Basic

Instruments

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Ground School Manuals

Basic Instruments

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© FTEJerez. Flight Training Europe
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iBook version 2.0 October 2019

Author/s: Howard Jones.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, including screen (still or video) capturing, printing, photocopying,
recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other
noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher,
at [email protected].

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Chapter 1

Pitot-Static Systems

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Chapter 1 | Section 1

The International Standard Atmosphere

The basic performance requirements of an aircraft very much depend on the level of thrust or power
developed by the engines and the amount of lift produced by the main aerofoil surfaces. The amount of
thrust and lift totally depend on the atmosphere in which they are operating, the parameters of the

1.1 atmosphere which determine the development of thrust and lift force are pressure, density, temperature and
humidity. We will take a closer look at these parameters a little later on. In order to identify to the pilot that

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the aircraft lift is sufficient to support the weight in flight, the pilot flies the aircraft at a specific target airspeed

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for each phase of flight.

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Vertical separation from other aircraft and the ground is of paramount importance. All aircraft make use of

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pressure instruments to measure important parameters such as altitude and airspeed. In modern medium to

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large aircraft, the pressure instrument readings are obtained from an Air Data Computer. Standby instruments
are normally provided in case of failure of the computer and these are quite similar to the pressure

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instruments you will find on light aircraft, the type you will pilot during training.

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1. The International Standard Atmosphere [ISA]
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The environment in which an aircraft operates is the real atmosphere. Our atmosphere varies in temperature,
pressure, density and humidity from place to place on the earth's surface and above the earth's surface. In
fact, the changes are so great that there are few common atmospheric conditions.

This makes measurement of aircraft performance and performance related indicators very difficult. To
overcome this problem, the International Civil Aviation Authority [ICAO] developed the International
Standard Atmosphere [ISA].

Chapter 1 | Section 1 | Page 3

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The International Standard Atmosphere is a theoretical For example, close to the surface, atmospheric pressure reduces
atmosphere where pressure, temperature and density are defined. by approximately 1 hPa for every 30 ft increase in height but, at
This stated set of conditions allows us to calibrate instruments high altitudes between 40,000 and 45,000 ft, pressure reduces by
and measure performance against a strict standard, a known approximately 1 hPa for every 125 ft increase in height. An
reference. alternative to hPa is inches of mercury (in hg), 1013.25 = 29.92 in
hg.
The ISA becomes the common basis for all aircraft pressure
instrumentation. However, as ISA conditions are unlikely to exist This non-linear change of pressure with height is recognised by
in reality, we must make corrections for those conditions that are the International Standard Atmosphere and is therefore
different from ISA. considered in the calibration of pressure instruments.

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Standards set by ICAO for ISA conditions include: Errors nevertheless arise in pressure altimeters because small

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pressure changes at high altitudes are difficult to measure

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Atmospheric pressure at Sea Level is 1013.25 hPa.

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accurately. The major source of error however is non-standard
conditions (atmospheric conditions that are different to those

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Temperature at Sea Level is +15°C.
assumed in the calibration of the instruments).

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Air temperature decreases at 1.98°C/1000'.

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Temperature decreases to -56.5°C at 36,089' then remains between 950 and 1040 hPa, instead of 1013 hPa. Temperature at
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constant.
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sea level may be between – 40ºC and more than + 40ºC, instead
When studying the atmosphere, we must understand that the of 15ºC. Temperature may remain constant or even increase with
atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of air existing increase in height, instead of decreasing at 1.98ºC/1000 ft and
above. As air is compressible, the density of the air is greater near pressure may reduce at a faster or slower rate than it would in ISA
the earth’s surface and reduces with height. conditions.

Pressure also reduces with height as less air exists above. The The errors that these variations produce will be considered as
reduction of pressure with increase in height is non-linear each pressure instrument is studied in turn.
because of the variation in density.

Chapter 1 | Section 1 | Page 4

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Light aircraft usually have the following pressure instruments:

The pressure altimeter

The airspeed indicator (ASI)

The vertical speed indicator (VSI)

These instruments make use of Pitot and Static pressure.

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Figure 1.1 Instrument Position in the Warrior

Chapter 1 | Section 1 | Page 5

Chapter 1 | Section 2

Pitot-Static Systems

2. Pitot-Static Systems
2.1. Static Pressure
1.2

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Static pressure is exerted at all times by the atmosphere and is not due to any

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motion. At sea level in ISA conditions, this pressure is 1013 hPa (14.7 psi, 29.92

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in.Hg).

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The static pressure acts in all directions at all times with exactly the same force in

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each direction.

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Every part inside and outside of an aircraft is subject to static pressure. As static

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pressure decreases with height, a measure of static pressure is a measure of
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height.
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To sense static pressure, static vents or ports are normally located on the side of
the aircraft fuselage. The vent or port is then connected to the pressure
instruments by light alloy piping.

In order to balance the static pressure under all flight conditions each vent/port are
connected across the fuselage.

Chapter 1 | Section 2 | Page 6

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The pressure exerted due to aircraft motion is dynamic pressure.

The pressure existing in the Pitot tube is the sum of the static and
dynamic pressures and is called total pressure.

Pitot = Static + Dynamic

Aircraft often use separate Pitot and Static sensors however, an

alternative sensor is available in the form of a Combined Pitot -
Static Head.

The forward facing orifice senses pitot pressure and the vents or

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ports at ninety degrees to the airflow sense static pressure. The

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static ports are connected across the fuselage to ensure

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Figure 1.2 Static Vent/Port
balanced sensing under all flight conditions.

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2.2. Pitot Pressure

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Pitot pressure is the total pressure sensed in a forward facing

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open tube called the Pitot tube, normally located under the main
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wing or on the forward part of the fuselage.
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Note that the sensing tube is positioned on a mounting stand

away from the aircraft skin; this is to ensure the sensing of the
free stream air takes place and not the retarded flow of the
fuselage boundary layer.

At zero forward velocity Static pressure exists in the Pitot tube,

but as the aircraft moves through the air it experiences an
additional pressure on all of its leading edges and inside the Figure 1.3 Combined Pitot-Static Head
tube due to aircraft motion.

Chapter 1 | Section 2 | Page 7

Chapter 1 | Section 3

Pitot-Static System Errors (Pressure Error)

3. Pitot-Static System Errors (Pressure Error)

3.1. Position Error
1.3

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Figure 1.4 Position Error

It is an impossible task to locate the sensors of the Pitot - Static system in a

position that would be free from any disturbances during all flight conditions. The
three dimensional flow surrounding the aircraft, when slightly disturbed, will lead to
errors causing inaccurate sensing of pitot and or static pressures. Small errors are
induced by the positioning of the pitot head or static vent and further errors will
vary with the angle at which the sensor interacts with the airflow. The size of the

Chapter 1 | Section 3 | Page 8

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

error will vary with angle of attack, airspeed, Mach number and impossible to remove. The major concern is that the moisture or
possibly configuration. The error described is known as position precipitation that enter the sensors and tubing of the system can
error. either freeze or collect and disturb the air pressure being sensed.

The pressure instruments are all subject to position error Particularly when aircraft are on the ground, maybe parked for
any considerable time, a few hours, the pitot – static sensors and
3.2. Manoeuvre-Induced Error tubing are irresistible resting places for blowing dust, dirt, sand
and small insects. Any build up of these natural fugitives could
Manoeuvre Induced error, the other component part of pitot-static
cause major problems with the pressure instruments.
system errors (pressure error), result from the disturbance of the

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airflow past the Pitot tube or static vent during and shortly after In order to minimize the effects of the above dangers the system

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manoeuvres. The disturbances can cause errors in all the normally incorporates the following designs and procedures.

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pressure dependent instruments which may be large,

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Static and Pitot lines usually incorporate a water drain.

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unpredictable but of short duration.

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Pitot heads are fitted with an electric heating element as an anti -
icing device to reduce the risk of blockage should icing occur.

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The heating element has no adverse affect on the sensed

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Light aircraft have a selectable alternate static source, normally in

the cabin, in case the main static system becomes blocked.

Figure 1.5 Airflow around a Warrior Larger pressurised aircraft have an alternate source continuously
operating, supplying standby pressure instruments. Also
3.3. Pitot- Static System Design incorporated are several pitot-static sources for redundancy,
positioned each side of the forward section of the fuselage. Each
The Pitot-Static system sensors feed the pressure instruments static source is connected across the fuselage to reduce errors
with the air pressure they sense however, the sensed air will also due to side-slip or yaw.
contain small particles of dust, dirt and moisture which are

Chapter 1 | Section 3 | Page 9

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Covers and plugs are used to prevent entry of unwanted visitors

when the aircraft is stationary on the ground. All covers and plugs
are fitted with large red and white warning flags with the clear
instructions of, “Remove before Flight”. It is the pilot’s
responsibility to ensure they are removed.

3.4. Pre-flight serviceability Checks of the Pitot -

Static System
Ensure the Pitot cover and static vent plugs are removed and

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stowed on board the aircraft, check head alignment, security
and condition.

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The Pitot tube and static vents should be checked free from
obvious obstructions

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Ensure the Pitot heater is operative

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Altitude ft Pressure millibars/hpa
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Pressure in hg
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0 1013.25 29.92 Figure 1.6 A Basic Pitot-Static System in a light aircraft
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1,000 977.17 28.85

5,000 843.00 24.90
10,000 696.81 20.58
15,000 571.82 16.88
20,000 465.63 13.75
25,000 376.00 11.10
30,000 300.89 8.88
35,000 238.42 7.04
40,000 187.54 5.54
Table 1.1 Altitude against Pressure

Chapter 1 | Section 3 | Page 10

Chapter 1 | Section 4

Pitot – Static System Blocks and Leaks

4. Pitot – Static System Blocks and Leaks

4.1. Blockage
1.4

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It is possible that the Pitot – Static system could become blocked, fully or partially,

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by either ice, debris such as grit or sand and even insects. Consideration of the

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effects of a blockage is essential as this type of problem could lead to a dangerous

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situation. Aircraft with multiple pitot – static systems are unlikely, although not
impossible, to have all systems affected at anyone time, therefore identification of

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a blockage may be easier to determine. Blockages on aircraft with a single pitot -

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static system may be more difficult to determine. Recall the pitot – static system

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feeds other systems such as stall and high speed warnings, with a system
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blockage this could lead to erroneous warnings being created by these systems,
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making it much more difficult to identify the fault.

A blockage of the Pitot system is only going to affect the ASI and Machmeter
where as a blockage of the static system will affect all pressure instruments. A full
blockage of any system will trap the pressure in the system at the instance the
blockage occurred. The exception being a blockage of the pitot system between
the pitot mast orifice and the drain hole, if fitted, this particular problem will allow
the pitot pressure to dissipate via the drain hole, causing the ASI and Machmeter
to effectively read zero.

Chapter 1 | Section 4 | Page 11

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Any partial blockage is likely to cause fluctuations in the pressure

instrument readings and certainly lead to a large lag error. See
tables 1.2 and 1.3 for a summary of the effects of pitot – static
system blockages.

4.2. Leaks
It is possible for the light alloy piping network of the pitot – static
system to fracture or become detached from bulkhead
mountings, these type of faults depend upon where the leak

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occurs and whether the aircraft is pressurised or not.

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A static leak in an un-pressurised aircraft or the un-pressurised

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zone of a pressurised aircraft may go undetected as the static Table 1.2 Pitot System Blocks and Leaks Summary
system would effectively be measuring atmospheric pressure.

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A static leak in a pressurised zone would mean the static system

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is sensing cabin pressure, see table 1.3 for a summary of the
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effects.
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A pitot leak in any un-pressurised zone would mean the system

is sensing atmospheric pressure and the ASI and Machmeter
would read zero.

A pitot leak in a pressurised zone would mean sensing of cabin

pressure rather than total pressure would result in an under read
of the ASI and Machmeter.

Table 1.3 Static System Blocks and Leaks Summary

Chapter 1 | Section 4 | Page 12

Chapter 1 | Section 5

Summary

5. Summary
ISA conditions allows us to calibrate instruments and measure performance

1.5 against a strict standard.

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Standards set by ICAO for ISA conditions include:

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Atmospheric pressure at Sea Level is 1013.25 hPa.

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Temperature at Sea Level is +15°C.

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Density at Sea Level is 1.225 Kg/m³.

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es Air temperature decreases at 1.98°C/1000'.
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Temperature decreases to -56.5°C at 36,089' then remains constant.

5.1. Static Pressure

Static pressure is exerted at all times by the atmosphere. As static pressure
decreases with height, a measure of static pressure is a measure of height. To
sense static pressure, static vents or ports are normally located on the side of the
aircraft fuselage.

Chapter 1 | Section 5 | Page 13

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

In order to balance the static pressure under all flight conditions

each vent/port are connected across the fuselage.

5.2. Pitot Pressure

Pitot pressure is the total pressure sensed in a forward facing
open tube called the Pitot tube, normally located under the main
wing or on the forward part of the fuselage.

Combined Pitot/Static Head has a forward facing orifice sensing

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pitot pressure and the vents or ports at ninety degrees to the

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airflow sense static pressure.

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5.3. Pitot - Static System Errors (Pressure Error)

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Position Error is due to the location of the pitot – static sensors

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and varies due to changes is angle of attack or airspeed

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Manoeuvre-Induced Error are disturbances that can cause errors
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in all the pressure dependent instruments which may be large,
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unpredictable but of short duration

Pitot – Static System Design include drains, heaters, covers and

plugs, all to minimise the risk of blockages.

Chapter 1 | Section 5 | Page 14

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 1

1. Consider a combined pitot head. During an acceleration, 3. If during a descent the pitot head became blocked by ice,
incorrect …………… may be sensed, resulting in the ASI would …… and the VSI would …….
significant errors to the following instruments……………:
ASI VSI
a. Ps Altimeter, ASI, VSI and Machmeter
a. underread gradually return to zero
b. Pt Altimeter, ASI, VSI and Machmeter.
b. overread underread
c. Ps Altimeter and VSI
c. show reducing readings read correctly

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d. Pt ASI and Machmeter

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d. underread overread

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2. The interconnection of independent static vents on each

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4. A pitot head is used to measure:
side of the fuselage is designed to:

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a. dynamic pressure
a. overcome problems resulting from the blockage of one or

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b. dynamic minus static pressure
other of the static vents.

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b. make provision for comparator circuits which alert the pilot in
d. total minus static pressure
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the event of malfunction.
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c. minimise dynamic pressure effects.

5. Manoeuvre induced error is:
d. facilitate the selection of an alternative static source.
a. caused by pressure changes at static vents and lag
b. likely to be greatest when yawing after engine failure
c. combined with instrument and position on a correction card
d. only significant at high altitude

Chapter 1 | Section 6 | Page 15

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 1

1. If during a climb the static vent became blocked, the ASI 3. If a major leak occurs in the static line within the
would …………… and the Machmeter would ……………. pressurised hull of an aircraft, the altimeter will show:
ASI MACHMETER a. the difference between cabin altitude and aircraft altitude
a. underread underread b. the sum of cabin altitude and aircraft altitude
b. overread overread c. cabin altitude
c. overread underread d. an altitude slightly higher than the actual altitude of the

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d. underread overread aircraft.

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2. The static vent of an aircraft in level flight becomes 4. Due to a heater failure, the pitot tube feeding the

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blocked and the alternate static source is selected. This captain's instruments becomes blocked with ice during

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selection causes the VSI to show a descent for a short the climb. The co-pilot's instruments are not affected and

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time but then the reading returns to zero. The ASI and so the climb at M.78 is continued on the right hand

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altimeter are dependent on the same alternate static es instrument. What will the captain's machmeter read
source and will indicate: during the climb?
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ASI ALTIMETER a. It will continue to read correctly because the static system
remains serviceable and the altitude capsule still works
a. an increase in speed a decrease in altitude
b. It will increasingly underread
b. a decrease in speed an increase in altitude
c. The readings will steadily increase
c. an increase in speed an increase in altitude
d. The reading will fall to zero because the source of dynamic
d. a decrease in speed a decrease in altitude
pressure has been shut off.

Chapter 1 | Section 7 | Page 16

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 1

5. An aircraft maintaining a constant flight level and TAS 3. Which of the following would be the most likely result of a
enters colder air. How will static, pitot and dynamic be blocked static vent?
affected?
A zero reading on the :
Static Pitot Dynamic a. Altimeter
a. increase increase increase b. Airspeed Indicator
b. constant constant increase c. Vertical Speed Indicator

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c. constant increase increase

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d. Machmeter

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d. increase constant increase

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4. Which pressure instrument is most likely to be affected by
6. What change of temperature would result in: turbulent conditions during go-around?

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i) an increase in true altitude when flying at a constant a. Altimeter

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flight level?

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b. Airspeed Indicator
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ii) an increase in TAS when flying at a constant flight level c. Vertical Speed Indicator
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and CAS?
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d. Machmeter
a. increase increase
b. increase decrease
c. decrease increase
d. decrease decrease

Chapter 1 | Section 7 | Page 17

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 1
7. Where an alternate static source is fitted, use of this
5. An alternative static source is selected which, because of
source is likely to lead to:
its location inside the aircraft, results in static pressure
that is lower than ambient pressure around the aircraft. a. an increase in position error
How will the Altimeter, VSI and ASI readings be affected? b. a decrease in position error
Altimeter VSI ASI c. no change in position error

a. under-read temporary descent not affected d. the elimination of position error

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b. over-read temporary climb over-read

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c. over-read temporary descent not affected 8. If the static line to the ASI became blocked during a

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descent, a dangerous situation could arise as the ASI is
d. under-read temporary climb over-read

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likely to:

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a. overread with the indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft
6. An aircraft climbing at constant CAS will have Machmeter

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to be further from the stall than it really is.
readings that ……. below the tropopause and ………above

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the tropopause. es b. underread with the indicated speed falsely showing the
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a. decrease remain constant aircraft to be closer to the stall than it really is.
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b. increase remain constant c. underread with the indicated speed possibly leading to the

c. increase decrease operation of flaps and/or landing gear at speeds in excess of

d. increase continue to increase safety speeds.

d. overread with the indicated speed possibly leading to the
operation of flaps and/or landing gear at speeds in excess of
safety speeds

Chapter 1 | Section 7 | Page 18

Chapter 2

Pressure Altimeter

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Chapter 2 | Section 1

Simple Pressure Altimeter

Altitude is defined as the vertical distance measured above sea level. Measurement
of altitude is of vital importance for the following reasons; terrain avoidance; aircraft
separation and as a performance indicator. Modern radar and optical sensors can

2.1 be used to measure height (vertical distance above ground level), however these
sensors are heavy and costly. Using the fact that static pressure decreases with

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height, an indication of height or altitude is generated for all aircraft. This method is

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not perfect as some corrections need to be made.

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1. Simple Pressure Altimeter

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When studying the design of the altimeter it is useful to consider firstly the

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barometer which is a pressure measuring device. A barometer responds to

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changes in the earth's atmospheric pressure (static) to indicate the high and low
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pressures as local climatic conditions change.
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The sensing device in a barometer is a sealed aneroid capsule which is made of

metal and is designed to be flexible. It is partially evacuated and prevented from
collapsing by a spring. This sealed capsule will respond to any change in
atmospheric pressure by expanding or contracting.

