done in
speaking (hence illocutionary), including and especially that sort of act that
is the apparent purpose for using a performative sentence: christening,
marrying, and so forth. In this case, illocutionary act happen in apparent
purpose when using a performative sentence. Meanwhile, Levinson (1983:
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236) says that illocutionary act is the making of statement, assertion, offer,
promise, etc., in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force
associated with it (or with its explicit performative paraphrase). It means that
illocutionary act happens when the speaker making of statement like
assertion, offer, promise, etc related with explicit performative paraphrase.
Illocutionary acts is an implicit meaning in the utterance that the speaker
uttered to the hearer.
c. Perlocutionary act
Sari (1998; 25) says perlocutionary act is the effect on hearer of what
the speaker says. It means that the utterances uttered by the speaker often
have an effect or influence on those who listen. The effect of knowing the
effect of this influence can occur due to intentional or unintentional by the
speaker.
According to Austin in Horn and Howard (2006: 55), perlocutionary act
is a consequence or by-product of speaking, whether intended or not.
Perlocutionary acts consist in the production of effects upon the thoughts,
feelings, or actions of the addressee(s), speaker, or other parties. In this case,
perlocutionary act is the effects of the speaker utterances to hearer.
Meanwhile, Van Dijk (1977: 198) says that perlocutionary act is the act
made to have an effect on the hearer as a consequence of the illocutionary
act. It means that perlocutionary act only in a case that the hearer is affected
by the speaker’s utterance and the hearer, then, changes his knowledge about
the man’s status. Perlocutionary acts is an effect of the utterance that uttered
by the speaker on the hearer.
The following examples will classify about an act performance in
language.
Example:
Locution (the utterance): I don’t have any money now.
Illocution (the meaning): The speaker asks hearer to borrow some money.
Perlocution (reaction): The hearer will lend the money to the speaker.
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From, the example above the researcher gives a brief explanation about how
to understand an act in pragmatics.
2. Direct and Indirect Speech acts
Yule (1996: 47) says, that when people express themselves, they don’t
produce sentences which contain grammatical structures and words, but they
perform actions via those sentences. These actions are explained by two types
of speech acts – direct and indirect.
a. Direct Speech Acts
Rahardi (2009: 18) states that direct speech acts are speech acts that
are expressed according to the sentence mode. In this case, direct speech
act reflects the conventional function of a sentence. Meanwhile, Searle (in
Cutting, 2002: 19) states that the speakers use direct speech act to
communicate the literal meaning that the words conventionally express;
there is a direct relationship between the form and the function
(declarative, imperative and interrogative). It means that direct speech act
happen when the form and the function have a direct relationship.
According to Yule (1983: 54-55), direct speech acts happens when there
is a direct relationship between a structure and a function. In this case,
direct speech act have the similar relationship between the structure and
the function of utterance. Direct speech act is an utterance that literal
meaning has the same direct relationship between the form and the
function.
Example:
It’s hot outside
I hereby tell you about the weather.
The utterance in (a) is declarative. When it used to make a statement,
as paraphrased in (b), it is functioning as a direct speech act.
b. Indirect Speech Acts
Parker (2009: 17) states that a speech act is to be indirect when
illocutionary pressure of a speech is not in accordance with its syntactic
form. In this case, indirect speech act happen when illocutionary force is
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not related with syntactic form. Meanwhile, Searle (in Cutting, 2002: 19)
also explains that someone who uses an indirect speech act wants to
communicate a different meaning from the apparent surface meaning; the
form and function are not directly related (statements, question,
command/request). It means that indirect speech act happen when the form
and the function doesn’t have direct relationship. According to Yule
(1983: 54), indirect speech acts happens when there is an indirect
relationship between a structure and a function. In this case, indirect
speech act doesn’t have the similar relationship between the structure and
the function of utterance. Indirect speech act is an utterance that has a
different meaning from the apparent surface (the form and function are not
directly related).
Example:
Do you have to stand in front of the TV?
You’re standing in front of the TV.