Note. A barometer senses pressure at a fixed elevation and is calibrated in hectopascals (hPa).

Figure 2.1 Simple Pressure Altimeter An altimeter is very similar to an aneroid barometer. The pressure sensing element
is a partially evacuated metal capsule placed in an instrument casing which is
completely sealed and connected to the static system. An altimeter with a single

Chapter 2 | Section 1 | Page 20

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

sensing aneroid capsule is known as the Simple Altimeter. As the At sea level with the correct QNH set, the altimeter should
aircraft climbs and descends, the static pressure acting on the indicate zero feet.
capsule varies resulting in expansion and contraction of the
An improvement on the single capsule Simple Altimeter is the
capsule which, when relayed by the mechanism, causes a
multi capsule Sensitive Altimeter, the multiple capsules amplify
change in the indication of height.
the expansion and contraction giving it greater sensitivity.
The altimeter is fitted with a knob that allows the pilot to set a
Note. A temperature-compensated D spring or leaf spring corrects for the
datum pressure (reference pressure) on a subscale. The reference
effects of variation in cockpit or flight-deck temperature on the mechanism
datum usually used is mean sea level (msl), which is achieved by of the altimeter.
setting the QNH on the subscale.

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Figure 2.2 Cutaway of a Sensitive Pressure Altimeter

Chapter 2 | Section 1 | Page 21

Chapter 2 | Section 2

Altimeter Settings Procedures

2. Altimeter Settings Procedures (The Q-Codes)

These procedures describe the method for providing adequate vertical separation between aircraft and for

2.2 providing adequate terrain clearance during all phases of a flight. This method is based on the following

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basic principles:

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States may specify a fixed altitude known as the transition altitude. In flight, when an aircraft is at or below

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the transition altitude, its vertical position is expressed in terms of altitude, which is determined from an
altimeter set to sea level pressure (QNH).

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In flight above the transition altitude, the vertical position of an aircraft is expressed in terms of flight levels,

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which are surfaces of constant atmospheric pressure based on an altimeter setting of 1 013.2 hPa.
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The change in reference from altitude to flight levels, and vice versa, is made:
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at the transition altitude, when climbing; and

at the transition level, when descending.

The transition level may be nearly coincident with the transition altitude to maximize the number of flight
levels available.

Alternatively, the transition level may be located 300 m (1000 ft) above the transition altitude to permit the
transition altitude and the transition level to be used concurrently in cruising flight, with vertical separation
ensured.

Chapter 2 | Section 2 | Page 22

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The airspace between the transition level and the transition

altitude is called the transition layer.

Where no transition altitude has been established for the area,

aircraft in the en-route phase shall be flown at a flight level.

The adequacy of terrain clearance during any phase of a flight

may be maintained in any of several ways, depending upon the
facilities available in a particular area.

The recommended methods in the order of preference are:

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the use of current QNH reports from an adequate network of QNH

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reporting stations; the use of such QNH reports as are available,

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combined with other meteorological information such as forecast

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lowest mean sea level pressure for the route or portions thereof;
Figure 2.3 Q Code Definitions
and where relevant current information is not available, the use of

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values of the lowest altitudes or flight levels, derived from

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climatological data. specified altimeter setting region (ASR). It is valid for one hour,
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changes on the hour and is available one hour before it
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QFE. The pressure observed at a specific location (e.g. airfield) becomes valid.
corrected to a given datum point. The altimeter will read 0ft at
the datum point or height of aircraft above the airfield with QFE SPS. The Standard Pressure Setting is 1013mb on the sub-
set. scale and is used by all aircraft flying at medium and high
levels. This is to avoid collision. The reading on the altimeter
QNH. QFE changed to MSL pressure using ISA conditions will be the level above the datum of 1013hpa and is known as
(pressure lapse rates). If set when the aircraft is stationary on the flight level. The last two zeroes are removed e.g. 10,000ft
the airfield the altimeter will read the airfield elevation. If flying above 1013hpa = FL100
above the airfield the altimeter will read the aircraft altitude
(above MSL).

Chapter 2 | Section 2 | Page 23

Chapter 2 | Section 3

Summary of the Pressure Altimeter

3. Summary of the Pressure Altimeter

It measures static pressure.

2.3

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It indicates vertical distance in feet from a selected datum

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Altitude (above mean sea level) on QNH

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Height (above AD elevation) on QFE

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Flight level (pressure height) above 1013 hPa level

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Capsule movement is magnified by gears and levers to position pointers. The

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The altimeter is calibrated to read correctly in ISA conditions
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Chapter 2 | Section 3 | Page 24

Chapter 2 | Section 4

Accuracy

4. Accuracy
A typical mechanical pressure altimeter of the sensitive type will be accurate in ISA

2.4 conditions to:

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±50 feet at sea level

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±175 feet at 10,000 feet

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±600 feet at 40,000 feet

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It should be noted that all pressure altimeters are much less accurate at high

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altitude. This is because at high altitude, the pressure change equivalent to a given
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height change is much less than it would be at low altitude.
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Since friction and other mechanical imperfections within the instrument remain
constant, the altimeter becomes less responsive, less accurate and more
susceptible to lag as altitude increases.

Under JAR 25.1325, the inaccuracy in the pressure altimeter at sea-level in the
standard atmosphere must not exceed ±30 feet per 100 knots of airspeed.

Chapter 2 | Section 4 | Page 25

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

4.1. Causes of Error in Altimeter Readings mountainous areas, pressure in the lee of mountains is reduced
causing the altimeter to indicate a higher than true altitude.
Barometric Error. This is the error induced in an altimeter when While an over-reading altimeter is already a dangerous
atmospheric pressure at sea level differs from ISA. The correct situation, the danger is compounded for light aircraft. When
setting of the barometric subscale (QNH) minimizes the error travelling into wind on the lee-side of a mountain, the over-
reading altimeter may delay pilot recognition of the problem
Temperature Error. This the error induced in an altimeter when and down drafts may exceed the climb capability of the aircraft.
the temperature differs from ISA. There is no adjustment
available and this error will need consideration if the pressure Blockages. If a blockage of the static system occurs the
altimeter is used for terrain clearance altimeter will not indicate any further change of height, i.e. the
altimeter will continue to indicate the altitude at which the

m
Pressure Error. This error occurs because of static system

co
blockage occurred. A partial blockage will cause significant lag
errors related to airflow sampling. It is affected by the position in the altimeter.

l.
ai
of the static pressure sensors. Errors vary with speed and

gm
attitude and include position and manoeuvre induced errors Note: Errors caused by blockages are usually corrected by selecting
alternate static ON, if alternate static is available.

i@
Instrument Error. These errors are due to small manufacturing
4.2. The Effect of Barometric Error

ag
imperfections and the large mechanical amplification necessary

c
for small sensed movements. Instrument error increases with
es
altitude as the capsule movement is small (pressure change for
vi
a given height at altitude is less than the change at sea level).
ja

Lag Error. The response of the capsule and linkage is not

instantaneous and so the altimeter reading lags when height is
increased or decreased rapidly. This is dangerous during a
rapid descent when the altimeter will over-read due to lag. Lag
errors are reduced in some altimeters by fitting vibration
devices that overcome friction in the linkage.

Orographic Error. The pressure altimeter is subject to error

related to pressure variation when flight is in the vicinity of high
ground. Because of the mechanical effects of strong winds in Figure 2.4 The Effect of Barometric Error

Chapter 2 | Section 4 | Page 26

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

If flying from a high to a low pressure area on a constant altimeter

setting, the altimeter will over-read. In the illustration below, the
indicated altitude is greater than the true altitude. Conversely
when flying from a low to a high pressure area, the altimeter will
under-read.

In Figure 2.4:

The aircraft has flown from A to B with the sub-scale set to

1030 hPa

m
At B the 1030 hPa datum is approximately 600 ft (20 hPa × 30

co
ft) below sea level

l.
ai
gm
Therefore, the aircraft which has maintained an indicated
altitude of 3000 ft during the flight from A is only 2400 ft above

i@
sea level on arrival overhead B

cag
Barometric error is reduced by regularly resetting the sub-scale to
es
the current QNH that is the value of pressure at mean sea level.
vi
This value is provided by air traffic service units in the form of an
ja

Area or Regional QNH. The value may be provided for a large

area and cannot be considered to be accurate.

Furthermore there may be significant differences in pressure

between adjacent Area (Regional) QNH zones and this means if
the new QNH is not set a large error can occur. It should be noted
that a 1hPa inaccuracy in sub-scale setting will cause
approximately a 30 ft error in altimeter reading.

Chapter 2 | Section 4 | Page 27

Chapter 2 | Section 5

The Effect of Temperature Error

5. The Effect of Temperature Error

Temperature error, like barometric error, arises whenever the atmospheric

2.5 conditions differ from those assumed by the standard atmosphere. If the mean

m
temperature in the column of air below the aircraft does not coincide with the ISA

co
model, the indicated height will be incorrect.

l.
ai
gm
Temperature affects air density and so affects the pressure lapse rate. The result is
that the pressure at a given level in a column of cold air is less than the pressure at

i@
the same level in a column of warm air. The altimeter therefore over-reads when

ag
the temperature conditions are colder than ISA and under-reads when

c
temperatures are warmer than ISA.
es
vi
ja

Figure 2.5 Temperature Error

Chapter 2 | Section 5 | Page 28

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

In the diagram opposite, the aircraft is flying with an indicated against pressure altitude and the computer determines whether
altitude of 14 000 feet but observe that the true height is lower in the temperature is warmer or colder than ISA.
colder air and higher in warmer air.
Step 1: Locate the ALTITUDE window, taking care not to
Temperature is the most significant error of the altimeter and is confuse it with the AIR SPEED window which is to the right. In
commonly as much as 500 feet in 10000 feet. the window, set the temperature against the altitude where that
temperature has been measured.
Temperature error is zero at the pressure datum and increases
with increase in height. Step 2: Using the main scales of the computer, read TRUE
ALTITUDE on the outside scale over INDICATED ALTITUDE on
Temperature error has little effect on the clearance between the inner scale. Note indicated altitude is the altitude reading

m
with the QNH (mean sea level pressure) correctly set.

co
aircraft flying at different flight levels. A flight level is a constant

l.
pressure level, based on the standard pressure setting of

ai
Example:
1013hPa. It is not a constant altitude and so continues to be

gm
shown correctly. An aircraft maintaining an indicated altitude of 5000 feet obtains

i@
an outside air temperature of -25ºC. Assuming that the QNH has
Both exceptionally high temperatures (eg. Seville in summer) and

ag
been correctly set, what is the true altitude of the aircraft?
exceptionally low temperatures (eg. Moscow in winter) will

c
es
significantly affect the accuracy of the pressure altimeter during Note that the answer (4470 feet) is lower than indicated altitude,
vi
the approach to land. Pilots need to be aware of this problem. as expected on a cold day.
ja

5.1. Correcting for Temperature Error (on the Alternatively, the approximate error can be calculated using the
formula:
CRP5 Navigation Computer)
Temperature Error = 4 feet per ℃ of deviation per 1000 feet
Temperature error depends on deviation i.e. the difference
between today’s temperature and the temperature found in ISA at In the above example, the error using this formula is:
the known pressure altitude. With the navigation computer we do
not need to calculate deviation, we simply set temperature 4 × − 30 × 5 = − 600feet

Chapter 2 | Section 5 | Page 29

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

5.2. Aircraft Operations Manual Altimetry Corrections

Although temperature error can be calculated using the above guidance it is normal to provide tabulated guidance from the Aircraft
Operations Manual. When temperature is LESS than ISA an aircraft will be LOWER than the altimeter reading. Table values should be
ADDED to published/calculated altitudes or heights.

The error corrections in the table are properly a function of deviation from ISA, but for simplicity the aerodrome temperature may safely be
used for aerodromes up to 1000ft above sea level. (This will include virtually all UK aerodromes). At higher aerodromes the ISA deviation
should be used. The temperature at ISA is + 15ºC minus 2ºC per 1000ft above sea level. The ISA deviation is the ambient temperature
minus the temperature at ISA. (eg an airfield 2500ft above sea level at -30ºC has ISA deviation of -30 – (+10) = -40).

m
co
When the aerodrome temperature is 0ºC or colder,

l.
temperature error correction must be added to: Aerodrome Aerodrome HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN OR HEIGHT ABOVE

ai
AERODROME IN FEET

gm
Temperature Sea ISA Deviation
DH/DA or MDH/MDA. Level A/Ds Cº Cº

i@
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
Pilots may refuse IFR assigned altitudes if

ag
0 -15 20 20 20 40 40 40 40 60 60 100
altimeter temperature error will reduce obstacle

c
clearance below acceptable minima. However, es -10 -25 20 40 40 60 60 80 80 100 100 160
once an assigned altitude has been accepted, it
vi
-20 -35 20 40 60 80 80 100 120 120 140 220
ja

must not subsequently be adjusted to

compensate for temperature error. -30 -45 40 60 80 100 100 120 140 160 180 280

When the aerodrome temperature is -30ºC or -40 -55 40 60 80 100 140 160 180 200 220 340
colder, add 1000ft to the MSA to ensure obstacle -50 -65 60 80 100 140 160 180 200 240 260 400
clearance.

The table above is used to make corrections to the approach DH/MDH, for example, at an aerodrome with an ISA Deviation of -15 and a
DH of 300ft, actual aircraft altitude 280ft, the correction is +20ft making the DH 320ft indicated.

Chapter 2 | Section 5 | Page 30

Chapter 2 | Section 6

Density Altitude

6. Density Altitude
This is the height in ISA which has a density corresponding to the actual ambient density at a specific

2.6 location. High density altitude means that the density is low. Because of the opposite influences of

m
temperature and pressure on density, it is possible to have the same density altitude at a high elevation

co
airfield that is cold, and a sea level airfield that is very warm.

l.
ai
gm
6.1. Correction for Density Altitude (Rule of Thumb)

i@
Densit y Altitude = 120f t change in Pressure Altitude per 1℃ change from ISA For Density Altitude

ag
If colder than ISA subtract from Pressure Altitude

c
es
vi
If warmer than ISA add to Pressure Altitude
ja

Example 1
An aircraft indicates an altitude of 10,000ft and has a Corrected outside Air Temperature (COAT) of -10ºC,
what is the Density Altitude?

Solution:

ISA deviation -5ºC (colder than ISA) 120 × 5 = 600f t error

The rule applies: If colder than ISA you are at a lower Density Altitude 10,000f t − 600f t = 9,400f t

Chapter 2 | Section 6 | Page 31

Chapter 2 | Section 7

Servo Assisted Altimeters

7. Servo Assisted Altimeters

The basic pressure altimeter, in spite of its accuracy and performance limitations,

2.7 has a 'stand alone' capability and so has its place in aviation. The servo assisted

m
altimeter retains the pressure sensing principle (partially evacuated capsules),

co
however the transmission system now uses an accurate electro-magnetic sensor

l.
ai
and the counters and pointers are powered by an electric motor (servo).

gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 2.6 Servo Assisted Altimeters

Chapter 2 | Section 7 | Page 32

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Expansion and contraction of the capsules moves a balanced I at 20000´ ± 50 ft.

bar. This movement changes the air gap between the I and E bar
at 40000’ ± 100 ft.
so affecting the magnetic field induced by the A.C. exciter current
in the upper and lower spokes of the E bar. Lag errors virtually eliminated.

Assuming the I bar has moved to a position which is not Electrical system lends itself to digital presentation.
symmetrical with the E bar, a current will flow in the pick-off
SSR encoding.
winding.
Altitude alerting systems.
This current flow is amplified, rectified and phase-detected at the

m
amplifier and then passes as D.C. to the servo motor.

l.co
The motor turns to change the altimeter reading as registered by

ai
the counters and pointer and at the same time moves the E bar,

gm
via the cam, so that it follows the movement of the I bar.

i@
When E and I bars are again symmetrical, current flow (and the

ag
motor) will stop.

c
es
vi
Note that the shape of the cam allows for the non-linear
ja

relationship between pressure and height in the standard

atmosphere.

7.1. Servo Altimeter - Summary

Very sensitive because of inductive pick-off sensing. This is
particularly an advantage at high altitude when the rate of
pressure change is low.

Accuracy ±1 hPa over entire range. i.e. at sea level ±30 ft.

Chapter 2 | Section 7 | Page 33

Chapter 2 | Section 8

The Height Encoding Altimeter

8. The Height Encoding Altimeter

Some altimeters are equipped with altitude encoders (or digitizers) that provide a

2.8 coded height output.

m
co
When transmitted via a remote transponder, the coded output enables the

l.
pressure altitude sensed by the capsules to be monitored by ATC on the ground. It

ai
gm
should be noted that the coded output is always referenced to 1013 hPa and so is
independent of the pilot’s sub-scale setting.

i@
ag
Further information about transponders is provided in the Radio Navigation notes.

c
es
vi
ja

Chapter 2 | Section 8 | Page 34

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 2

1. The calibration of the Pressure Altimeter assumes that 3. The altimeter when set to QFE may not read zero even
pressure.................... though the aircraft is parked at the QFE datum point.
a. is constant in ISA conditions. This is because of :

b. always decreases by 1hPa for every 30 feet increase in a. instrument error and the height of the pitot/static installation.
height. b. temperature and barometric errors
c. instrument and temperature errors

m
c. decreases at a non-linear rate as altitude increases.

co
d. decreases at a variable rate depending on temperature d. temperature and position errors.

l.
ai
deviation.

gm
4. The atmospheric pressure corresponding to a given flight

i@
level:
2. Compensation of the D spring in the sensitive pressure

ag
altimeter is designed to: a. maybe higher or lower depending on the difference between

c
a. reduce the effects of friction on the mechanism es QNH and 1013.2 hPa
b. is always the same
vi
b. allow for variation in cockpit temperature
ja

c. eliminate errors due to operation in non-standard c. is lower in a cold atmosphere

atmospheres. d. is lower in a warm atmosphere.
d. regulate capsule expansion to achieve a constant rate of 1
hPa per 30 feet.

Chapter 2 | Section 9 | Page 35

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 2

5. The altimeter may not accurately indicate the aircraft's 7. If the static source to an altimeter becomes blocked
flight level even though the sub-scale has been correctly during a descent, the instrument:
set to 1013.2 hPa. This is because of : a. will overread by a constant amount
a. instrument and pressure errors b. continue to show the height at which the blockage occurred.
b. temperature and barometric errors c. will progressively underread

m
c. temperature and position errors d. pointer will return to indicate a height equivalent to the sub-

co
d. lag and temperature errors. scale setting

l.
ai
gm
6. Which errors of the altimeter tend to increase with 8. When climbing in a cold atmosphere, pressure

i@
increasing height? decreases____________ than in a standard atmosphere and

ag
the result is that indicated altitude is________________ than
a. barometric and lag errors

c
true altitude.
b. instrument and temperature errors
es
a. more slowly/higher
vi
c. position and barometric errors
ja

b. faster/higher
d. barometric and instrument errors.
c. faster/lower
d. more slowly/lower

Chapter 2 | Section 9 | Page 36

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 2
9. Increasing the altimeter sub-scale setting by 1 hPa will: 12. An aircraft flies from A to B with the QNH at A of 1004 hPa
a. increase the altimeter reading by about 30 feet at all altitudes. set on the sub-scale throughout the flight. The QNH at B
is 1010 hPa. Assuming no instrument, position or
b. increase the altmeter reading by an amount between 30 and
temperature errors, when overhead B the altimeter will:
100 feet, depending on altitude.
a. overread by 180 feet
c. decrease the altimeter reading by about 30 feet at all altitudes.
b. underread by 90 feet
d. decrease the altimeter reading by an amount between 30 and
c. indicate the true altitude
100 feet, depending on altitude.

m
d. underread by 180 feet.

co
l.
10. Which errors of the sensitive altimeter are decreased in

ai
13. An aircraft is flying at FL 90 over an area where the QNH is

gm
the servo assisted type?
1018 hPa. The minimum safe altitude rules require that

i@
a. instrument and lag errors this aircraft clears any high ground by 10% of the height

ag
b. lag and barometric errors of the high ground plus 1500 feet. The highest ground

c
c. instrument and temperature errors es over which the aircraft could fly is:
d. instrument, lag, temperature and barometric errors. a. 8320 feet
vi
ja

b. 7090 feet
11. An aircraft cruising at FL60 passes over high ground 1500
metres amsl. The Regional (Area) QNH is 1020 hPa. What c. 6950 feet
is the approximate terrain clearance over the high d. 6885 feet
ground?
a. 4710 ft
b. 4290 ft
c. 1290 ft
d. 870 ft

Chapter 2 | Section 9 | Page 37

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 2

14. The elevation of aerodrome P is 330 feet and aerodrome Q

16. A pre-flight altimeter checked is carried out by setting
270 feet. The pilot of an aeroplane at P sets the altimeter
QFE. Using the following information, estimate the
to read aerodrome elevation and then flies to Q without
instrument error:
resetting the subscale. Aerodrome Pressure (QFE) at P on
departure is 1003 hPa. On landing at Q the altimeter reads i) Airport elevation 290 feet amsl
240 feet. What is the QNH at Q? ii) Parking ramp elevation 280 feet amsl
a. 1004 hPa iii) Aircraft static installation 25 feet agl

m
co
b. 1009 hPa
iv) Altimeter reading 35 feet

l.
c. 1013 hPa

ai
a. zero

gm
d. 1015 hPa
b. +15 feet

i@
c. +20 feet

ag
15. An aircraft with an altimeter reading of 10,000 feet passes d. +25 feet

c
over high ground elevation 7500 feet. The sub-scale of
es
the altimeter has been correctly set to the current QNH
vi
ja

which is 1004 hPa. The temperature at the level of the

high ground is -15°C. What is the approximate terrain
clearance?
a. 1700 feet
b. 1900 feet
c. 2150 feet
d. 2500 feet

Chapter 2 | Section 9 | Page 38

Chapter 3

Vertical Speed
Indicator

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 3 | Section 1

Purpose and Principle of the VSI

1. Purpose and Principle of the VSI

The purpose of the VSI is to indicate the aircraft’s rate of climb or descent normally

3.1 in feet per minute but, possibly in metres per second. The altimeter determines

m
altitude from static pressure whereas the VSI determines rate of change of altitude

co
from rate of change of static pressure.

l.
ai
gm
Static pressure is directed to the VSI from the static vents where it is fed to the
inside of a capsule and to a metering unit. The capsule will react when the

i@
pressure inside the capsule is different from the pressure outside the capsule.

c ag
The air flows through the metering unit but the flow is restricted, causing a
es
pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the capsule. The amount
vi
of capsule expansion or contraction depends on the size of the pressure
ja

difference. If the pressure change is small (slow climb/descent), the pressure

difference will be small and so the indicated rate of climb or descent will be low.
However, during a rapid climb or descent the pressure change is large, the
metering unit restricts the air flow and a larger pressure difference is created,
keeping the indicated rate high.

The pressure VSI is not a very responsive instrument. It is slow to react as some
time is needed for the metering unit to create the correct pressure difference when
the altitude change occurs. This instrument will give initial indications in the correct

Chapter 3 | Section 1 | Page 40

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

sense, i.e. it will show trend, but it is slow to give accurate

readings. This problem is known as 'lag'.

The pressure will equalize only after the static pressure stops
changing, i.e. after levelling from a climb or descent and this
again creates a lag in the indication.

To summarize:

The VSI measures the rate of change of static pressure.

m
Rate of climb or descent is indicated in feet per minute.

co
l.
The VSI suffers from lag error at the start and finish of a climb

ai
or descent.

gm
i@
The VSI may display rate of climb or descent by means of Figure 3.1 The Vertical Speed Indicator
either linear or logarithmic scales. The logarithmic scale

ag
(illustrated here) has the advantage of being easier to read at

c
low rates of climb and descent. es
vi
ja

Chapter 3 | Section 1 | Page 41

Chapter 3 | Section 2

Operation of the VSI during Descent and Climb

2. Operation of the VSI during Descent and Climb

2.1. During Descent
3.2

m
During descent, static pressure increases in both the capsule and the casing but, because of the action of

co
the metering unit, the pressure increase in the casing is delayed. The greater pressure in the capsule causes

l.
ai
it to expand resulting in an indication of the rate of descent.

gm
2.2. During Climb

i@
ag
Similarly during a climb static pressure decreases in both the capsule and the casing but, because of the

c
action of the metering unit, the pressure decrease in the casing is delayed. The lower pressure in the
es
capsule causes it to contract resulting in an indication of the rate of climb.
vi
ja

Figure 3.2 NSI During Descent Figure 3.3 VSI During Climb

Chapter 3 | Section 2 | Page 42

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.3. Design of the Metering Unit

To maintain reasonable accuracy, the metering unit is internally
compensated for density and temperature changes and their
effects on viscosity.

Compensation may be achieved by incorporating an orifice and a

capillary device which react in an opposite sense to changes in
viscosity with altitude.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 3.4 The Metering Unit

Chapter 3 | Section 2 | Page 43

Chapter 3 | Section 3

Vertical Speed Indicator Errors

3. Vertical Speed Indicator Errors

3.1. Position/Manoeuvre Induced Error
3.3

m
Sensed static pressure variations are often caused by airspeed changes and

co
manoeuvres. The positions of the static vents are never ideal for all angles of

l.
ai
attack or manoeuvres, resulting in sensed static being slightly different to the

gm
actual static. Changes in static pressure resulting from changes in position error
are indicated as false climb or descent causing some inaccuracy in the VSI.

i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 3.5 Position Error

Figure 3.6 Manoeuvre Induced Error

Chapter 3 | Section 3 | Page 44

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

3.2. Instrument Error 3.4. Blockages

Errors due to small manufacturing imperfections and the If the static system becomes blocked (icing, insects, etc) during a
mechanical amplification required are known as instrument errors. climb or descent, the VSI readings will gradually return to zero.
Instrument error increases with altitude as the rate of pressure The pressure inside and outside the capsule will soon equalize
change decreases. The VSI suffers from hysteresis and friction through the metering unit.
causing the main error of lag.
If no pressure (static) change can be sensed by the capsule the
The VSI responds to a change in static pressure resulting from a instrument will indicate zero. If a partial blockage occurs, the
climb or descent. indication will be very sluggish.

m
co
It takes time for the pressure difference to be created and

l.
transferred to the pointer; consequently the indication occurs a

ai
gm
few seconds after the actual event.

i@
3.3. Lag

ag
It takes time for a change to occur in the pressure difference

c
es
between the capsule and the casing and so the VSI is slow to
vi
respond at the start or the end of a climb or descent.
ja

Figure 3.7 Lag

Chapter 3 | Section 3 | Page 45

Chapter 3 | Section 4

Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)

4. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

(IVSI)
3.4

m
As the main error in the conventional VSI is lag, the IVSI has been designed to

co
improve instrument response. It is sometimes called an 'INERTIA LEAD VSI'. A

l.
small accelerometer pump is fitted to create an artificial pressure change

ai
gm
immediately when a vertical acceleration occurs.

i@
This pressure change immediately causes the capsule to react and an

ag
instantaneous indication is presented. The accelerometer generated pressure

c
decays after a few seconds, and the changing static pressure (conventional
es
operation) then maintains the climb or descent indication until the next change
vi
occurs.
ja

Note: In the IVSI, lag has been practically eliminated; however other sources of error
described above remain. In addition, during turns the accelerometer pump (otherwise
described as a ‘dashpot’) may be displaced introducing a turning error. The IVSI is
considered unreliable during steeply banked turns.

The Vertical Speed information displayed electronically on the Primary Flight

Display of a modern airliner is derived from information provided by the Vertical
Accelerometer in the Inertial Reference System.
Figure 3.8 IVSI

Chapter 3 | Section 4 | Page 46

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

4.1. Serviceability Checks

During pre-flight, the VSI should read zero or be within
permissible limits, typically ±200 ft/min at temperatures -20°C to
+50°C.

Many instruments have an adjuster screw, on the instrument

case, which enables 0ft rate of climb/descent to be set prior to
flight. The glass should be clean and there should be no apparent
damage to the instrument.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 3 | Section 4 | Page 47

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 3

1. The V.S.I. indications may be in error for some seconds 3. The advantage of having the V.S.I. dial presentation in
after starting or finishing a climb or descent. This error is logarithmic spacing rather than in linear spacing is that:
a result of: a. a greater range of rates of climb and descent is shown.
a. a combination of time lag and manoeuvre induced errors. b. the internal mechanism is simplified by deletion of the
b. a combination of position error and manoeuvre induced calibration choke.

m
errors. c. at low rates of climb or descent the pointer movement is

co
c. Manoeuvre induced errors only. much larger and so is more easily read.

l.
ai
d. a combination of time lag and instrument error. d. readings are instantaneous.

gm
i@
2. Because the V.S.I. measures rates of change of static 4. During a missed approach and go-around procedure the

ag
pressure and not actual values of static pressure, position change of aircraft attitude plus raising of the landing gear

c
(pressure) error: es and changing of flap settings can cause short term,
unpredictable errors in certain instruments. The
vi
a. never affects the V.S.I. indications
ja

b. only causes errors in V.S.I. indications during the take off run. instruments most likely to be affected in this case are:

c. causes errors in V.S.I. indications whenever airspeed is a. the altimeter and artificial horizon.
changed, if at the same time there is a change in position b. the airspeed indicator, machmeter and vertical speed
error. indicator.
d. causes errors in V.S.I. indications whenever airspeed is c. the machmeter, airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical
changed, even if there is no change in position error. speed indicator.
d. the vertical speed indicator, airspeed indicator and altimeter.

Chapter 3 | Section 5 | Page 48

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 3

7. A significant lag error in a conventional VSI may occur

5. The restrictive choke in the VSI:
when:
a. is designed to prevent the instrument being damaged by high
a. starting a climb.
ROC or ROD.
b. finishing a descent.
b. is primarily included to compensate for changes in
c. finishing a climb.
temperature and density

m
d. starting or finishing a climb or descent.

co
c. creates a differential pressure between the capsule and casing

l.
as its main faction.

ai
8. In the IVSI a more rapid differential pressure effect is

gm
d. compensates for time lag, particularly when starting or created by adding:
finishing a climb or descent.

i@
a. an extra pressure capsule

ag
b. another metering unit
6. Significant error in the readings of the VSI during a missed

c
es c. an alternative static source
approach may be caused by:
vi
d. an accelerometer unit
ja

a. static pressure fluctuations

b. pitot pressure fluctuations
9. The dashpots in the IVSI may cause:
c. barometric error
a. turning errors
d. density error
b. lag errors
c. density errors
d. errors during linear accelerations

Chapter 3 | Section 5 | Page 49

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 3

10. The pressure difference between the capsule and casing 12. With a constant rate of descent, the capsule of the VSI:
of the VSI during a climb at a constant rate: a. contracts progressively as static pressure increases.
a. increases because of reducing density b. expands but then maintains a constant size.
b. decreases because of slower rates of change of pressure at c. expands progressively as capsule pressure is greater than
higher altitude pressure in the casing.

m
c. is affected by non-standard atmospheric conditions d. contracts but then maintains a constant size.

co
d. remains constant because of the design of the metering unit.

l.
ai
13. Change of temperature as an aircraft climbs or descends:

gm
11. The principal advantage of an IVSI over a conventional VSI a. will affect VSI readings whenever the temperature lapse rate

i@
is that the IVSI:
differs from standard conditions

ag
a. is more accurate during a steady climb or descent.
b. is compensated at the metering unit by means of a capillary

c
b. registers a change as soon as the pilot changes pitch attitude.
es and orifice
vi
c. does not rely on air pressure from a static source
c. has no effect on the VSI as only static pressure is used in this
ja

d. has no mechanical moving parts

instrument
d. may be allowed for by the use of tables in the aircraft manual

Chapter 3 | Section 5 | Page 50

Chapter 4

Airspeed Indicator

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 4 | Section 1

Principle of the ASI

1. Principle of the ASI

When the aircraft is moving through the air, it is subject to an additional pressure

4.1 known as dynamic pressure. The airspeed indicator measures dynamic pressure

m
and expresses it as airspeed. The Pitot tube senses TOTAL pressure (dynamic and

co
static) and feeds this pressure into an air sensing capsule.

l.
ai
gm
Static pressure from the static vent is fed to the air tight casing surrounding the
capsule so cancelling the static portion of the total pressure. Consequently the

i@
resultant movement of the capsule is proportional to DYNAMIC pressure only. A

ag
mechanical linkage converts this displacement to indicated airspeed.

c
es
Pitot Pressure (Pt) = Dynamic Pressure (Pd) + Static Pressure (Ps)
vi
ja

Dynamic Pressure (Pd) = Pitot Pressure (Pt) − Static Pressure (Ps)

The sensed Dynamic pressure is shown on the ASI as indicated airspeed, the
normal unit of measurement is nautical miles / hour, known as knots. It is possible
the measurement could be statute miles / hour or kilometres / hour.

Figure 4.1 Cutaway of the ASI

Chapter 4 | Section 1 | Page 52

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Regardless of the units of measurement, the reading represents 1.1. Calibration

the value of dynamic pressure. Dynamic pressure can also be
represented by the following formula: The calibration is done using the ICAO international standard
atmosphere at sea level, in those ISA conditions the ASI is at its
1 2
Dynamic Pressure = ρV most accurate operation. For any constant ASI reading, it must
2
correspond to a fixed value of Pd and as Pd is equal to ½ ρ V², it
ρ (rho) = density can be seen that any change in the air density requires a change
in the other variable, velocity.
V (Velocity) = True airspeed (TAS)

m
Dynamic pressure is alternatively known as impact pressure.

co
l.
It is common practice to fly aircraft at a particular value of

ai
indicated airspeed (IAS) for each phase of flight. These

gm
performance related airspeeds are determined by performance

i@
calculations. In order to have an accurate reading, it is required to

ag
calibrate the ASI to a defined standard.

c
es
vi
ja

Figure 4.2 Warrior ASI

Chapter 4 | Section 1 | Page 53

Chapter 4 | Section 2

ASI Errors

2. ASI Errors
The ASI pointer registers the capsule expansion due to the value of dynamic

4.2 pressure using the formula above however, any changes that effect density will

m
have an impact on the value of dynamic pressure measured and the ASI reading

co
with regard to actual velocity. The ASI reading is raw data subject to all the

l.
ai
following errors, it is known as Indicated Airspeed (IAS).

gm
2.1. Instrument Error

i@
ag
Instrument errors are caused by manufacturing tolerances. The errors are

c
determined during calibration and any necessary correction is combined in the
es
flight manual with that for position error.
vi
ja

2.2. Pressure Error

Pressure error is a combination of position and manoeuvre errors as described in
chapter 1 of the flight instrument manual. The error is normally small, perhaps only
2 knots increasing to a maximum of 10 knots at worst. Pressure error varies
according to angle of attack, speed, mach number and possibly configuration. The
IAS corrected for pressure and instrument error is known as Calibrated Airspeed
(CAS), also known as Rectified Airspeed (RAS).

Chapter 4 | Section 2 | Page 54

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.3. Compressibility 2.4. Effect of Air Density

At high speed another significant source of error applies. The air To evaluate V from dynamic pressure, air density must be known.
ahead of (and within) the pitot tube becomes compressed with a It is immediately obvious that the Indicated Airspeed can only
consequent increase in density, compared to ambient. This correspond to the actual velocity when the aircraft is flying in the
results in an increase in pitot pressure and so an increase IAS. density conditions assumed in calibration. Aircraft normally fly at
Modern instruments are calibrated to formulae that make a higher altitude than sea level and therefore in lower density
allowance for compressibility error at mean sea level in ISA conditions, where it must effectively fly faster to achieve a given
conditions, see below. In other words, in ISA conditions, upto the value of dynamic pressure. For this reason, the actual aircraft
speed of sound, only position, manoeuvre and instrument error velocity is normally greater than IAS, this velocity is known as

m
co
exist, outside of sea level ISA conditions, compressibility causes True Airspeed (TAS).

l.
an error.

ai
Assuming low speed, it can be said that:

gm
( 4 a02 )
1 2 1 V2
Dynamic Pressure = ρV 1 + 1 1
Dynamic Pressure = ρ (ambient) V (TAS )2 = ρ(ISA msl) V IAS2

i@
2
2 2

ag
and so

c
Where:
V = IAS
es
vi
p = ISA msl density ρ ISA msl
VTAS = VIAS ×
ja

a0 = ISA msl speed of sound ρ ambient

The expression……is termed "the square root of the inverse of

At altitudes above mean sea level, especially at high speeds, the
the relative density” and it largely explains the difference between
allowance for compressibility error is insufficient. Allowance must
IAS and TAS.
be made for compressibility when CAS>200 knots or TAS>300
knots by means of a correction which increases with both speed
ρ ISA msl
and altitude. CAS corrected for compressibility is known as
ρ ambient
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) .Alternatively TAS can be found from
Mach number which is free of compressibility error.

Chapter 4 | Section 2 | Page 55

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The following figures apply in the Standard Atmosphere.

Inverse of √ Inverse
IAS TAS 2% Method
Height Relative of Relative
kt kt TAS kt
Density Density
30,000 2.67 1.635 100 164 160
22,000 2.0 1.414 100 141 144
15,000 1.59 1.26 100 126 130
5,000 1.16 1.07 100 107 110
msl 1.0 1.0 100 100 100
Figure 4.3 The Standard Atmosphere

m
co
TAS can be calculated using the following method; 2% of the IAS

l.
ai
multiplied by the altitude in 1 000s of feet, then added to the

gm
original IAS equals the TAS, see above.

i@
2.5. Blocked and leaking Pitot-Static System

c ag
Other errors occur if the pitot-static system becomes blocked or
es
a failure in the pipe network results in a leak, for the effects see
vi
ja

Flight Instrument notes, chapter 6.