You’d make a better door than a window.
The interrogative structure in (a) is not being used only as a question,
hence it is an indirect speech act. The declarative structures in (b) and (c)
are also indirect requests.
3. Classification of Speech acts
Searle in Yule (1983: 53-54) classify speech acts into five types of general
functions. Those types are:
a. Declarations
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via
their utterance. In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via
words. The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific
context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately. Declarations
bring about the correspondence between the propositional content and
reality; eg resigning, dismissing, christening, naming, excommunicating,
appointing, sentencing, apologizing, blaming, etc. Here are the
explanations:
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1) Resigning
An expression used to declare resign. The speaker can commits to
declare something dealing with resigning.
Example : My position is terminated.
2) Dismissing
An expression used to assert deposing. The speaker can assert
deposing on the hearer.
Example: Now, you are fire from this job.
3) Christening
An expression used to declare baptizing. The speaker can declare
baptizing on the hearer.
Example: I baptize you being a christian from now.
4) Naming
An expression used to declare naming on the hearer or anything else.
The speaker can give naming to someone or anything else.
Example: Right now, I call you as my lil buddy.
5) Exocommunicating
An expression used to asert exocommunicating. The speaker can
assert exocommunicating on the hearer.
Example: No one will love you.
6) Appointing
An expression used to assert deciding. The speaker can assert
deciding on the hearer.
Example: I appoint you as the new manager of this company.
7) Sentencing
An expression used to declare verdicting on the hearer. The speaker
can declare verdicting.
Example: Jury Foreman: We find the defendant guilty.
8) Apologizing
An expression used to ask for an apologizing on the hearer. The
speaker can ask for an apologizing.
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Example: I apologize for stepping on your toe.

9) Blaming
An expression used to assert blaming. The speaker can assert
blaming on the hearer.
Example: You are the one who make it become complicated.
Searle (1979) states that some members of the class of declarations
overlap with members of the class of representatives. This is because in
certain institutional situations we not only ascertain the facts but we need
an authority to lay down a decision as to what the facts are after the fact-
finding procedure has been gone through. Representative and declarative
assessable in the word-to-world dimension and at the same time,
representative have the force of declarations. The existence of this class
may be called as “Representative declarations”. This kind of speech act
are used by the speaker to tell the truth of the expressed propostion: eg
stating, suggesting, boasting, complaining, claiming, reporting, warning,
rejecting, insisting, informing, etc. Here are the explanations:
1) Stating
An expression used to assert something such as beliefs and
viewpoints on the hearer.
Example: I hereby fry an egg.
2) Suggesting
An expression used to give suggestion on the hearer.
Example: If I was you, I will do the best for my test.
3) Boasting
An expression used to assert boasting. The speaker can assert
boasting on the hearer.
Example: I have travel around the world in one day.
4) Complaining
An expression used to complain dealing with beliefs and
perspectives from the speaker.
Example: I dont’t enjoy having conversations with you.
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5) Claimming
An expression used to assert claiming on something. The speaker
can assert claiming on the hearer.
Example: I have four kittens in my home.
6) Reporting
An expression used to report in certain circumstances on the hearer.
Example: There will be 250 students who visit the museum today.
7) Warning
An expression used to warn and give prohibition in certain
circumstances. The speaker can warn and give prohibition on the hearer.
Example: I warn you stay away from my wife!
8) Rejecting
An expression used to reject or refuse on someone’s beliefs and
perspectives.
Example: I don’t want to read romantic story this morning.
9) Insisting
An expression used to insist or deny on someone’s beliefs and
perspectives.
Example: I’m not a murderer.
10) Informing
An expression used to inform a fact or information about something.
The speaker can inform a fact or information on the hearer.
Example: I will come at 09.00 PM on your party tonight.
From above, it can be concluded that the function of representative
speech act can be used as the goal of declarative utterances uttered by the
speakers at the certain time and context.
b. Representatives
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the
speaker believes to be the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions,
conclusions, and description.