Chapter 4 | Section 2 | Page 56

 Chapter 4 | Section 3

Expressions of Airspeed

3. Expressions of Airspeed
IAS (Indicated Airspeed) refers to the reading of the instrument.

4.3

m
CAS (Calibrated or Corrected Airspeed) refers to IAS corrected for instrument and

co
pressure errors.

l.
ai
EAS (Equivalent Airspeed) is CAS corrected for compressibility error.

gm
TAS (True Airspeed) is the actual speed of the aircraft relative to the air through

i@
which it is flying. It is found from EAS corrected for density error.

c ag
Notes: At one time it was the practice to refer to ASIR (Airspeed Indicator Reading) and
es
in this case corrections were applied firstly for instrument error to obtain IAS and then for
vi
position error to obtain CAS.
ja

Air Data Computers can effectively eliminate instrument and pressure errors so
that the reading is referred to as CAS.

EAS is the purest expression of the dynamic pressure on which the handling of the
aircraft depends. It is an aerodynamic expression of airspeed which would not
normally be found in flight manuals.

Figure 4.4 Speed Relationship in Standard Atmospheric

Conditions

Chapter 4 | Section 3 | Page 57

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

3.1. Conversion of IAS to TAS An aircraft is flying at CAS 140 kt at FL100 where the OAT(SAT) is
-15ºC. Determine the TAS.
Firstly, IAS must be converted to CAS by applying a correction for
position and instrument errors, normally available as a table in the In the “AIR SPEED” window set -15ºC against a pressure
aircraft’s flight manual. Secondly, correction is required for density altitude of 10000 ft. (FL 100)
error. This is achieved on the navigation computer by setting On the inner scale look for the “RAS” of 140 kt. At the same
pressure altitude and outside air temperature in the TAS window. place on the outer scale read off the “TAS” which in this case is
TAS can then be read on the outside scale over CAS on the inside 160 kt.
scale.
Note that at higher speeds (CAS> 200 kt or TAS> 300 kt),

m
correction is required for compressibility error.

co
l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 4.5 CRP-5: The Airspeed Window

Chapter 4 | Section 3 | Page 58

 Chapter 4 | Section 4

ASI - Coloured Arcs and Markers

4. ASI - Coloured Arcs and Markers

Airspeed indicators may be marked with speed ranges and specific speeds using

4.4 a conventional colour code:

m
co
White arc indicates the flaps operating range, from the stall speed full flaps VSO,

l.
to the maximum flaps -extended speed VFE.

ai
gm
Green arc indicates the normal - operating speed range, from the flaps retracted

i@
stall speed VS1 to the normal operating limit speed VNO

ag
Yellow arc indicates the caution range, from the normal- operating limit speed to

c
es the never-exceed speed
vi
Red radial line indicates the never- exceed speed VNE
ja

Figure 4.6 Airspeed Indicator Colour Coding

Chapter 4 | Section 4 | Page 59

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

4.1. V speeds
VS0 Stall speed full flap

VSI Stall speed clean

VFE Max flaps extended speed

VNO Max normal operating speed

VNE Never exceed speed

m
VLO Max landing gear operating speed

co
l.
VLE Max landing gear extended speed

ai
gm
VRA Max speed in turbulent air

i@
VYSE Best rate of climb speed, single engine

cag
The above limiting speeds of VNO and VFE relate to C.S. 23 aircraft, limiting speeds relating to C.S. 25 aircraft are as follows:
es
vi
VNO/MNO Max normal operating speed
ja

VMO/MMO Max operating speed

Chapter 4 | Section 4 | Page 60

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 4
1. The calibration of the ASI uses assumed values of: 3. Increasing density error with increasing altitude causes:
i) ISA msl density a. CAS to become progressively higher than IAS

ii) ISA temperature lapse rate b. CAS to become progressively higher than EAS
c. EAS to become progressively lower than TAS
iii) ISA msl speed of sound
d. ASIR to become progressively lower than IAS
a. (i) only
b. (i), (ii) and (iii)
4. Compressibility errors are negligible when CAS is less

m
c. (i) and (ii)

co
than:
d. (i) and (iii)

l.
a. 100 kt

ai
gm
b. 200 kt
2. A pressure head consisting of a tube which is closed and

i@
c. 300 kt
streamlined at the forward end but which has a series of

ag
small holes drilled radially along its length is designed to d. 400 kt

c
sample: es
a. static pressure 5. To obtain CAS from IAS, correction is required for:
vi
ja

b. pitot pressure a. instrument and position errors

c. dynamic pressure b. position error only
d. total pressure c. instrument and density errors
d. instrument and compressibility errors

Chapter 4 | Section 5 | Page 61

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 4
6. At constant CAS, increasing altitude will cause density 9. Compressibility error:
error to ............... and compressibility error to ................ a. causes overreading of the ASI at all levels whenever TAS
DENSITY COMPRESSIBILITY exceeds 300 kt.
a. increase decrease b. causes overreading of the ASI at all levels whenever CAS
b. increase increase exceeds 300 kt.
c. decrease decrease c. is calibrated out of the ASI in ISA conditions at all levels and
d. decrease increase so only causes error in non-standard conditions

m
co
d. is calibrated out of the ASI at msl in ISA conditions and only

l.
7. The upper limit of the green arc on the ASI is: causes significant error when air density is decreased and

ai
gm
a. VDF TAS exceeds 300kt

i@
b. VNE

ag
c. VNO 10. Some ASIs have coloured arcs and lines marked on their
dials. A yellow arc and a white arc indicate respectively:

c
d. VFE es
a. cautionary range and normal operating range
vi
ja

8. The calibration of the ASI assumes: b. flap operating speed range and normal operating range
c. cautionary range and flap operating speed range
a. air density 1225 grams per cubic metre
d. flap operating speed range and cautionary range
b. mean sea level pressure 1013.25 hPa, temperature +150C
and lapse rate 1.98°C per 1000 feet
c. speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature.
d. standard values for pressure, temperature, density and
tropopause height.

Chapter 4 | Section 5 | Page 62

 Chapter 5

Machmeter

ja
vi
es
cag
i@
gm
ai
l.co
m
Chapter 5 | Section 1

Local Speed of Sound

TAS
Mach Number =
L ocal Speed of Sound

5.1 Mach number is expressed as a decimal, for example M.84. An aircraft cruising at

m
M.84 is maintaining a TAS which is 84% of the speed of sound at the level at

co
which the aircraft is flying. For high speed aircraft, handling and performance vary

l.
with Mach number and so an instrument is required to provide an indication of

ai
gm
Mach number. This instrument is the Machmeter.

i@
1. Local Speed of Sound

c ag
The Machmeter correctly shows the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound, not
es
the speed of sound in the Standard Atmosphere. The speed of sound is a function
vi
As the true airspeed of an aircraft of temperature, the lower the temperature the lower will be the speed of sound.
ja

approaches the speed of sound, there are

changes in the stability and control of the
A more exact statement is as follows: L ocal Speed of Sound α TemperatureKelvin
aircraft. For any aircraft type these
changes occur when the true airspeed is a
certain proportion of the local speed of or:
sound. The ratio of true airspeed to local
speed of sound is termed MACH NUMBER. Temperature KELVIN is measured on the Absolute scale where zero corresponds
to -273°C. L ocal Speed of Sound in k nots = 38.94 TemperatureKelvin

Chapter 5 | Section 1 | Page 64

Chapter 5 | Section 2

Finding TAS from Mach Nº and Temperature

2. Finding TAS from Mach Nº and Temperature

TAS

5.2 Mach Number =

L ocal Speed of Sound

m
co
TAS = Mach Number × L ocal Speed of Sound

l.
ai
TAS = Mach Number × 38.94 TemperatureKelvin

gm
i@
Example 2

cag
Find TAS corresponding to M.8 at FL 310 with temperature deviation ISA -10
es
vi
ISA temp at FL 310
ja

= +15 - (31 × 2)
= -47°C
ISA -10
= -57°C
= (-57 + 273)KELVIN = 216 K
TAS = 0.8 × 38.94 × 216K = 458kts

(This calculation can also be made on the navigation computer)

Chapter 5 | Section 2 | Page 65

Chapter 5 | Section 3

Basic Machmeter

3. Basic Machmeter

5.3 The Machmeter finds Mach number from Pitot (P) and Static (S) pressures using

m
the formula:

co
P−S

l.
Mach Number = f

ai
S

gm
i@
It is not obvious how this relates to the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound.
We know however that TAS is a function of dynamic pressure (P - S) and air

ag
density and that the local speed of sound is a function of temperature which in

c
es
turn is a function of static and air density. As the air density factor is common, the
vi
result is an expression of Mach number requiring only Pitot and static inputs.
ja

The instrument consists of a sealed case containing an airspeed capsule to

measure P - S and an altimeter capsule to measure S. The linkage takes care of
the function which links Mach number with Pitot and static pressures.

Either increase in airspeed (IAS / CAS / RAS) or increase in altitude will result in
increase in Mach number. To allow for this, the ratio arm can move C to D
(increasing altitude) or B to A (increasing airspeed) and either movement will cause
the ranging arm to move to register an increased Mach number.
Figure 5.1 The Basic Machmeter

Chapter 5 | Section 3 | Page 66

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

For example, an aircraft climbing at constant IAS is maintaining

constant dynamic pressure so no movement is occurring at the
airspeed capsule. However as the static pressure reduces, the
altitude capsule will expand pushing the ranging arm via the ratio
arm to register an increased Mach number.

The calibration effectively eliminates compressibility error.

The Machmeter is subject to the following errors:

Instrument Error

m
co
Tolerances in manufacture should not exceed M.01.

l.
ai
Pressure (position/manoeuvre) Error

gm
Inaccurate sampling of static pressure affects the accuracy of
the instrument.

i@
ag
The overall accuracy associated with the Machmeter is in the

c
range ± M.01 to M.02. es
vi
ja

Chapter 5 | Section 3 | Page 67

 Chapter 5 | Section 4

Mach / Airspeed Indicator (MASI)

4. Mach / Airspeed Indicator (MASI)

The MASI combines the functions of both a conventional airspeed indicator and a

5.4 Machmeter.

m
co
The combination saves space in the instrument panel and allows the pilot to

l.
monitor both IAS and Mach number in a single display.

ai
gm
The indications of airspeed and Mach number are subject to the same sources of

i@
error as are found in separate ASIs and MMs.

ag
4.1.Limit Speed Pointer
c
es
vi
The maximum operating speed is shown by
ja

a pointer that may be red or chequered,

commonly known as the “barber’s pole”. In
old style pressure Machmeters the pointer
was set manually to VMO/MMO, later MASIs
were driven by the air data computer (ADC)
which was programmed to reflect the
limiting value of VMO/MMO. Note that at lower
altitude VMO is more limiting than MMO but
this relationship is reversed at high altitude.
Figure 5.2 Airspeed Indicator Figure 5.3 VMO Vs MMO

Chapter 5 | Section 4 | Page 68

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

In addition to providing displays of airspeed and Mach number,

the MASI can be designed to actuate switch units coupled to
visual or audio devices which provide warning when the limiting
speeds are reached.

The MASI can also be linked to the autothrottle system so that

commanded airspeeds are maintained.

In modern airline aircraft, the MASI is largely superseded by the

Air Data Computer which provides airspeed and Mach number

m
inputs to the Flight Management System (FMS) and the Electronic

co
Flight Instrument System (EFIS).

l.
ai
It may continue to be found on the instrument panel of a modern

gm
aircraft but only as a standby instrument.

i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 5 | Section 4 | Page 69

Chapter 5 | Section 5

Relationship between Mach No, CAS and TAS

5. Relationship between Mach No, CAS & TAS

Mach Number and CAS

5.5

m
Mach number depends on the ratio of Dynamic Pressure to Static Pressure. For

co
example, when climbing at constant Mach No, dynamic pressure must reduce in

l.
order to remain at a fixed ratio to static. Reducing dynamic leads to reducing IAS

ai
gm
and CAS.

i@
Mach Number and TAS

ag
TAS at a given mach number depends on temperature. For example, when

c
es
climbing below the tropopause at constant Mach No, temperature generally
vi
reduces and so the local speed of sound and TAS reduces.
ja

TAS and CAS

The TAS corresponding to a given CAS depends on air density. For example, when
climbing above or below the tropopause at constant CAS, air density reduces and
so the TAS increases.

These graphs can be used as a handy guide to identify the relationships between
the speeds with regard to changes of altitude and temperature.

Chapter 5 | Section 5 | Page 70

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

m
l.co
ai
Figure 5.5 CAS, TAS and Mach No Relationship

gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 5.4 CAS, TAS and Mach No Relationship with Altitude

Chapter 5 | Section 5 | Page 71

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 5
1. The relationship between TAS, Mach number and Local
speed of sound (LSS) is: 4. What TAS corresponds to FL 350, temperature deviation
MNo -12°C, Mach number 0.78?
a. LSS =
TAS a. 490 kt
LSS b. 447 kt
b. MNo =
TAS c. 436 kt
c. TAS = MNo × LSS d. 460 kt

m
d. MNo = LSS × TAS

co
2. Local Speed of Sound in kt is equal to: 5. When climbing at a constant Mach number below the

l.
ai
K tropopause in an International Standard Atmosphere:

gm
a.
Temperature °Absolute a. The TAS will increase and the CAS will increase

i@
b. The TAS will decrease and the CAS will decrease
b. K Temperature ° Celcius

ag
c. The TAS will decrease and the CAS will remain constant

c
c. K Temperature ° Absolute es d. The TAS will increase and the CAS will decrease
vi
d. K Temperature ° Fahrenheit
ja

3. The errors to which the Machmeter is subject are: 6. When descending at a constant CAS below the
a. Instrument error, position error, density error and manoeuvre tropopause in an International Standard Atmosphere:

induced error. a. The TAS will decrease and the Mach number will decrease
b. Instrument error, position error, barometric error, temperature b. The TAS will increase and the Mach number will increase
error and manoeuvre induced error. c. The TAS will decrease and the Mach number will increase
c. Instrument error, position error and manoeuvre induced error. d. The TAS will increase and the Mach number will decrease
d. Instrument error, position error, compressibility error and
manoeuvre induced error.

Chapter 5 | Section 6 | Page 72

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 5
10. Flight at a constant MNo and flight level from a warm to a
7. Cruising at FL 290, M 0.84 is found to give a TAS of 499 kt. cold airmass will cause CAS to ………………………and the
Assuming J.S.A. the temperature deviation at the level is: altitude to ………………………:
a. -4ºC CAS TRUE ALTITUDE
b. +4ºC a. decrease increase
c. -19ºC b. decrease decrease
d. +19ºC c. increase increase

m
co
d. remain constant decrease
8. Flight at constant CAS and flight level from a cold to a

l.
ai
warm airmass will cause TAS to ……………….. and MNo

gm
…………………..: 11. What is the range of accuracy associated with a

i@
serviceable Machmeter?
TAS MACH NO

ag
a. M 0.01 to M 0.02
a. decrease increase

c
es b. M 0.02 to M 0.03
b. increase remain constant
vi
c. M 0.03 to M 0.04
c. remain constant decrease
ja

d. M 0.04 to M 0.05
d. increase increase

12. An aircraft is flying at FL370, temperature 201A, at Mach

9. The calibration of the Machmeter assumes
0.80. The TAS of the aircraft is:
a. no ISA conditions
a. 434 kt
b. ISA mean sea level density
b. 442 kt
c. ISA temperature conditions
c. 458 kt
d. all ISA conditions
d. 550 kt

Chapter 5 | Section 6 | Page 73

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 5

13. When climbing at a constant CAS above the tropopause in 15. An increase in Mach number will be indicated when:
the International Standard Atmosphere:
i) airspeed is increased at constant altitude.
a. TAS and MNo will increase
ii) altitude is increased at constant airspeed.
b. TAS will increase and MNo will remain constant
iii) Are these statements true or false?
c. TAS and MNo will remain constant
a. true false
d. TAS will increase and MNo will decrease

m
b. false true

co
c. true true
14. The Machmeter measures Mach number from a function

l.
ai
of: d. false false

gm
Pitot + Static
a.

i@
Static
16. Both capsules in the Machmeter will contract when the

ag
Pitot
b. aircraft ...……with……..…

c
Static es a. descends/constant TAS
Dynamic
vi
c. b. descends/reducing IAS
ja

Static
Dynamic c. climbs/increasing IAS
d.
L ocal Speed of Sound d. climbs/constant TAS

Chapter 5 | Section 6 | Page 74

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 5
17. Descending through a temperature inversion at constant 19. Which of the following errors are common to the ASI and
CAS will cause TAS to ……………. and Mach number to MM?
………………...
i) Temperature
TAS MACH NUMBER
ii) Density
a. increase increase
iii) Compressibility
b. increase decrease
a. all of them
c. decrease decrease

m
b. (ii) and (iii) only

co
d. decrease increase
c. (iii) only

l.
ai
18. The Machmeter is subject to errors due to: d. none of them

gm
i) incorrect input of static (pressure error)

i@
ii) ambient conditions being different to those assumed in 20. Climbing through a temperature inversion at constant TAS

ag
the Stardard Atmosphere. will cause CAS to …………. and Mach number to

c
es ………………….
Are these statement true or false?
vi
CAS MACH NUMBER
ja

a. true false
b. true true a. increase remain constant

c. false true b. increase decrease

d. false false c. decrease decrease

d. decrease remain constant

Chapter 5 | Section 6 | Page 75

Chapter 6

Gyroscopic
Principles

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 6 | Section 1

Properties of a Gyroscope

The mechanical gyroscope is a rotating mass supported in a frame to allow it to

behave in a particular manner.
Gimbals. The frame is of 'universal design', which can allow the aircraft freedom of

6.1 movement in all three planes without influencing the gyro rotor. It is the convention

m
to disregard the plane in which the gyro is spinning and so a gyro with two gimbals

co
is said to have two axes or degrees of freedom. A gyro with one gimbal is a single

l.
axis or degree of freedom gyro.

ai
gm
Rotor. The rotor is a mass that is wheel shaped. The mass is concentrated at the
circumference of the wheel. An axle (spin axis) is supported in the inner gimbal by

i@
bearings. These rotor bearings and the gimbal bearings are very important to the

ag
function of the gyroscope.

c
es
1. Properties of a Gyroscope
vi
ja

When the rotor is made to spin, the device becomes a gyroscope possessing two
properties:

Rigidity (or gyroscopic inertia).

Precession.

Chapter 6 | Section 1 | Page 77

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

1.2. Precession
Precession is the change of direction (angular change) of the
plane of rotation of the rotor caused by an applied force. The
amount and rate of precession is dependent on three factors.

the magnitude and direction of the applied force;

the moment of inertia of the rotor and

the angular velocity of the rotor (RPM).

m
Figure 6.1 A Simple Gyroscope

co
Rate of precession is directly proportional to the applied torque
1.1. Rigidity

l.
(T) and indirectly proportional to rigidity (Iω).

ai
gm
Rigidity is the property of a gyroscope which resists any force
1.3. Rule of Precession

i@
tending to change the plane of rotation of its rotor. As a result of
rigidity, the spin axis tends to maintain a fixed direction in space.

ag
Rigidity is dependent on three factors:

c
es
vi
the mass of the rotor;
ja

the speed of the rotation (RPM); and

the distance of the mass from the centre of the rotor (radius).

The mass and radius of the rotor determine its moment of inertia.
Rigidity is proportional to the rotor's moment of inertia (I) and its
angular velocity (ω).

Rigidity is the property of the gyro which allows the gyro to be

used as an independent stable reference.
Figure 6.2 Horizontal Gyroscope

Chapter 6 | Section 1 | Page 78

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

An external force acting on a gyroscope gimbal will cause a

precession when it is contrary to the rotor freedom, i.e. the
gyroscope will react.

To understand this reaction:

Transfer the applied force to the gyro rotor

Move 90° in the direction of rotor rotation and this is the point
where the applied force acts.

m
Note that the precession always occurs about an axis

co
perpendicular to both the spin axis and the axis of the applied

l.
ai
torque.

gm
An understanding of rigidity and precession will help with the

i@
understanding of 'gyroscopic effects' relating to many areas of

ag
study, such as:

c
propellers
es
vi
ja

tail wheel aircraft

aircraft instruments including INS

aircraft spinning.

Chapter 6 | Section 1 | Page 79

Chapter 6 | Section 2

Types of Gyroscopes

2. Types of Gyroscopes
Mechanical gyroscopes exist in four basic forms:

6.2

m
Space or Free Gyroscopes.

co
Tied Gyroscopes, of which the Earth Gyroscope is a particular example.

l.
ai
gm
Rate Gyroscopes.

i@
Rate Integrating Gyroscopes.

ag
The perfect gyroscope would be a unit whose rotor could be aligned in space

c
es
without influences of torque, connecting wires or external forces. The rotor axle
vi
(axis) would be mounted in frictionless bearings and the inner and outer gimbals
ja

would allow complete freedom of aircraft movement without influencing the rotor.

On starting, the rotor axis would be pointing to a point in space and would retain
that position all the time. By definition, a space gyro is not aligned to any external
datum and is free to maintain its own direction in space.

The space or free gyro is an ideal gyro which we use to study gyroscopic
principles and effects. It is however totally impractical to make and is not used in
aircraft systems, although the Earth itself exhibits many of the properties of a
space gyro.

Chapter 6 | Section 2 | Page 80

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.1. Tied Gyroscopes

A tied gyroscope has two degrees of freedom. However, the rotor
axis is influenced to be aligned in a particular way. Examples of
tied gyros are the Artificial Horizon - the rotor axis is kept vertical
by gravity sensing devices (sometimes called an earth gyro); and
the Directional Gyro where the axis is kept horizontal.

2.2. Rate Gyroscopes

m
A rate gyroscope has only one degree of freedom. Used in the

co
turn indicator, this type relies on the precession reaction balanced

l.
ai
by a calibrated spring to provide an indication of the rate of

gm
angular displacement that is taking place about its sensitive axis.
The rate gyro is described further in the Turn Indicator chapter.

i@
ag
2.3. Rate Integrating Gyroscopes Figure 6.3 Rate Integrating Gyroscope

c
es
A rate integrating gyroscope also has only one degree of
vi
freedom. Used in Inertial Navigation Systems, this unit relies on
ja

the precession reaction balanced by viscous damping to

measurement of the integral of the rate of angular displacement
that is taking place about its sensitive axis. This measurement
provides information of angular rotation to the Inertial system and
indication to the Attitude Indicator.

Chapter 6 | Section 2 | Page 81

Chapter 6 | Section 3

Gyroscopic Terminology

3. Gyroscopic Terminology
3.1. Wander
6.3

m
The term 'wander' is used to describe any movement (real or apparent) of the gyro spin axis away from a

co
chosen datum.

l.
ai
3.2. Real wander

gm
i@
This term is used to describe the movement

ag
of the gyro spin axis relative to the chosen

c
datum that is the result of applied forces
es
such as friction in the gimbal bearings. It
vi
can be considered as the failure of the gyro
ja

to hold its space datum.

3.3. Apparent wander

A gyro will appear to wander when the
direction of its spin axis is compared with a
datum which is not, itself, a fixed direction
in space. Figure 6.4 Wander Terminology

Chapter 6 | Section 3 | Page 82

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

3.4. Topple Note. Both friction and imbalance cause a force or torque effect at the rotor.
The effect of this force - usually very small - causes the rotor to precess
Any movement of the gyro axis in the vertical plane is called away from its original alignment resulting in DRIFT (real).

topple (or tilt). The effect of topple depends on the gyro axis 3.7. Apparent Drift due to Earth Rotation
alignment and can also relate to latitude and earth rotation. The
types of gyroscopes used in aircraft make the effects of topple
less obvious than drift (see following notes). Topple can be either
real or apparent.

The term topple may also be used, to describe the tumbling

m
(severe and usually rapid misalignment) of a gyro that can occur

co
when a gimbal 'limit' stop is reached. The rotor is no longer

l.
ai
isolated from the aircraft movement (instrument casing), and a

gm
rapid precession misaligns the axis.

i@
Figure 6.5 Apparent Drift Due to Earth Rotation
3.5. Drift

cag
The horizontal angular change in direction of the gyroscope’s axis Note. Directional Gyros are compensated for apparent drift due to earth
es rotation (which is related to latitude).
measured in degrees/hr. Drift can be either real or apparent.
vi
There is an angular change of the rotor axis of a horizontal gyro
ja

3.6. Real drift (when referenced to the north) which is caused by the earth
rotating. This drift which may be called Earth Rate is not a fault
The angular change in direction of the rotor axis in the horizontal with the gyroscope or a mechanical problem.
plane which has been caused by mechanical imperfections and
other applied forces. Causes of real drift include: The gyro stays aligned with a point in space as the earth rotates
but it 'looks like' the gyro is drifting.
Bearing Friction (rotor or gimbals);
This is apparent drift and when a NORTH reference is used, large
Imbalance (rotor or gimbals). errors are evident at the poles but no error occurs at the equator.

Chapter 6 | Section 3 | Page 83

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

3.8. Apparent Drift due to Transport

A gyro with a horizontal spin axis will appear to drift when it is
transported to the east or west by the aircraft.

Change of longitude, described as transport, results in a change

in the direction of the meridian and thus there is apparent drift
when the gyro spin axis is compared with the meridian. In
navigation, the changing direction of the meridian is referred to as
convergency.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 6 | Section 3 | Page 84

 Chapter 6 | Section 4

Suction and Electrically Driven Gyros

4. Suction and Electrically Driven Gyros

The rotor of the gyro must be made to spin at a known, high RPM for the

6.4 gyroscope to be useful. Aircraft gyros can be driven by a vacuum system using

m
suction developed by a vacuum pump or by positive air pressure systems.

co
Electrical motors can also be used to drive the rotor of the gyro and they can be

l.
ai
either AC or DC power.

gm
4.1. The Comparative Advantages of Suction and Electrical

i@
ag
Gyros

c
es
Suction gyros are not dependent on the aircraft's electrical power supply but
vi
otherwise suffer from a number of disadvantages. As air must enter and leave the
ja

casing, a suction gyro cannot be contained within a sealed case.

In spite of filters, dust and moisture will enter affecting the balance of the gimbals
and reducing bearing life. The suction pump is usually driven directly off the engine
and so instruments cannot be run-up until the engine is started. At high altitude
there may be insufficient suction to maintain the correct rpm.

Figure 6.6 Suction and Electrically Driven Gyroscopes

Chapter 6 | Section 4 | Page 85

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

m
co
l.
ai
Figure 6.7 A Suction System

gm
i@
Electrical Gyros can be constructed so that their rotors have a

ag
higher moment of inertia and spin speed. This is an advantage in

c
instruments that rely on rigidity to provide readings. es
vi
Electrical gyros operate at constant speeds and this is an
ja

advantage when a predictable rate of precession is required.

It is important that no loss of power be able to totally deprive the

pilot of the instruments needed to fly without reference to the
natural horizon. For this reason in light aircraft the artificial horizon
may be suction driven and the turn indicator electrical.

Chapter 6 | Section 4 | Page 86

Chapter 6 | Section 5

Erection and Levelling Systems

5. Erection and Levelling Systems

5.1. Levelling System
6.5

m
Most aircraft gyroscopes are tied gyroscopes which are slaved (influenced) to

co
maintain their rotor axes either vertical or horizontal. The principle of erection is to

l.
ai
maintain a rotor axis vertical. For a gyro with a vertical spin axis, such as an

gm
artificial horizon, when vertical misalignment occurs the erection device will cause
precession to re-erect the gyro.

i@
ag
The levelling principle used by gyros with a horizontal spin axis such as Directional

c
Indicators is similar to erection except that the levelling function maintains the
es
rotor axis horizontal.
vi
ja

Both these systems sense a misalignment and cause a corrective action.

Unfortunately, they sometimes sense or accept inputs (during accelerations or
turns) that can induce errors. The errors will be discussed with each specific
instrument.

The energy to operate erection and levelling systems is provided by either the
vacuum or electrical systems.
Figure 6.8 Suction Levelling System
An example of a levelling system is shown in the diagram above.

Chapter 6 | Section 5 | Page 87

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The gyro spin axis would have been initially erected to the Other erection systems make use of electrical forces but their
horizontal by means of a caging mechanism which locks the inner common element is that they are gravity-sensing.
and outer gimbals at 90°. Subsequently the spin axis may have
toppled due to the combined effects of real and apparent wander.

The main purpose of the air jet is to cause the rotor to spin but it
also has the effect of maintaining the rotor in alignment with the
vertical gimbal.

If the gyro topples a component of the force from the air jet will

m
act at right angles to the rotor, producing a precession which

co
tends to erect the gyro.

l.
ai
5.2. Erection System

gm
i@
An example of an erection system is shown in Figure 6.9. It

ag
should be assumed that when at rest the gyro unit was erected

c
by the weight of the heavy base acting like a pendulum. es
Subsequently the gyro may have experienced real or apparent
vi
topple.
ja

When the gyro is erect, the air exhausts equally through four
apertures at the base of the gyro. The size of the jets is controlled Figure 6.9 Pendulous Vane Erection System
by the pendulous vanes which hang vertically under the influence
of gravity.

If the spin axis moves away from the vertical, the pendulous
vanes cause the air jets to become unequal, resulting in a force
on the base of the gyro. This force results in precession which
erects the gyro to the vertical.

Chapter 6 | Section 5 | Page 88

Chapter 6 | Section 6

Ring Laser Gyros

6. Ring Laser Gyros

Modern Inertial Reference Systems use ring laser gyros which do not have spinning rotors and so have little

6.6 in common with mechanical gyros. They are called gyros as they perform the same task as the mechanical

m
rate integrating gyros that they have replaced.

co
l.
The ring laser gyro uses two beams of coherent (in phase) light traveling in opposite directions along a

ai
gm
triangular or square chamber, at the corners of which are reflecting mirrors.

i@
When the gyro is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the light path, one beam has slightly further to

ag
travel and the other slightly less. By altering the "chamber length", a change of frequency is achieved.

c
es
The difference in frequency between the two beams produces an interference pattern from which angular
vi
rotation is measured.
ja

Compared to mechanical gyros, ring laser gyros have the following advantages:

Reduced alignment times.

Improved accuracy.

Higher reliability.

Smaller size.

Lower power consumption.

Chapter 6 | Section 6 | Page 89

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

At very low rates of rotation, there is a tendency for the two beams have identical frequencies when the gyro is at rest. When
beams to lock into the same frequency giving a zero output. The the gyro is subjected to an angular turning rate around an axis
problem, known as ‘laser lock’, is overcome by oscillating the perpendicular to the plane of the two beams, one beam then has
gyro rapidly about its sensitive axis, a method known as a greater optical path length and the other beam has a shorter
“dithering”. optical path length.

Consequentially the laser gyro is sensitive to low dynamic rates Therefore, the two resonant frequencies change and the
(of angular rotation) while also being insensitive to ‘g’. frequency differential is directly proportional to the angular turning
rate. The frequency difference is measured by optical means,
The accuracy of a laser beam is affected by the length of its
resulting in a digital output.

m
optical path. The relationship between length and accuracy is

co
non-linear and a small increase in length, e.g. 10%, will result in a

l.
significant improvement in accuracy, perhaps 25%.

ai
gm
While the laser gyro does not contain mechanical moving parts, it

i@
does like its mechanical equivalent suffer from random (real) drift.

ag
In the laser gyro, this is caused by noise which is likely to be due

c
to imperfections in the mirrors es
vi
6.1. Physics of the Ring Laser Gyro
ja

The laser gyro is an unconventional gyro since it does not have a

spinning wheel. The laser gyro detects and measures angular
rates by measuring the frequency difference between two contra-
rotating laser beams.

The two laser beams circulate in the triangular cavity

simultaneously. Mirrors are used to reflect each beam around an Figure 6.10 Ring Laser Gyroscope
enclosed area. The resonant frequency of a contained laser beam
is a function of optical path length. Consequently, the two laser

Chapter 6 | Section 6 | Page 90

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 6
3. The term "drift" in relation to a gyroscope refers to:
1. The rate of gyroscopic precession is increased when the
a. real wander only, in either the vertical or horizontal planes
rotor's rotational speed is ………………………… and the
b. apparent wander only, in the horizontal plane.
rotor's moment of inertia is…………………………
c. real wander only, in the vertical plane.
SPEED MOMENT OF INERTIA
d. real or apparent wander, in the horizontal plane.
a. decreased decreased
b. decreased increased

m
c. increased decreased 4. A constant disturbing couple is being applied to deflect a

co
gyroscope. If the rpm is then doubled, the precession
d. increased increased

l.
ai
rate will:

gm
a. remain as before, provided the disturbing couple remains
2. In the diagram below, which way will the gyro process

i@
when a torque force is applied at point c? constant.

ag
b. increase to twice the original rate.
a. direction a

c
es c. cease altogether if the disturbing couple is not also
b. direction b
vi
increased.
c. direction c
ja

d. decrease.
d. direction d

a 5. The rigidity of a gyroscope depends on:

a. Rotor mass, radius of gyration and speed of rotation.
b. Weight, disturbing couple and speed of rotation.
d b
c. Rate of precession and disturbing couple.
d. Weight, rate of precession and rpm.
c

Chapter 6 | Section 7 | Page 91

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 6
6. A gravity controlled gyro having gyroscopic inertia relative 8. Complete the following sentences.
to the earth's vertical is termed:
i) ___________ establishes a stabilised reference datum
a. an earth gyro unaffected by movements of the supporting body.
b. an inertia gyro ii) ___________ controls the effects of apparent and real
c. a space gyro drift thus maintaining the stabilised reference datum.
d. a rate gyro a. Precession/Precession
b. Precession/Rigidity

m
co
7. A gyro which has freedom in one plane in addition to the c. Rigidity/Precession
plane in which the rotor is spinning is referred to as:

l.
d. Rigidity/ Rigidity

ai
gm
a. an inertia gyro
b. a tied gyro

i@
9. Which of the following are advantages of electrical gyros
c. a space gyro

ag
compared with pneumatic gyros?
d. a rate gyro

c
es i) They do not suffer from real drift.
vi
ii) Reduced probability of contamination by corrosion and
ja

dirt particles.
iii) Higher rotation speeds of the rotor allow faster
precession rates.
a. All are true
b. (i) and (iii) only are true
c. (ii) and (iii) only are true
d. (ii) only is true.

Chapter 6 | Section 7 | Page 92

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 6
10. Which of the following are correct statements about ring 12. Ring laser gyros are said to be ……………… to "g" and of
laser gyros? being ……………. to low rates over a wide dynamic range.
i) They use beams of coherent light a. insensitive/sensitive

ii) They take longer to become operational but they are b. sensitive/insensitive
more reliable than mechanical types. c. insensitive/insensitive

iii) Power consumption is low. d. sensitive/sensitive

m
a. All are true 13. A horizontal axis gyro with its spin axis pointing to the

co
b. (i) and (iii) only are true east is aligned and levelled at 30°N. After three hours the

l.
ai
c. (ii) and (iii) only are true east end of its spin axis will appear to have drifted

gm
…………….. and to have ……………… the horizon.
d. (i) and (ii) only are true.

i@
a. clockwise risen above

ag
11. The term "dithering" when applied to a ring laser gyro b. anti-clockwise dropped below

c
refers to:
es c. anti-clockwise risen above
vi
a. the suppression of the frequency shift at high rates of angular d. clockwise dropped below
ja

displacement
b. the deliberate reduction in accuracy of equipment provided to 14. A gyro aligned so that its horizontal spin axis points
towards true north may subsequently:
civilian users.
c. the averaging of gyro measurements in order to overcome a. drift relative to the north datum but cannot topple

short-term inaccuracies. b. topple relative to the horizontal datum but cannot drift

d. the oscillation of the gyro rapidly about its sensitive axis. c. be subject to apparent drift but not apparent topple
d. be subject to real and apparent wander in both horizontal and
vertical planes

Chapter 6 | Section 7 | Page 93

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 6

17. The laser gyro ……. said to be subject to random (real)

15. A rate integrating gyro has ……… gimbal(s) and utilises
drift. Inaccuracy is due almost entirely to ………….
……… to oppose precession about the output axis.
a. is imperfections in the mirrors
a. two spring tension
b. is mass imbalance
b. one viscous damping
c. is not frequency instability
c. two primary precession

m
d. is not imperfect bearing
d. one spring tension

co
l.
ai
gm
16. The accuracy of a laser gyro ………. influenced by the 18. Laser gyros may be equipped with ‘dither’ motors which
length of its optical path. A small increase in length will are devices that:

i@
result in a ………… improvement in accuracy.
a. measure frequency difference from the fringe pattern

ag
a. is small b. make the gyros insensitive to ‘g’

c
b. is not negligible
es
c. permit very small rotation rates to be measured
vi
c. is significant
ja

d. extend the upper limit of the dynamic range

d. is proportional

Chapter 6 | Section 7 | Page 94

Chapter 7

The Directional
Gyroscope (DG)

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 7 | Section 1

Principle of Operation

1. Principle of Operation
When the DG is started, the direction information is not valid until the pilot selects

7.1 a datum (starting direction). This datum is normally magnetic north and so the pilot

m
must align the DG with the magnetic compass before take-off for the DG to be

co
useful.

l.
ai
gm
The DG cannot seek its datum and it needs to be realigned during flight to counter
the effects of real and apparent drift. The DG in its basic form, illustrated in Figure

i@
7.1, consists of a vertical card graduated in degrees attached to the vertical outer

ag
The Directional Gyroscope (DG)
gimbal of a gyro with a horizontal spin axis. The card is referenced against a lubber
sometimes referred to as the

c
line fixed to the aircraft.
es
Directional Indicator or DI, forms
vi
the basic heading reference in
When the rotor is spinning the rotor, gimbals and vertical card maintain their
ja

many light aircraft. The gyroscope

provides an excellent, stable alignment through the property of the rigidity. When the aircraft alters heading, the
(rigid) reference for direction movement of the lubber line relative to the card provides the indication of the
information that is displayed on a change of heading.
rotating card which looks like a
compass. The DG, however, is not The Directional Gyroscope has its rotor axis tied to the horizontal by a simple
a compass as it does not seek levelling system. Normal operations require the DG to be reset about every 15
magnetic north. minutes and this resetting process is completed while the aircraft is straight and
level. Resetting levels the rotor axis and aligns the axis to magnetic north.