Example: It was a cold rainy day.
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In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief).
c. Expressives
Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker
feels. It express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure,
pain, likes, dislikes joy, or sorrow. It can be caused by something the
speaker does or the hearer does, but it’s about the speaker’s experience.
Example: Oh, yes, great,mmmmmm, shhh!
Thank you!
In using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling).
d. Directives
Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get
someone else to do something. It express what the speaker wants, it can
be orders, requests, suggestions, and they can be positive or negative.
Example: Don’t touch the lamp.
Could you give me a cup of hot water,please?
In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words
(via the hearer).
e. Commissives
Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speaker use to
commit themselves to some future action. It expresses what the speaker
intends. It can be promises, threats, refusal, pledges, and it can be
performed by the speaker alone, or by the speaker as a member of a group.
Example: I will back tomorrow.
We will not come to the meeting.
In using a commisive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the
words (via the speaker).
4. Pragmatic Force
Each utterance has its own meaning according to the context of the
situation. It means that utterance meaning is also depending on context. When
the speaker uttered utterance it has more than one meaning. To find the right
meaning in each utterance the speaker must understand how to conduct his
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illocutionary force appropriately so, the the hearer can catch the meaning
easily. According to Cutting (2002: 16) illocutionary force means,’what is done
in uttering the words’, the function of the words, the specific purpose that the
speaker have in mind. In this case, force and meaning is quite similar, so it is
not easy to distinguish both the meaning and force. But the one distinction that
may help is that meaning is used in notion of locution, while force is used in
the notion of illocution. For the example “I don’t have any money” literally
means a statement. On the other hands, the force may indicate that the speaker
want to borrow some money from his friends. This example give clear
difference between meaning and force. Therefore, illocutionary force can be
called as pragmatic force. Meanwhile, according to Leech (1993: 23)
pragmatic force is formed by illocutionary force and rhetorical force together.
Rhetorical force is the meaning of speech seen from the adherence of the
speaker on rhetorical principles (eg the extent to which the speaker speaks the
right, speaks politely, or ironic). Illocutionary force as the function of the
utterances and the rhetorical force as the effective use of language in
communication. Rhetoric refers to the speech situation in communication.
It means that pragmatic force is the combination between the goal/function in
speaker performance and the speech situation in communication.
C. Declarative Utterance
According to Searle in Yule (1983: 53), declarations are those kinds of speech
acts that change the world via their utterance, the speaker has to have a special
institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration
appropriately. It means that declarative is kinds of speech acts that equals with
illocutionary force. Meanwhile, according to Hindun (2012: 6), declarative speech
acts is kinds of speech that relate the content of utterances with reality. The content
of the delarative speech is to inform information. It means that declarative is kind
of speech acts that informing information related with reality. Cruse (2000: 337)
states that declarative structure may express a wide range of illocutionary force. For
example, the sentence “He’s not coming” can be used to simply inform someone,
but also to ask whether it is true (with a proper intonation), or it would be meant as
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a threat. Declarative commits the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition,
and thus belong to the same family of illocutionary meaning as assert, state, declare,
claim, etc. Cruse concludes that commonly declarative sentence is formed in
statement. It means that the meaning of declarative utterance is different with literal
meaning.
For examples:
(1) You are fire (Richard and Jack, 130: 1980)
This utterance meaning is the hearer must start to search for a new position.
This utterance is saying by the boss to the employer.
(2) Your food seems delicious.
This utterance meaning is the hearer shares his food to his friends. This
utterance is saying by the student to their friends.
In conclusion, declarative utterance is an act that changes the world via their
utterance which has the same family of illocutionary meaning as assert, state,
declare, claim, etc. that relates the content of utterances with reality.
D. Context
According to Sperber & Wilson (2001: 39) context is a set of assumptions
acquired from the communicator's cognitive environment, including not only the
co-text of an utterance but also the contextual factors such as the immediate
physical environment, the participants' background knowledge like all the known
facts, assumptions, beliefs, and cognitive abilities. It means that context is also
contained a physical environment, the participants' background knowledge,
assumptions, beliefs, and cognitive abilities that the speaker have. Meanwhile,
Sinclair, et at. (2000: 353) states that context consists of the ideas, situations, events,
or information that relate to it and make it possible to understand it fully. It means
that the combination of ideas, situations, events, and information that related will
help the speaker to find the context of communication. According to Leech (1983)
explains that context is one component in a speech situation. Context is interpreted
as aspects related to the physical and social environment of a speech. In this
definition also added that the context is a background knowledge shared by
speakers and context will help the hearer interpret or understand the intent of the
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speaker. It means that context is the background knowledge that shared by the
speakers.
Cutting (2002: 3) classify three types of context in communication:
a. The situational context; what speakers know about what they can see
around them.
b. The background knowledge context; what they (speaker and hearer) now
about each other and the world.
c. The co-textual context; what speakers know about what they have been in
saying.
Hymes in Wardhaugh (2006) proposes context into several factors. Hymes uses
the word SPEAKING as an acronym for the various factors he deems to be relevant.
These factors are:
a. The Setting and Scene (S)
Setting refers to the time and place, i.e., the concrete physical
circumstances in which speech takes place. Scene refers to the abstract
psychological setting or the cultural definition of the occasion.
b. The Participants (P)
Participants include various combinations of speaker-listener, addressor–
addressee, or sender-receiver. A two-person conversation involves a speaker
and hearer whose roles change; a ‘dressing down' involves a speaker and
hearer with no role change; a political speech involves an addressor and
addressees (the audience), and a telephone message involves a sender and a
receiver.
c. Ends (E)
Ends refers to the conventionally recognized and expected outcomes of an
exchange as well as to the personal goals that participants seek to finish on
particular occasions. The example is from the moment in the shoe store
between the buyer and the seller. When the buyer asks for the size of the shoes
to the seller, then the seller gives a confirmation about the size of shoes in the
store to the buyer. The goal of this conversations is to clarify whether the shoe
store has the appropriate size that the buyer asks or not.
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d. Act sequence (A)

Act sequence refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the
precise words used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to
the actual topic at hand. Public lectures, casual conversations, and cocktail
party chatter are all different forms of speaking; with each go different kinds
of language and things talked about.
e. Instrumentalities (I)
This refers to the choice of channel, e.g., oral, written, or telegraphic, and
to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code, or
register that is chosen.
f. Norms of interaction and interpretation (N)
This refers to the specific behaviors and properties that attach to speaking
and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them,
e.g., loudness, silence, gaze return, and so on.
g. Genre (G)
Refers to clearly demarcated types of utterance; such things as poems,
proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lectures, and editorials.
In conclusion context is a set of ideas, situations, events, or information in a
speech situation, and help the speaker interpret or understand the intent of the
speaker which include the setting & scene, the participants, ends, act sequence,
instrumentalities, norms of interaction & interpretation, and genre.
E. Human Communication
Communication is the primary necessity that needed by humans. Every human
being communicates to fulfill the needs of information and socialization. Human as
social beings, they cannot escape from communicating with other people. By
communicating the existence of human as social beings will be easier to be
recognized in the community.
1. Definition of Communication
According to Anderson (1959: 78) communication is a process where we can
understand and can be understood by others. In this case, communication is a
process where we understand people and other people understand us. Meanwhile,
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Syaiful Rohim (2009: 8) states that communication is the center of interest and
behavior situation where a source conveys a message to a recipient by trying to
influence the behavior of the recipient. It means that communication is a
condition when information transferred to recipient by affecting recipient’s
perspective. Arni Muhammad (2011: 4) states that a process by which verbal and
nonverbal symbols are sent, received and given meaning is called as
communication. In this case, communication is happen when people keep
sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols to others. Communication
is a process where a source conveys a message to a recipient by trying to
influence the behavior of the recipient, received and given meaning.