Chapter 7 | Section 1 | Page 96

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Most small aircraft DGs are vacuum driven; the airflow is directed
at the rotor through twin jets or a knife edge levelling device. If the
rotor axis is not level, a small force is generated causing a
precession which drives the rotor to level the axis.

When spinning and aligned, the DG provides a good stable

reference with magnetic north as its datum. Unfortunately, the
gyro will drift from this datum and will need to be realigned
periodically.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 7.1 Directional Gyroscope Indication

Chapter 7 | Section 1 | Page 97

Chapter 7 | Section 2

Directional Gyroscope Errors

2. Directional Gyroscope Errors

2.1. Real Drift
7.2

m
Real drift is caused by gimbal bearing friction and imbalance (mechanical imperfections). Careful

co
manufacturing minimises the drift, however it cannot be eliminated and so the DG must be reset every 15

l.
ai
minutes to reduce real drift and other errors. Real drift rates of basic air driven instruments can exceed 15°

gm
per hour but modern electrical gyro compasses operated in the DG mode have drift rates of 1° per hour or
less.

i@
ag
Another cause of real drift is Gimballing Error. The purpose of the gimbals is to allow the aircraft to pitch, roll

c
and yaw around the gyro rotor without applying forces that would disturb the gyro. Provided that the
es
aircraft's heading is aligned with the gimbals (or is at 90° to the gimbals), pitch and roll movements can take
vi
ja

place. However the geometry of the simple 3-axis gimbal system is such that on the other headings
combined pitch and roll movements apply forces that result in a small amount of real drift.

2.2. Apparent Drift due to Earth Rotation

Assume a gyroscope with a rotor axis horizontal is initially aligned with true north. The gyroscope accepts
the aligned position as a point in space (not referenced to the earth). As the earth rotates the DG 'looks like'
it is drifting. The gyro is not at fault here as this apparent drift is due only to the rotation of the earth.

Chapter 7 | Section 2 | Page 98

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

earth rate error at that latitude. This torque is applied to the inner
gimbal causing precession of the rotor in the opposite direction to
the expected apparent drift.

Provided that there is no real drift, a compensated stationary DG

will remain aligned with the local meridian at the latitude for which
compensation was made. Flight to latitudes North or South of the
latitude of compensation will result in drift because the error due
to earth rotation will change. Flights to the East or West will be
across the Earth's meridians and because of convergency,

m
Figure 7.2 Apparent Drift due to Earth Rotation
another error called Transport is introduced.

co
A

l.
study of this drift indicates that at the equator no error (drift)

ai
gm
occurs while at the poles the error is approximately 15°/hr. This is
due to the earth's rate of rotation, 360° in approximately 24 hrs.

i@
ag
As the equator is 0° Latitude and the poles are 90° latitude, this

c
drift is noted to be proportional to the sine of the latitude. es
vi
° Earth Rate = 15° Sin Lat (per hour).
ja

Note. The actual error is 15.04° / hour which is a function of earth rotation
and the earth’s orbit around the sun.

2.3. Compensation for Apparent Drift due to

Earth Rotation
Apparent drift due to Earth Rotation is predictable (15° Sin Lat) Figure 7.3 Latitude Nut Earth Rotation Compensation

and can be accurately calculated. A compensation device (the Note. The gimbal is balanced when the nut is central.
LATITUDE NUT) is fitted to the inner gimbal of the DG. This
device is set for latitude and provides a torque proportional to the

Chapter 7 | Section 2 | Page 99

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.4. Apparent Drift due to Transport opposite effect. The Latitude Nut is designed to increase gyro
readings in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern
The error due to the movement of the DG over the earth is known Hemisphere all these effects are reversed.
as 'transport error'. This error is not normally compensated in
light aircraft but is minimised by re-setting the DG to the compass
heading every 15 minutes.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es Figure 7.5 Apparent Drift
vi
ja

Formulae for Apparent Drift

Figure 7.4 Transport Error Ear th Rotation = 15 Sin (Mean L at . per hour)

2.5. The Effects of Apparent Drift L atitude Nut = 15 Sin (L at . of compensation per hour)

By means of a simple diagram it can be seen that earth rotation Transpor t = Ch . L ong° Sin (Mean L at . )
will cause gyro readings (for constant true heading) to DECREASE
in Northern Hemisphere. Transport in the direction of earth
rotation (to the East) has a similar effect. Flight to the West has an

Chapter 7 | Section 2 | Page 100

Chapter 7 | Section 3

Calculation of Total DG Drift

3. Calculation of Total DG Drift

A general formula for total drift is below.

7.3 Total Dri f t = (± Random dri f t) + (± L atitude nut) + (± Ear th rotation) + (± Transpor t)

m
co
Or

l.
ai
GS(E − W )

gm
Tan (Mean L at . )°per hour
60

i@
Example 3

c ag
A DG which is free of random or real drift error, it has been compensated for
es
Latitude 30°N. The DG is flown in an aircraft which tracks to the West at GS
vi
ja

360kts, at latitude 45°N. What is the total drift rate of the DG?

Assume: Sin 30° = .5 Sin 45° = .7 Tan 45° = 1

Working
Random drift = Nil
Latitude nut = + 15 x Sin of compensation lat = +15 x 0.5 = +7.5° / hr
Earth rotation = - 15 x Sin mean lat = -15 x 0.7 = -10.5° / hr
Transport. = +360 / 60 x Tan mean lat = +6 x 1 = +6° /hr
Total Drift = (+7.5°) + ( -10.5°) + (+6°) = +3° / hr

Chapter 7 | Section 3 | Page 101

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Note:
LAT NUT effect is INCREASE (+) because it compensates for earth
rotation at 30°N.
EARTH RATE effect is DECREASE (-) because the aircraft is in the
Northern Hemisphere.
TRANSPORT effect is INCREASE (+) as the aircraft is tracking to the
West in the Northern Hemisphere.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 7 | Section 3 | Page 102

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 7

1. The DG makes use of a gyroscopic rotor with its spin axis 3. The magnitude of gimballing errors affecting the DG is
in the …………… plane. The indications of turning are dependent on:
obtained by means of the gyroscopic property of
i) latitude
……………….
ii) the angle of pitch or bank
a. horizontal/precession
iii) the angle between the rotor axis and the longitudinal
b. vertical/precession
axis of the aircraft

m
c. horizontal/rigidity

co
a. all are true
d. vertical/rigidity

l.
b. and (ii) are true

ai
gm
c. and (iii) are true
2. The DG is self-compensating for earth rate error by:
d. and (iii) are true

i@
a. periodic resynchronization of the DG with the magnetic

ag
compass.

c
4. A DG is free from random drift and is balanced to give
es
b. adjustment of the rotational speed during initial calibration.
zero precession when stationary in latitude 40°N. How
vi
c. means of an adjustable weight of the outer gimbal which would the indicator readings change during a flight on a
ja

precesses the DG at a rate depending on latitude. track of 270°T at latitude 40°N?

d. deliberately unbalancing the inner gimbal so that a constant a. readings would increase.
torque and precession are applied. b. readings would increase but only if the rate of change of
longitude is less than 15° per hour.
c. readings would remain constant provided the latitude remains
40°N.
d. readings would decrease.

Chapter 7 | Section 4 | Page 103

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 7
Use the following information to answer question 5 and 6.
7. A typical air-driven DG has gimbals which permit
A directional gyro in an aircraft is corrected to give zero drift manoeuvres of _______ in pitch and ___________ in roll.
when the aircraft is stationary on the ground in latitude 38°S.
PITCH ROLL
Assuming the gyro to be free of random wander, what change
in gyro readings may be expected: a. 55° 55°
b. 45° 45°
5. When the aircraft is stationary on the ground at 45°S. c. 30° 45°

m
d. 10° 30°

co
(Sin 38° =.62 Sin 45° =.71)

l.
ai
a. +1.35°/hr.
8. A DGI is compensated for earth rate at 40°N. With the

gm
b. -1.35°/hr.
aircraft flying at 300 kt groundspeed on a true track of

i@
c. -19.95°/hr. 090° at 50°N it is found that a clockwise misalignment of

ag
d. +19.95°/hr. the gyro axis from the local meridian is occurring at the

c
es rate of 10°/hr. How much of that rate is due to random
wander?
vi
6. When tracking east along the parallel of 60°S at a
ja

groundspeed of 480 kt. (Sin 40°= .64 Sin 50°= .77 Cos 50°= .64 Tan 50°=1.19)
(Sin 60° =.87 Cos 60° =.50 Tan 60° = 1.73) a. -2.1°/hr.
a. -8.51°/hr b. -14.0°/hr.
b. -10.09°/hr c. +17.1°/hr.
c. +17.60°/hr d. +17.9°/hr.
d. +36.19°/hr

Chapter 7 | Section 4 | Page 104

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 7

11. A directional gyro indicator is basically a ……… ………

9. A frictionless DG is set to give zero drift when stationary
……… gyro.
on the ground at latitude 45°N. Prior to take-off the DG is
set to the exact runway direction in degrees magnetic at a a. horizontal axis earth
place where variation is 10°W. What will be the gyro b. horizontal axis tied
reading after a 40 minute flight on a track of 090°T with nil c. vertical axis earth
drift at latitude 45°N at groundspeed 540 knots?
d. vertical axis tied

m
(Sin 45° =.71 Cos 45° = .71 Tan 45° = 1.0)

co
a. 084°

l.
12. Compared with a magnetic compass, a directional gyro

ai
b. 091° indicator has ……… short term accuracy and ……… long

gm
c. 094° term accuracy

i@
d. 096° a. worse better

ag
b. better better

c
es
10. A directional gyro in a stationary aircraft at 50°N has a c. better worse
vi
drift rate of 8° per hour, the readings decreasing. At what d. worse worse
ja

latitude would this gyro have a zero drift rate? Assume

that the aircraft is stationary at the new latitude.
a. 13.4°S
b. 27.7°S
c. 26.8°N
d. 13.5°N

Chapter 7 | Section 4 | Page 105

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 7

Questions 14 and 15 are typical of gyro questions found in the

13. As a result of astronomical precession (earth rotation) in
OPS exam.
the Northern hemisphere, the gyro reading in a stationary
aircraft will tend to ………. and the end of the spin axis will
appear to rotate to the………. 14. An aircraft leaves point W (50°N 050°W) on a true heading
of 100° while the gyro compass which is assumed to be
a. increase right
working perfectly and is without an hourly rate corrector
b. decrease left
unit indicates 140°.

m
c. Increase left

co
The aircraft arrives at point X (30°N 010°W) on a true heading
d. decrease right

l.
of 110°. On the journey from W to X the gyro compass

ai
remains in the free gyro mode. If the flight lasted 2 hours, the

gm
gyro heading at X will be:

i@
(Sin 40° =.64 Cos 40° = .77 Tan 40° = .84)

cag
a. 065°
es
b. 105°
vi
ja

c. 115°
d. 144°

Chapter 7 | Section 4 | Page 106

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 7
15. An aircraft leaves point S (40°S 090°E) on a true heading of
250° while the gyro compass which is assumed to be
working perfectly and is without an hourly rate corrector
unit indicates 180°.
The aircraft arrives at point T (50°S 070°E) on a true heading
of 280°. On the journey from S to T the gyro compass
remains in the free gyro mode.

m
If the flight lasted 2 hours 20 mins, the gyro heading at T will

co
be:

l.
ai
(Sin 45° =.71 Cos 45° = .71 Tan 45° = 1.0)

gm
a. 221°

i@
b. 249°

ag
c. 263°

c
d. 291°
es
vi
ja

Chapter 7 | Section 4 | Page 107

Chapter 8

The Attitude
Indicator (Artificial
Horizon)

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Chapter 8 | Section 1

Principle of the Artificial Horizon

The Artificial Horizon provides an indication of the aircraft attitude in PITCH and
BANK. It is a master instrument and has no lag. The horizon indication replaces the
earth's natural horizon as a reference when the natural horizon is not visible.

8.1 The AH (sometimes referred to as the Attitude Indicator or AI) uses a tied gyro.

m
Gravity sensing devices are used to influence the rotor axis to keep it pointing at

co
the centre of the earth. This type of tied gyro is called an earth gyro. The rotor is

l.
powered by either a vacuum (air) system or electrical; the gravity seeking devices

ai
are also either vacuum or electrical. The rotor plane of rotation is horizontal, the

gm
rotor axis is vertical. The horizon indicator is attached to the inner gimbal and is

i@
therefore horizontal when the rotor axis is vertical.

c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 8.1 The Vacuum Powered Artificial Horizon

Chapter 8 | Section 1 | Page 109

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The horizon bar is pivoted at the rear of the instrument and is

1. Principle of the Artificial Horizon controlled by a guide pin from the inner gimbal which projects
The AH makes use of the gyroscopic property of rigidity to through a curved slot cut into the outer gimbal. The outer gimbal
provide the pitch and bank indications. When the aircraft pitches with the aircraft.
manoeuvres, the rotor and inner gimbal maintain their alignment
and the aircraft moves around them.

When the aircraft rolls, the horizon bar and bank pointer, which
are controlled by the gyro, maintain their alignment and the
aircraft symbol and scale move in relation to them. Bank

m
indications of 10, 20, 30, 45, 60 and 90 degrees are normal.

co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
Figure 8.3 Pitch Up Indication

c
es
vi
ja

Figure 8.2 Left Bank Indication

The indication of PITCH attitude is given by the position of the

horizon bar, in relation to the aircraft symbol.

Pitch attitude is measured by the angle between outer and inner

gimbals but as this could only be viewed from the side, the
horizon bar is needed to bring this information to the face of the
instrument.
Figure 8.4 Attitude Indications

Chapter 8 | Section 1 | Page 110

Chapter 8 | Section 2

Erection System

2. Erection System
A number of mechanical erection systems have been developed. These devices

8.2 sense gravity (centre of the earth) and tie the AH rotor axis to the vertical. The

m
diagram shows a vacuum driven AH which has a pendulous unit at the lower end

co
of the rotor.

l.
ai
gm
The pendulous unit has two main functions:

i@
When the rotor is not turning the mass causes the gyro to rest with its axis vertical;

ag
when vacuum is applied and the rotor starts, it will be very near its normal

c
operating position; and
es
vi
The pendulous vanes are part of the pendulous unit so they act to keep the rotor
ja

axis vertical after the vacuum is applied. If the axis is displaced from the vertical by
turbulence or any topple, the vanes sense gravity and precess the axis towards its
correct vertical alignment.

2.1. Gimbal Limits

Physically fitting a gyroscope into a small instrument casing has its own set of
problems. The AH gimbals (tied gyro) have freedom in three axes, but there is a

Figure 8.5 Pendulous Vane Erection System Chapter 8 | Section 2 | Page 111
 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

physical limit on at least one axis. Modern instruments have 360°

freedom in roll, but are limited to ± 85° in pitch.

If the limit stop is reached during flight a large force is applied to a

gimbal, a rapid precession is caused and the gyro will 'topple'.

2.2. Caging
Older gyros were fitted with a mechanical locking device to cage
(to hold the gyro gimbals locked at 90°). This would allow the pilot

m
to complete manoeuvres which could topple the gyro. The

co
instrument would then be 'uncaged' and it would resume its

l.
normal function.

ai
gm
Note. Not all gyros have caging devices. This means that if the gyro topples,

i@
its reference is lost (rotor axis displaced). The erection system will
re-establish the reference but this could take as long as 15 minutes. The

ag
erection rate on vacuum driven artificial horizons is usually fairly slow ( ≈ 8°

c
per minute) to avoid causing other errors. es
vi
ja

Chapter 8 | Section 2 | Page 112

Chapter 8 | Section 3

The Electrically Powered Artificial Horizon

3. The Electrically Powered Artificial Horizon

The principle of operation of the electric powered artificial horizon is similar to the

8.3 vacuum system. The rotor has an electric motor incorporated in its construction

m
usually powered by alternating current with a rotation speed of about 23000 RPM.

co
Gravity sensing is achieved by a number of mercury switches. The principle

l.
ai
difference between a vacuum and electrical gyro is the speed of rotation and that

gm
the later does not rely on a heavy mass base to provide a vertical orientation.

i@
c ag
es
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ja

Figure 8.6 Mercury Switches

When the rotor axis is 'off vertical', mercury completes the circuit, allowing electric
current to flow to torque motors. The torque motor provides a force at one of the
gimbals which causes a precession to drive the rotor axis back to the vertical
position. At this position the mercury switches are level and therefore the electrical
signal is open circuit, leaving the gyro in its correct position.

Chapter 8 | Section 3 | Page 113

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The normal erection rate occurs when 20 V AC (400 Hz) supply is

provided for that circuit. During fast erection 115 V AC is
provided.

3.2. Fast Erection Precautions

Must only be activated when the aircraft is straight and level with
zero acceleration (to prevent the gyro being driven to a larger
error).

m
The fast erect switch must not be activated for more than 30-60

co
seconds (the high current could overheat the torque motors).

l.
ai
gm
Figure 8.7 Mercury Switches & Torque Motors

i@
3.1. Electric Control

cag
The mercury switch normal erection rate is set at 3° or 4° per
minute.
es
vi
ja

An advantage of this electric control system is that 'cut out'

switches (also mercury switches) will turn the erection system off
if an error is likely to be caused.

While a caging device is not available, a 'Fast erect push switch'

is. This will erect the gyro at a rate of 120° per minute if a limit
stop has been exceeded and the gyro has toppled.

Chapter 8 | Section 3 | Page 114

Chapter 8 | Section 4

Stand-by Attitude Indicator

4. Stand-by Attitude Indicator

Commercial transport aircraft are often fitted with back-up systems should the

8.4 primary instrumentation fail. The stand-by horizon has its own vertical gyro and is

m
usually powered by an inverter connected to the battery. This satisfies the

co
requirement of separate and independent power sources.

l.
ai
gm
i@
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es
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ja

Figure 8.8 Standby Attitude Indicator

Chapter 8 | Section 4 | Page 115

Chapter 8 | Section 5

Attitude Indicator Errors

5. Attitude Indicator Errors

5.1. Acceleration Error
8.5

m
When an aircraft is accelerated an error is induced in the AH. This is a small but noticeable error that is more

co
obvious on vacuum powered horizons than on electrical types.

l.
ai
Roll Error. The mass at the bottom of the gyro tends to lag. This applies a force to the inner gimbal which

gm
is transferred to the rotor, resulting in precession at 90° (in direction of rotation) to the direction of lag. The

i@
result of this precession is a false indication of right bank (right wing down).

ag
Pitch Error. The pendulous vanes (side vanes) also lag. The unbalanced airflow produces a force on the

c
es
side of the inner gimbal that results in a precession which causes the horizon indicator to move down and
vi
the false indication is a climb.
ja

Note. Acceleration error - in the AH is an indication of a pitch up and bank to the right in
the order of 2 - 3°. This error exists while the acceleration is applied and for about a
minute after the acceleration is removed. Deceleration error is opposite to acceleration
error.