2. Characteristics of Communication
Adler & Rodman (2006: 4) reveal some important characteristics of
communication as follows :
a. Communication is human
Communication is done by human.
b. Communication is a process
Communication is a continuous,ongoing process.
c. Communication is symbolic
Symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas, or events in ways that
make communication possible.
3. Types of Communication
Adler & Rodman (2006: 6-8) state that inside the domain of human
interaction, there are several types of communication. Each occurs in a different
context. Despite the features that all share, each has its own characteristics.
a. Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication can be means as "communicating with
oneself." The speaker can tune in to one way that each of us communicates
internally by listening to the little voice that lives in your mind.
b. Dyadic/Interpersonal Communication
Social scientists name two persons interacting is a dyad, and they often
use the term dyadic communication to explaine this type of communication.
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Dyads are the most common communication setting. The study revealed that
college students spend almost half of their total communication time
interacting with one other person.
c. Small Group Communication
In small group communication, every person can participate actively with
the other members. Small groups are a common feature of everyday life. A
family is a small group. So are an athletic team, a collection of fellow workers,
and a group of students working on a class project.
d. Public Communication
Public communication occurs when a group becomes too large for all
members to contribute. One characteristic of public communication is an
unequal amount of speaking. One or more people are likely to deliver their
remarks to the remaining members, who act as an audience.
e. Mass Communication
Mass communication consists of messages that are transmitted to large,
widespread audiences via electronic and print media: newspaper, magazine,
television, radio, and so on.
4. Function of Communication
There are four main functions of communication according to Robbins and
Coulter (2007: 20) as follows:
a. Control
Communication acts to control member behavior in various ways. Every
organization has authority, hierarchies, guidelines, and regulations that
employees are required to follow, for instance, employees know how to
communicate their grievances, know which procedures to use to enjoy certain
amenities or privileges and structures laid on how to process various requests.
b. Motivation
Communication encourages motivation by explaining to employees what
needs to be done, how well they do it, and what can be done to improve
performance if it is not aligned.
c. Emotional Expression
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Communication that occurs in groups is a fundamental mechanism by

which members share frustration and feelings of satisfaction. Communication
provides a channel for feelings for emotional expression and for meeting social
needs.
d. Information
Individuals and groups need information to get things done in the
organization. Communication provides that information.
F. FILM
Films have been applied almost in daily life especially in the use of learning
and entertainment media. The use of film media in learning provides a new and
pleasant atmosphere for students. Film can present material about a process or event
of the past with a place, actor, and a certain atmosphere that can be presented in the
classroom (Sobandi, 2008: 92).
In addition, many people that use film as media to reduce their stress of work.
Film has many features that attract people to pay attention, that features is like
images, animation, sounds, and moral value. From this, we can know that film can
be an effective media to entertain people. Usually, film delivers the message of film
marker to people. According to Darojah (2011: 92) film is a series of images with
the illusion of motion, so that it looks alive in a frame projected through a projector
and produced mechanically so that it can be seen and heard. It means that film is an
image series displayed by a projector that can be seen and heard by people.
Meanwhile, Sherman (2003: 46) states that films are a shift from the conventional
and offer students realistic learning environments. In this case, film is a media that
provide learning environments for students.
Raimukti (2013: 92) states that film is used to fulfill a general need, like
communicating an idea, message or reality. It means that film has function to
communicating an idea, message or reality to people. Film is a series of images with
the illusion of motion, from the conventional and offer students realistic learning
environments, used to fulfill a general need, like communicating an idea, message
or reality.
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According to Imanto (2007: 25) are several types of films circulating in the
market with various criteria and rules. Some types of films have their own goals
and functions including:
a. Documentary Films
Documentary films present reality in various ways and are made for
various purposes. But it must be admitted, that documentary film cannot be
separated from its purpose and function as a film that disseminates
information, education, and propaganda to certain people or groups. Today
documentary films become a distinct trend in world cinema. Documentary
filmmakers can experiment and learn many things when involved in the
production process of a documentary. A company that decides to produce
documentary films also makes satisfactory profits, for example,
documentary films aired by several world television stations including
National Geographic, Animal Planet, and Discovery Channel which are
strong at broadcasting documentary films on issues of nature and culture
and technology.
b. Short Films
Short story films usually has a duration of 60 minutes. In certain groups,
short story films are used to experiment and a beginning way to
understanding everything about the film world before the group makes a
long story film. The type of short story films is often carried out by students
majoring in film or people/groups who like the world of film as a training
stage.
c. Feature-Length Films
Long story films are films that are screened in cinemas, this film is a
public consumption film that serves as a public entertainment or spectacle.
These types of films have a duration of 60 minutes and above, generally
lasting around 100-120 minutes. American films are the type of this film.
d. Corporate Profile
This type of film is produced for certain purposes such as introducing a
particular company to be disseminated to the public.
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e. TV Commercial
This type of film is produced with functions for the sake of
disseminating information, both about a product (Product Advertising) and
public services (Public Service Ads). Product advertisements usually
display a product that is advertised explicitly, meaning that there is an audio-
visual stimulus that explains the product directly. Whereas public service
advertisements inform producers' concerns about the occurrence of social
phenomena that are raised as advertising topics so that the appearance of the
product is implicitly implied.
f. Television Program Film (TV Program)
This type of film is a television program and it is usually produced by
the television station itself. In general, television programs are divided into
two types, namely film stories and non-story films.
g. Movie Video Clip
Film Video Clip is a type of film used by music producers to market
their products through television media. This type is usually of short
duration based on the length of the song.
G. Synopsis of The Film “Mona Lisa Smile”
"Mona Lisa Smile" is one of educational film that carry the theme of art history
and how woman perspective seen by the world especially on the effort of achieving
high education. This film is about an open minded college professor in the 1950s
who motivates all of her female students to insist the conformities placed upon them
and make something special of their lives.
In the Fall of 1953, Katherine Watson (Julia Roberts) moves from her Los
Angeles came to New England to teach art history at Wellesley, a prestigious
women's university. Planning on instructing the future leaders of the country,
Katherine is given a rude awakening when she discovers that her students are using
their further education as nothing more than a bridge to marriage and having a
family.
In this post-war era, nothing more is expected of women, and in the case of
uptight student Betty Warren (Kirsten Dunst), who is about to be married to a
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lawyer (Jordan Bridges), she is happy to follow such a path. Katherine's other
students include brainy Joan Brandwyn (Julia Stiles), who is confuse to choose
between her engagement to Tommy (Topher Grace) and a chance to study law at
Yale, promiscuous Giselle Levy (Maggie Gyllenhaal), who is like to approach with
Professor Bill Dunbar (Dominic West) and several other men, and the chubby
Constance Baker (Ginnifer Goodwin), who has begun to believe she is destined to
become an unhappy spinster. It was difficult case that Katherine must face in order
to get these young women to realize they have the ability to go further in their life,
but it is one that she believes is worth fighting for.
The classroom scenes are fascinating and convincing, particularly one in which
a fed-up Katherine presents them with a slideshow of demeaning advertisements
that give women the impression that they are useful for nothing but cooking and
cleaning, but there are far too few of them. Katherine as Julia Roberts being a
mysterious woman that no one know her thinking on her perspective. She seems to
have one aim to inspire her students while fighting the system laid upon women in
the 1950s but in being so set in her own ways she being more rigid than open-
minded. This film also take some romantic scene in the main character life and
there are are two romantic subplots, one with long-distance boyfriend Paul (John
Slattery) and another with Bill, that hold neither conviction nor heat and go
nowhere. In the world of "Mona Lisa Smile," all of the male characters are, in fact,
lunkheads.