Figure 8.9 Acceleration Error Chapter 8 | Section 5 | Page 116

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

5.2. Turn Errors

When an aircraft turns, the mass at the bottom of the gyro tends
to continue in its original direction (thrown outwards); the
pendulous vanes now sense the resultant of gravity and turning
forces and an error is induced.

The magnitude of this error depends on the aircraft speed, the

rate of turn and length of time the turn is maintained. The
pendulous vanes are modified and the erection rate if kept low to

m
minimise the turn error.

co
l.
Prediction of Turning Error

ai
gm
The turning errors described below are due to centrifugal effects

i@
on the erection system Figure 8.10 Turning Error

ag
The normal erection system of an electrical A/H using the mercury
5.3. Summary of Turning Errors
c
es
switch, torque motor and precession will cause the spin axis to
vi
take up the false vertical. With a suction A/H, the pendulous
ja

TURN PITCH INDICATION BANK INDICATION

vanes are displaced with the same result.
START 0° CORRECT CORRECT
The top of the spin axis is being consistently displaced inwards AFTER 90° OVER PITCH UNDER BANK
towards the centre of turn. The situation is made complicated as AFTER 180° OVER PITCH CORRECT
the initial displacement causing error in bank becomes a AFTER 270° OVER PITCH OVER BANK
component of error in pitch after 90°. Furthermore the errors are
AFTER 360° CORRECT CORRECT
accumulative.

Note: the pitch and bank errors shown in the table below are the same for a
RIGHT turn.

Chapter 8 | Section 5 | Page 117

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

5.4. Acceleration and Turn Errors (Electrical AH)

These errors still exist in electric horizons, however, because of
the cut out switches (0.18g or 10° Bank), these errors are
minimised. Errors are also reduced by the higher rotor speeds of
the electric horizons and by the absence of a heavy base. This is
not required as the electric horizon is equipped with a fast
erection system for initial alignment.

m
Note. Most electric horizons are powered by Alternating Current. As most

co
General Aviation aircraft have DC electrical systems, they usually use
vacuum powered artificial horizons. Larger aircraft use high quality electrical

l.
ai
or electronic Attitude Indicators powered direct from the AC system or via

gm
an inverter.

i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 8 | Section 5 | Page 118

Chapter 8 | Section 6

The Remote Vertical Gyro

6. The Remote Vertical Gyro

A Remote Vertical Gyro performs the same functions as an Artificial Horizon in that it provides a stable

8.6 reference for the measurement of pitch and roll attitude.

m
co
However instead of providing the attitude displays by direct means, the remote gyro makes use of a synchro

l.
system and amplifiers to transmit pitch and roll information to the attitude display, known as the Attitude

ai
gm
Director Indicator (ADI). The synchro system also provides attitude signals to the AFCS auto-pilot and flight
director.

i@
c ag
es The Remote Vertical Gyro provides an input to ‘integrated’ attitude director
vi
displays which bring together attitude, radio navigation and auto-pilot/ flight
ja

director derived information, hence the name ADI. The same inputs are
combined within the Automatic Flight Control System to provide flight
guidance.

There is normally a monitor unit sensing and comparing outputs data from
the VGs of a multi display system.

The compact VG is more accurate and is capable of providing many outputs

for other systems, saving on power consumption, weight and space.

Chapter 8 | Section 6 | Page 119

Figure 8.11 Remote Vertical Gyroscope
Chapter 8 | Section 7

Pre-flight Checks

7. Pre-flight Checks
Glass Clean

8.7

m
Vacuum in green or electric flag away

co
Datum set (aircraft silhouette).

l.
ai
gm
Note: Do not adjust in flight
Wings remain level during taxi

i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 8 | Section 7 | Page 120

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 8
1. In the diagram, what is the bank 4. During acceleration the vacuum driven AH may indicate a
attitude of the aircraft? false:
a. 15° LEFT a. pitch up due to the lag of the pendulous vanes
b. 20° LEFT b. pitch up due to the lag of the heavy base
c. 15° RIGHT c. right bank due to the lag of the pendulous vanes
d. 20° RIGHT d. right bank due to the lag of the mercury switch.

m
co
2. A typical vacuum-driven AH has _________ of freedom in 5. The mercury level switches of the electrical AH are
mounted:

l.
roll and _________ in pitch.

ai
gm
ROLL PITCH a. on the outer gimbal
b. between the outer gimbal and the casing

i@
a. 45° 10°
c. on the inner gimbal

ag
b. 90° 30°
d. on the instrument casing.

c
c. 90° 45° es
d. 360° 85°
vi
ja

6. The AH has ……… degrees of freedom and a ………spin

axis.
3. The "fast erect" switch on an electrical AH:
a. two vertical
a. should only be used on the ground.
b. one horizontal
b. cannot be used if the 10° AOB (0.18g) limits of the mercury
c. one vertical
switches have been exceeded.
d. two horizontal
c. cannot be used if the gyro has toppled.
d. must only be activated if the aircraft is straight and level.

Chapter 8 | Section 8 | Page 121

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 8

7. The outer gimbal of the AH has freedom of movement 10. After 90° of a turn at a constant pitch attitude and bank,
about: the artificial horizon is likely to display:
a. the aircraft normal axis a. excessive pitch up but correct bank
b. the aircraft pitch axis b. pitch attitude and bank correct
c. the aircraft roll axis c. excessive pitch up and bank too low
d. both pitch and roll axes. d. excessive pitch up and bank too high

m
co
8. The electrical AH uses a ___________ gyroscope which is

l.
ai
maintained ________ by means of ____________ .

gm
a. tied vertical pendulous vanes

i@
b. earth vertical case levelling

ag
c. tied horizontal mercury switches

c
d. earth vertical torque motors
es
vi
ja

9. The rotor axis of an electrical artificial horizon is tied to

the earth’s vertical by :
a. four pendulous vanes
b. the roll cut-out
c. the low centre of gravity of the rotor housing
d. two mercury switches and two torque motors

Chapter 8 | Section 8 | Page 122

Chapter 9

Turn and Balance

Indicator

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Chapter 9 | Section 1

Balance Indicator

1. Balance Indicator
If an aircraft is not in balanced flight, it will be either slipping or skidding. A curved

9.1 glass tube filled with damping oil and containing a ball is provided to indicate slip

m
or skid. The position of the ball is determined by the resultant of centrifugal

co
reaction and weight.

l.
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gm
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Figure 9.1 Balance Indications

Chapter 9 | Section 1 | Page 124

Chapter 9 | Section 2

Turn Indicator

2. Turn Indicator
The turn indicator uses a rate gyro which has freedom in the aircraft's rolling and

9.2 pitching planes but which is denied freedom in the yawing plane. Aircraft

m
movement in the yawing plane causes a force to be applied to the gyro rotor. The

co
resulting precession moves the pointer to indicate the rate of turn. Note that the

l.
ai
rate of turn represents the rate at which heading is changing and so it is measured

gm
with reference to the true vertical rather than the normal axis.

i@
The turn indicator is required to show a steady indication for any given rate of turn

ag
but if during the turn a force continues to be applied, the precession will continue

c
and the indicated rate of turn will increase. It is important to understand how the
es
force between the aircraft and gyro rotor is cancelled.
vi
ja

It is necessary to the design of the turn indicator that the spin axis of the rotor is
transverse and that the rotor spins up and away (as viewed by the pilot).

In the diagram opposite, the aircraft is yawing to the right. The rotor is denied
freedom in the yawing plane and so a force (F1) is applied. This force turned
through 90° results in precession (P1) which causes tilt of the gimbal to the left.

The tilt of the gimbal causes a force (F2) from the spring to be applied resulting in
SECONDARY PRECESSION (P2) which acts in the same direction of yaw force
Figure 9.2 Turn Indicator (F1).

Chapter 9 | Section 2 | Page 125

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Under the influence of force F1, the gimbal tilts until there is
enough spring force F2 to produce secondary precession P2 at a
rate equal to the rate of turn of the aircraft. At this point, there is
no longer force F1 between aircraft and gyro. There will be no
more tilt of the gimbal and so a steady indication of rate of turn is
achieved. The rate of indicated turn depends totally on the angle
of tilt of the rotor.

Rate of Secondary Precession is Equal to the Rate of Yaw

2.1. Rates of Turn

m
co
Rate 1 = 180°/min or 3° per second

l.
ai
gm
Rate 2 = 360°/min or 6° per second

i@
Rate 3 = 540°/min or 9° per second

ag
2.2. Electrical and Suction Driven Gyros
c
es
Older turn indicators were powered by vacuum systems, however
vi
ja

these indicators could have rotor speed problems. Most modern

turn indicators are electrically powered by direct current (ie.
battery power). On light aircraft, it is common for the DG and AH
to be vacuum powered. The electrically powered turn indicator
allows the aircraft to meet the IFR equipment requirements of
having a separate and independent power source to safe guard
against total failure of the instruments showing attitude. (CS
Figure 9.3 Turn Indicator Forces and Precession
23.1303 refers)

Chapter 9 | Section 2 | Page 126

Chapter 9 | Section 3

Errors of the Turn Indicator

3. Errors of the Turn Indicator

3.1. Variation in Rotor Speed
9.3

m
As described earlier, the correct and steady indication of rate of turn occurs when

co
the spring force (F2) is producing secondary precession (P2) equal to the rate of

l.
ai
aircraft turn.

gm
If rotor speed is allowed to vary, rigidity will vary and so will the force required to

i@
produce a given rate of precession.

ag
For example if rotor speed falls, less spring force will be required to produce

c
es
secondary precession equal to the rate of turn. The gimbal will tilt less and so the
vi
instrument will under-read the true rate of turn.
ja

Rule:

Angle of (rotor)tilt θ= Rate of Turn (1,2,3 …) x Rigidity ( ω I )

Under-speed causes Under-read

Over-speed causes Over-read

Chapter 9 | Section 3 | Page 127

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

3.2. Variation in TAS 3.3. Looping Error

The angle of bank required for a given rate of turn varies with If the aircraft pitches without any applied bank, as the plane in
TAS. If the TAS of the aircraft is significantly different from the TAS which the rotor is spinning is coincidental, no force will be applied
values assumed for the calibration of the instrument, a small error to the gyro rotor.
will result.
If however the aircraft pitches when the gimbal is tilted, in a turn,
This occurs because the alignment of the gimbal relative to the a force is applied to the rotor resulting in an erroneous indication
horizontal is affected by the angle of bank so moving the sensitive dependant on the direction of turn, the size and direction the
axis of the rate gyro away from the vertical. pitching force.

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gm
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Figure 9.4 Variation in TAS

A similar error to that occurring at high TAS will occur if the

aircraft is over-banked, as in a SLIP situation.

The true rate of turn is only displayed in a balanced turn at the

calibration airspeed.

Chapter 9 | Section 3 | Page 128

Chapter 9 | Section 4

Turn Coordinator

4. Turn Coordinator
The turn coordinator is a version of the turn indicator which is found in light aircraft. The gimbal is tilted

9.4 upwards by 30 - 40° so altering the direction of the sensitive axis. As a result the turn coordinator is

m
sensitive to roll as well as yaw.

l.co
When the aircraft commences a turn, it is roll which is first sensed by the turn coordinator. Once the required

ai
gm
bank has been established, the yaw rate increases and so it this that the turn coordinator is reacting to.

i@
It gives a more rapid indication of a wing that has dropped than the turn indicator which only responds to

ag
yaw but, on the other hand, creates difficulties in determining whether the indication is due primarily to bank

c
or yaw. es
vi
Turn coordinators are not as well damped as turn indicators because this would remove some of their
ja

usefulness as roll indicators. Unfortunately this means that in turbulent conditions they are very difficult to
interpret.

If the aircraft is skidding, with yaw and roll in opposition to each other, it is possible that the turn coordinator
will show wings level.

As the turn coordinator does not behave like a turn indicator, the appearance is changed to a miniature
symbolic aircraft with reference marks opposite its wing tips. To avoid confusion with the Artificial Horizon,
the Turn Coordinator is placarded:

"NO PITCH INFORMATION".

Chapter 9 | Section 4 | Page 129

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

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Figure 9.5 Turn Coordinator

Chapter 9 | Section 4 | Page 130

Chapter 9 | Section 5

Useful Formulas

5. Useful Formulas for Rate and Radius of

Turn
9.5

m
Calculating the required Angle of Bank for a rate 1 turn.

co
AoB = TAS/10 + 7 eg. TAS 110/10 + 7 = 18°AoB

l.
ai
gm
Calculating the radius of the turn.

i@
Radius = TAS/ Rate of turn(1,2 or3) x π x 60

ag
eg. TAS 110/ 1 x 3.142 x 60 = 0.58nm

c
es
vi
ja

Chapter 9 | Section 5 | Page 131

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 9

1. The rate gyro used in the turn indicator has 3. At Rate 2 an aircraft will complete a 360° turn in
………………… gimbal(s) and provides an indication of …………………… Rate 3 corresponds to
rate of turn primarily by the property of ……………………… degrees per second.
……………………….. a. 2 minutes 9
a. one precession b. 1 minute 6
b. two precession c. 1 minute 9

m
c. one rigidity d. 2 minutes 6

co
d. two rigidity

l.
ai
4. The turn indicator will show a steady reading

gm
2. Compared with the Artificial Horizon, the speed of the corresponding to the rate at which the aircraft is turning

i@
rotor in the turn indicator is …………………… and it is when:

ag
……………………… important that this speed is kept a. the force from the calibrated spring balances the primary

c
constant. es precession
a. slower more
vi
b. the rate of secondary precession is equal to the rate of turn of
ja

b. faster more
the aircraft
c. slower less
c. the magnitude of the primary torque overcomes gyroscopic
d. faster less
inertia to produce primary precession.
d. the primary torque is balanced by spring tension.

Chapter 9 | Section 6 | Page 132

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 9

5. If the rpm of the rotor in a turn and slip indicator is lower

8. The rate of turn indicator uses a ……………… gyroscope
than normal, the turn indicator will:
which spins ………………………
a. overread the correct rate of turn
a. space up and away from the pilot
b. underread the correct rate of turn
b. tied anti-clockwise when viewed from above
c. oscillate around the correct reading due to reduced rigidity
c. rate up and away from the pilot
d. be unaffected provided the rpm is constant.
d. earth clockwise when viewed from above

m
co
6. To complete a 90° turn at an indicated Rate 1 takes 50

l.
9. Which of the following correctly describes the artificial

ai
seconds. The likely cause of this error is:

gm
horizon and turn and slip indications illustrated below?
a. the calibrated spring is too strong

i@
b. the rotor speed is too high Bank Angle Rate of Turn Slip/Skid

ag
c. the rotor speed is too low

c
a. 45°L 3°/sec Slip
d. reduced suction at high altitude
es
b. 45°L 6°/sec Skid
vi
ja

c. 27°L 3°/sec Slip

7. The rate gyro in a turn indicator has freedom of movement
d. 27°L 6°/sec Skid
in …………… plane(s). It is constructed to ………………
a. one / indicate the angle of bank by gyro rigidity.
b. two / measure rate of turn in the third plane.
c. two / use the principle of topple in the vertical plane.
d. one / utilise gyro inertia to show rate of turn.

Chapter 9 | Section 6 | Page 133

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 9

10. The required angle of bank in a properly balanced turn

varies with 12. The gimbal axis of the turn coordinator is mounted at
about …………………… with respect to the aircraft's
i) the rate of turn and
longitudinal axis thus making it sensitive to
ii) the TAS …………………… of the aircraft.
Statements (i) and (ii) are: a. 45° pitching and banking

m
a. false false b. 45° pitching and turning

co
b. true true c. 30° banking and turning

l.
ai
c. false true d. 30° banking and pitching

gm
d. true false

i@
13. The turn coordinator, when compared with the turn and

ag
11. The approximate radius of the turning circle of an aircraft slip indicator, responds ............ when a turn is

c
making a rate 2 turn at a TAS of 180 kt is: es commenced and recovery from manoeuvres creating
unusual attitudes is …………………
vi
a. 1/2 nm
ja

a. sluggishly easier
b. 1 nm
b. quickly more difficult
c. 2 nm
c. quickly easier
d. 3 nm
d. sluggishly more difficult

Chapter 9 | Section 6 | Page 134

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 9

14. If the rotational speed of the rotor in the turn indicator is 15. Which of the following would result in the largest
lower than the design value, the instrument will under- displacement of the pointer showing rate of turn on the
read the true rate of turn because: Turn Indicator?
a. the primary precession is increased due to reduced rigidity. a. small angle of bank with high TAS
b. the secondary precession is increased and will exceed the b. large angle of bank with high TAS

m
co
aircraft’s rate of yaw. c. large angle of bank with low TAS

l.
c. the secondary precession is reduced because of reduced d. small angle of bank with low TAS

ai
gm
spring tension.
d. the required secondary precession is produced by less spring

i@
tension.

cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 9 | Section 6 | Page 135

Chapter 10

Terrestrial
Magnetism

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 10 | Section 1

Magnetic Field

For thousands of years the oxide of iron called magnetite has been observed to
attract small pieces of iron. This property is known as 'magnetism'. Another property

10.1
for which magnetite was known was its North-seeking capability: If mounted on
wood and floated in water it would swing round and align itself in a roughly

m
North-South direction, so acting as a primitive compass. In more recent history it

co
was found that some metallic elements and alloys (mainly 'ferrous' - iron and steel)

l.
could be given these properties, bars of such magnetised material are now known

ai
as 'magnets'.

gm
i@
1. Magnetic Field

ag
The field of a magnet is the space around it in which its magnetic influence is felt.

c
es
This may be illustrated by placing a card over a bar magnet and scattering iron
vi
filings on it. When the card is shaken or tapped the filings will take up the field
ja

pattern as shown below.

Figure 10.1 Basic Magnetic Field

Chapter 10 | Section 1 | Page 137

Chapter 10 | Section 2

Poles of a Magnet

2. Poles of a Magnet
From the diagram it can be seen that the 'lines of force' traced by the iron filings

10.2 converge towards small areas near (but not exactly at) the ends of the magnet.

m
co
These two areas are called the 'poles' of the magnet and are where the properties

l.
of magnetism are most strongly displayed.

ai
gm
Magnets are made in various shapes but each magnet always has two poles. By

i@
convention these poles are described as RED and BLUE.

ag
If a magnet is cut into two pieces, each piece will have two poles, RED at one end

c
es
and BLUE at the other. If two such magnets are placed close together, it is found
vi
that:
ja

Like poles repel each other e.g. RED repels RED

Unlike poles attract each other e.g. RED attracts BLUE

Chapter 10 | Section 2 | Page 138

Chapter 10 | Section 3

Inverse Square Law

3. Inverse Square Law

When two bar magnets are brought close together, end to end, and then moved

10.3 apart again, it is most noticeable that the forces of attraction or repulsion

m
strengthen rapidly at short range. This is because magnetic forces behave

co
according to an inverse square law, in other words, the force exerted between two

l.
ai
magnetic poles is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between

gm
them, or:

i@
1
F = Force Between the Poles. Fα

ag
d2

c
es D = Distance Between the Poles
vi
ja

The repulsive force between two like poles also depends on the strength of these
poles. For instance, if the strength of one of the poles is doubled, then the
repulsive force is doubled.