It is a testament to the abilities of the younger cast members that they retain
poise and dignity in the face of such commonplace roles. Kirsten Dunst is delicious
fun as the outwardly snotty Betty, who isn't so much a bitch as she is an angry
product of the teachings of her traditional mother. Dunst nicely injects Betty with a
level of humanity that likely wasn't apparent in the screenplay, but her amazing 180
degree turnaround at the end feels like more of a necessity to formula than a natural
progression. Julia Stiles is playing as the intelligent Joan, who wants a career but
would rather have a family unfortunately. Maggie Gyllenhaal brings acidic wit and
an undercurrent of hurt to the resident slut, Giselle, but there is obviously something
much darker and serious going on with her character than the film has the courage
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to face. And newcomer Ginnifer Goodwin has some good moments as the low self-
esteemed Constance.
The most sad and interesting character, not to mention the only one who isn't a
stereotype, belongs to the wonderful Marcia Gay Harden, who brings a shattering
reality to her part as Nancy. A spinster and fellow Wellesley professor Katherine
rooms with, Nancy has unhappily come to terms with being alone for the rest of her
life. In a moving, understated late scene, Katherine tries to persuade Nancy to go
out for a night on the town, but her attempt is lost on a woman who would rather
stay home and watch a game show on television.
"Mona Lisa Smile" is very old-fashioned names and the plot seems
irrelevant to today's times. Sure, as viewers, we can watch it and be thankful that
things have been better for women, but it doesn't really hold much insight into the
topic. The rushed ending, which leaves story threads hanging in the balance in order
to have a tidy, would-be heartwarming final scene, seals the deal. "Mona Lisa
Smile" is a motion picture that strives to be important and gain respect, but is
without the sharp intelligence and backbone to achieve such a feat.
H. Review of Related Studies
A study of Pragmatic Force has ever been done by Eko Widianto Entitled
“Analysis on Pragmatic Force of Declarative Utterance in Film Entitled “Avatar”.
The results shows that the context of an utterance determines the conduction of
meaning from speaker to hearer. Every word, phrase, and sentence uttered have
different context. When a sentence is uttered in different places or or in different
times, it will bring different meaning. Next, this research also shows that the
declarative utterances produced by Jake Sully in film entitled “Avatar” have their
own context; situation, participants, ends, act sequence, key, instrumentalities,
norms, and genre. The hearer’s response of Jake Sully’s declarative utterances are
any and varied. The responses are not only organized as word, phrase, or sentence,
but some responses are formed in acts and some other do not give any response.
The pragmatic force of declarative utterance in film entitled “Avatar” reflected the
function of the utterance, there 14 kinds of force in this research; suggesting,
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appointing, reporting, requesting, claiming, thanking, complaining, apologizing,

confirming, blaming, ordering, advising, and sentencing.
Another research was done by Nina Setyowati entitled “An Analysis on
Pragmatic Force of Representative Utterances in Film “Pirates of The Caribbean:
The Curse of The Black Pearl, and Its Implication on Language Teaching”. The
research shows that the context of every utterance gives a great influence toward
the speaker’s meaning. From the data analysis the research concludes that context
is not merely focusing on where and when an utterance produced but also includes
the participant(s), the goal, the tone or the loudness in which the utterance is uttered,
the type of speech communication and also the topic. It has different situation, time,
and participants. Next, this research also shows that there are three forms of
representative utterances that are employed in “Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse
of the Black Pearl”. namely 66.6% of declaratives, 16.7% imperatives. Most
representative utterances are produced is in the form of declarative. The characters
use representative utterances in various occasions. But all representative utterances
used to represent the speaker’s belief. Its represent the speaker’s beliefs about the
truth of the case. From the 30 representative utterances uttered by the characters,
there are 11 kinds of force; informing (10%), warning (10%), suggesting (10%),
rejecting (10%), assuring (13.3%), guessing (6.7%), asserting (10%), reminding
(6.7%), denying (13.3%), insisting (3.3%), challenging (3.3%), and expecting
(3.3%). There are various kinds of force in representative utterances uttered by the
characters. The most dominant force are assuring and informing while the other
kinds or force contribute in almost the same percentage (warning, suggesting,
rejecting, assuring, guessing, asserting, reminding, denying, insisting, challenging,
and expecting).