Therefore, we can say that the force between two poles is directly proportional to
the pole strengths m1 and m2 (and, as stated before, inversely proportional to the
distance2 between them) or:
m1 × m2
M = Strength of each Pole Fα
d2
D = Distance Between the Poles

Chapter 10 | Section 3 | Page 139

Chapter 10 | Section 4

Magnetic Moment of a Magnet

4. Magnetic Moment of a Magnet

The term magnetic moment is used to express the strength of a magnet by

10.4 indicating how strongly a magnet tries to align itself with a magnetic field.

m
co
The magnet system in a compass must be very sensitive for it to be responsive to

l.
the earth's weak field. This requirement is met by using a 'strong' magnet or

ai
gm
magnets - in other words magnets with high magnetic moments.

i@
This is preferable to increasing the magnet's effective length which, though

ag
increasing the magnetic moment, would also increase the moment of inertia, (as

c
mass is increased) making the system mechanically sluggish.
es
vi
Ferromagnetic material can be broadly divided into two classes, hard iron and soft
ja

iron. The words hard and soft do not refer to the physical properties of the material
but to their magnetic characteristics.

A strong magnetising field is required to produce magnetic saturation in hard iron.

Hard iron magnetism is said to be 'permanent', meaning that the material, typically
steel containing cobalt or chromium, remains magnetised for an indefinite period
after it has been removed from the magnetising field.

Such a substance is suitable for permanent magnets.

Chapter 10 | Section 4 | Page 140

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Soft iron magnetism is called 'temporary' (or 'transient' or

'induced') the substance being easy to saturate magnetically with
only a weak magnetising field but retaining little or no magnetism
when the field is removed. Nearly pure iron behaves in this way.

Some materials exhibit magnetic characteristics which lie

somewhere between those of hard iron and soft iron.

The substance can be magnetised but this 'sub-permanent'

magnetism is lost partly or wholly over a period of time.

m
co
In summary, hard iron requires greater energy to be magnetised

l.
but a permanent magnet is formed.

ai
gm
Soft iron is easy to magnetise but quickly loses its magnetic

i@
properties.

ag
These facts are important as they will help us understand how the

c
es
combined magnetism of aircraft components forms a magnetic
vi
field which interferes with the earth's magnetic field at the
ja

compass position.

This causes the compass needle to be displaced from the

magnetic meridian by an angle referred to as Deviation (see
Chapter 13).

Chapter 10 | Section 4 | Page 141

Chapter 10 | Section 5

Magnetisation

5. Magnetisation
Magnetism may be induced in an un-magnetised bar of

10.5 iron by one of the following methods:

m
co
By stroking an iron bar repeatedly in the same direction

l.
with one end of a magnet, a slow process which will Figure 10.2 Magnetism By Solenoid

ai
gm
result in magnetisation of the iron bar.

i@
By aligning the iron bar with the lines of force of a magnetic field and subjecting it to vibration or

ag
hammering. Such agitation during manufacture (in the earth's magnetic field) is the main cause of aircraft

c
magnetism. An aircraft being assembled on a Northerly heading in the earth's field will acquire a permanent
es
magnetic polarisation.
vi
ja

In the case of soft iron simply by subjecting it to a magnetic field, magnetic polarisation is induced.

By placing the specimen within a solenoid (a cylindrical coil of wire) carrying a Direct Current. This is the
most satisfactory method as the current flowing in the coil produces a concentrated magnetic field along
the axis of the coil so that a high degree of magnetism can be induced in the iron. (Note that the amount of
magnetisation which can be induced is not unlimited because, at a certain level, the iron becomes
magnetically 'saturated').

The diagram shows the polarity of the magnetism induced in the bar inside the solenoid. (If the current flow
were reversed, the induced magnetic polarity would be reversed.)

Chapter 10 | Section 5 | Page 142

Chapter 10 | Section 6

Demagnetisation

6. Demagnetisation
Three ways of removing most or all of the magnetism from a magnetised item are

10.6 listed below:

m
co
Shock. A magnetised bar of iron can be placed at right angles to the earth's

l.
magnetic field and hammered.

ai
gm
Heat. If the specimen is heated to about 900 C, it loses its magnetism and this

i@
does not return as the specimen cools.

ag
A.C. Solenoid. The two somewhat drastic methods above could obviously not

c
es be used to demagnetise a delicate aircraft component. Instead, the component
is placed inside a solenoid carrying alternating current, the amplitude of which is
vi
ja

gradually reduced to zero. The strong alternating magnetic field produced by the
alternating current keeps reversing the direction of magnetisation (that is the
polarity of the magnetism) in the specimen. Not only is the polarity being
reversed, but the intensity of magnetisation is being reduced as the current is
reduced. Very quickly the specimen's magnetism is reduced to zero or very
nearly zero.

Chapter 10 | Section 6 | Page 143

Chapter 10 | Section 7

Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials

7. Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials

The important magnetic materials are the 'ferrous' metals, iron and steel, steel

10.7 being iron alloyed with substances such as carbon, cobalt, nickel, chromium and

m
tungsten. These metals are called 'ferromagnetic' and in an aircraft they may be

co
magnetised and produce deviation in the aircraft's compasses.

l.
ai
gm
Many materials used in aircraft construction are non-magnetic and do not affect
the compass. Examples of such non-ferrous substances are aluminium, duralumin,

i@
brass, copper, plastic and paint.

c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 10 | Section 7 | Page 144

Chapter 10 | Section 8

The Earth's Magnetic Field

8. The Earth's Magnetic Field

The Earth behaves as though a huge permanent magnet were situated near the

10.8 centre producing a magnetic field over the surface. Of the many theories put

m
forward to explain this magnetism, none has met with universal acceptance.

co
l.
The poles of this hypothetical earth-magnet do not lie on the earth's spin axis (this

ai
gm
unfortunate lack of symmetry giving rise to magnetic variation).

i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 10.3 Magnetism around the Earth

The Earth's magnetic North Pole lies approximately, 2010, beneath Northern
Canada in the area around 85°N 133°W, the magnetic South Pole being below
Antarctica at about 64°S 137°E. By convention, the North magnetic pole is BLUE

Chapter 10 | Section 8 | Page 145

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

and attracts the RED pole (north -seeking end) of the compass
needle.

8.1. Magnetic Variation

The direction of the Earth's field at any given point can be
indicated by a freely suspended magnet. Such a magnet will align
itself roughly in a North-South direction (except in some polar
regions where the direction of the Earth's magnetic pole can be
up to 180° removed from that of the geographic pole).

m
co
The magnetic meridian is the direction of the horizontal

l.
component of the Earth's field at a point on the Earth's surface.

ai
gm
The angle, measured in the horizontal plane, between the Figure 10.4 Magnetic Variation

i@
magnetic meridian at a point and the true meridian at the point is
8.2. Magnetic Dip

ag
known as the magnetic variation. Variation is designated West or

c
East depending on whether the magnetic meridian lies to the
es Except near the 'magnetic equator' where the lines of force are
West or to the East of true North.
vi
parallel to the surface, one end of the freely-suspended magnet
ja

Variation can have any value from zero to 180°, the latter will dip below the horizontal, pointing to the nearer pole.
occurring on the true meridian linking North geographical with
To the North of the magnetic equator, the magnet's North seeking
North magnetic poles and at a similar location in the southern
pole will be lower, whereas to the South the magnet’s south
hemisphere.
seeking pole will be lower. The angle, measured in the vertical
Magnetic variation at the equator is between 0 and about 30 plane, between the axis of the magnet and the horizontal is called
degrees. The application of variation to headings and bearings is the 'angle of dip'.
detailed in the Navigation lectures.

Chapter 10 | Section 8 | Page 146

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The 'Magnetic Equator' is represented by a line on a chart where variation at a point are sometimes known as the 'magnetic
the magnetic dip is zero. The magnetic equator is within 10° of elements' for that place.)
latitude of the geographical equator.
It is convenient to resolve this total force T into its horizontal and
If the freely suspended magnet is moved either North or South of vertical components H and Z respectively. The diagram below
the magnetic equator the dip gradually increases, reaching about demonstrates this resolution and should help in checking the
66° in the United Kingdom (latitude 50°00’ N) and about 52° at relevant trigonometric relationships listed alongside.
Adelaide in South Australia (latitude 35°00’ S). Over the Earth's
magnetic poles, the dip is 90° and in theory a freely suspended
magnet would then be vertical.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
Figure 10.6 Resolution of the Earth's Field

c ag
es 8.4. Directive Force
vi
ja

The horizontal component H of the Earth's field is known as the

directive force because it is the component which aligns the
magnetic compass needle with the magnetic meridian, so
Figure 10.5 Magnetic Dip
providing a directional reference.

8.3. Field Strength When either of the Earth's magnetic poles is approached, this
component approaches zero strength (while the value of Z
The total force T exerted at a point by the Earth's field acts in the
approaches that of T).
direction taken up by a freely-suspended magnet influenced only
by the Earth's field. (The total force, angle of dip, and magnetic Over the pole, with dip 90° and zero directive force H, the
magnetic sensor (compass) becomes useless.

Chapter 10 | Section 8 | Page 147

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The minimum acceptable value for the directive force H is said to reputed to cause compass errors of up to 60°, the effect
be 6 microteslas (Figure 10.7) and this determines the extent of reducing rapidly with increased altitude.
the region close to the poles in which the magnetic compass
Agonic Lines are lines joining places where the variation is zero.
cannot be used. In the region of the magnetic equator, the
There are two agonic lines, one runs roughly North / South
strength of the directive force H approaches the value of T down the American continent. The other curves down through
(directive force is maximum), while Z approaches zero as does Europe, the Near East and Aden, then northwards through
the angle of dip. Pakistan, Russia, round Siberia and Japan and back south
again through Malaysia, Singapore , Indonesia and Western
The directive force decreases as the angle of dip increases and
Australia.
vice versa, consequently near the equator and to about 70° North

m
or South a compass system works fairly well. Isoclinals are lines joining places having the same magnetic dip

co
and in general they follow the geographic parallels of latitude.

l.
8.5. Magnetic maps

ai
The isoclinal of zero dip is the magnetic equator and is

gm
sometimes called an aclinic line.
The values of the 'magnetic elements' vary over the surface of the

i@
earth. These values can be measured and the information Isodynes are lines joining places where the directive force (H)

ag
obtained can be displayed as lines plotted on 'magnetic maps'. has the same value.

c
es
Isogonals are lines joining places having the same magnetic
vi
variation. They are printed on most navigational charts. It is
ja

important to remember that they do not represent the direction

of the magnetic meridian - a mistake sometimes made,
especially in countries like the UK, where the isogonals lie
roughly North / South. It should be noted that the isogonals
show the general pattern of magnetic variation over the surface
of the Earth, but local anomalies exist. It is quite common for
magnetic materials near the surface to cause the actual
magnetic variation from a small area to be several degrees
different from that shown by the charted isogonal. Magnetic
deposits in an area of about one square mile in Alaska are

Chapter 10 | Section 8 | Page 148

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 10.7 Magnetic Variation Figure 10.8 Magnetic Dip

Chapter 10 | Section 8 | Page 149

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

8.6. Regular Changes in Earth Magnetism 8.7. Unpredictable Changes in Earth Magnetism
The Earth's field lacks symmetry and is also subject to several Magnetic 'storms' of varying intensity and lasting for as long as
known periodic changes. Of these, the secular changes are the three days, occur at irregular intervals. They are always
most significant and are produced by the slow movement of the accompanied by auroral displays in the upper atmosphere of
magnetic poles about the geographic poles, the period of this polar regions. The propagation of radio waves is also affected. All
cycle is apparently about 960 years. The North magnetic pole is these phenomena appear to be produced by radiation or particle
moving slowly westward, this movement mainly affecting emissions from unusually large sunspots.
magnetic variation.
The main effect of these magnetic storms is a temporary but

m
In Australia for example, this change means that the Agonic Line significant change in magnetic variation. The alteration is unlikely

co
through Western Australia is slowly moving West. The current to exceed 2° in most regions, even in the most intense magnetic

l.
ai
variation in Perth is 3°W, this will reduce to zero over the next storms, but in the Antarctic and Arctic the change may exceed 5°

gm
20-30 years. and last for as long as an hour.

i@
The variation in Adelaide (7°E) and Sydney (12°E) will increase at The value of the directive force H can also change and in high

ag
about at the same rate. The annual rate of change of variation is latitudes may fall below the minimum required for efficient

c
shown on navigation charts so that the variation printed against
es compass operation.
the isogonals can be readily up-dated.
vi
ja

Other regular changes occur diurnally, annually, and over an

eleven year period, this latter cycle apparently being related to the
eleven year cycle of sunspot activity. These changes, unlike the
secular type mentioned earlier, are not of sufficient magnitude to
affect normal navigation.

Chapter 10 | Section 8 | Page 150

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 10
1. The angle between the true and magnetic meridians is 4. The relationship between dip, vertical component Z and
referred to as magnetic ……………….. and has a horizontal component H may be written as:
maximum value of ……………….. degrees. a. H = Z tan dip
a. variation 90 b. Z = H tan dip
b. inclination 180 c. tan dip = H / Z
c. variation 180 d. tan Z = H / Dip
d. inclination 90

m
co
5. With increasing latitude the directive force of the Earth's
2. Change in magnetic variation which takes place over long magnetic field ……………………… and so the compass

l.
ai
periods due to the changing positions of the magnetic works well to latitude ……………………….

gm
poles relative to the true poles is described as _____ a. decreases about 70° N/S

i@
change.
b. increases 90° N/S

ag
a. periodic
c. decreases about 85° N/S

c
b. secular es d. increases about 75° N/S
vi
c. annual
ja

d. diurnal
6. At the magnetic equator, the angle of dip
is……………………….. and the angle of variation is
3. The magnetic equator may be referred to as the ……………………….
……………………… and it joins places having a a. 90º zero
………………… angle of dip.
b. zero 90°
a. agonic line maximum
c. maximum zero
b. aclinic line maximum
d. zero less than 90°
c. aclinic line zero
d. agonic line zero

Chapter 10 | Section 9 | Page 151

Chapter 11

Aircraft Magnetism

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 11 | Section 1

Deviation

Aircraft permanent 'hard iron' magnetism and temporary 'soft iron' magnetism distort the field of the earth at
the compass position giving rise to deviation. Although an aircraft is constructed mainly of non-magnetic
material, it is fitted with engines, instruments and electrical circuits etc., any or all of which may produce

11.1 magnetic fields. The resultant of all these fields comprises the aircraft's magnetic field, due in part to hard
iron magnetism and in part to magnetism induced in soft iron. Significant effort is required to analyse and

m
compensate the aircraft compass, this occurs during a compass swing. The study of aircraft magnetism

co
considers each individual component of aircraft HARD IRON and SOFT IRON magnetism.

l.
ai
For the purposes of analysis, HARD IRON(HI) magnetism is considered permanent and any magnetism, such

gm
as that produced by electrical circuits, which is not induced by the earth's magnetic field is classified as

i@
HARD IRON. SOFT IRON (SI) magnetism is by definition temporary magnetism induced by the earth's
magnetic field. HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON (HSI) is induced by the horizontal (H) component of the earth's

ag
magnetic field. VERTICAL SOFT IRON (VSI) is induced by the vertical (Z) component of the earth's field.

c
es
Deviation caused by HSI magnetism is not corrected in the normal compass swing procedure.
vi

1. Deviation
ja

Deviation can be defined as the angular difference between a heading measured from the magnetic
meridian and the same heading measured by the compass. Deviation is caused by mechanical faults within
the compass system as well as by the aircraft's magnetic field.

Deviation is named Easterly or Westerly depending on whether the North-seeking end of the compass
needle lies to the East or West of the magnetic meridian. Deviation East may be given a positive (+) sign and
deviation West a negative (-) sign, indicating the correction to compass heading to obtain magnetic heading.

Chapter 11 | Section 1 | Page 153

Chapter 11 | Section 2

The Compass Swing

2. The Compass Swing

The term "compass swing" is used to describe the procedure for the calibration of

11.2 the compass. The procedure is designed to:

m
co
determine aircraft deviation on a series of headings.

l.
ai
correct for deviation (compensation)

gm
record residual deviation.

i@
ag
The basic method of determining deviation is to compare the aircraft's heading as

c
defined by the aircraft compass with its magnetic heading as defined by a high
es
quality datum compass placed well clear of the aircraft.
vi
ja

The compensation procedure requires the aircraft to be positioned in an area that

is free of local magnetic interference, away from buildings, machinery, power lines,
etc.

The aircraft systems should be as near as practical to a normal operating state.

The procedure for analysing the deviation into separate causes for subsequent
compensation is described later in this chapter.

Chapter 11 | Section 2 | Page 154

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.1. Occasions for Compass Swings

As the residual aircraft magnetism can change, it is common for
aircraft to be swung at least once a year. Some occasions when a
compass swing is considered necessary are as follows:

Replacement of the compass or compass system component.

When the accuracy of compass is in doubt.

As required by maintenance schedules.

m
co
Aircraft modification, engine change, electrical re-wiring,

l.
significant avionics changes.

ai
gm
Lightning strike.

i@
A large change of magnetic latitude.

c ag
After the aircraft has been in long term storage. es
vi
When carrying ferrous magnetic loads
ja

Chapter 11 | Section 2 | Page 155

Chapter 11 | Section 3

Analysis of Deviation

3. Analysis of Deviation
All the magnetism in the aircraft contributes to a total magnetic field and the

11.3 associated lines of magnetic force may arrive at the compass position in any

m
direction.

co
l.
It is useful for the purpose of compensation to consider the deviation effect of the

ai
gm
vector of magnetic force at the compass position in terms of its fore/aft and
spanwise (lateral) components.

i@
ag
The maximum value of deviation due to the fore/aft component is termed

c
COEFFICIENT B and for the spanwise component, it is termed COEFFICIENT C.
es
Mechanical faults cause COEFFICIENT A.
vi
ja

Having obtained values for A, B and C, separate compensations can be made for
each in order to reduce deviation in the compass.

Chapter 11 | Section 3 | Page 156

Chapter 11 | Section 4

Change of Deviation with change of Heading

4. Change of Deviation with change of

Heading
11.4

m
4.1. Fore / Aft Magnetism

co
l.
Magnetic force pulling towards the nose of the aircraft will cause a positive

ai
Coefficient B, towards the tail causes a negative Coefficient B.

gm
i@
Magnetism resulting in Coefficient +B causes deviation that has maximum values
on the headings of East and West and zero values on the headings of North and

ag
South. Deviation due to coefficient B can be calculated by multiplying the actual

c
es
compass heading by the Sine of the heading, the compass heading is normally
vi
indicated by theta (θ).
ja

4.2. Spanwise Magnetism

Magnetic force pulling towards the right wing will cause a positive Coefficient C,
towards the left wing causes a negative Coefficient C.

Magnetism resulting in Coefficient +C causes deviation that has maximum values

on the headings of North and South and zero values on the headings of East and
West.

Chapter 11 | Section 4 | Page 157

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Deviation due to spanwise magnetism on heading θ is Coefficient Some of these faults may produce random errors but generally
C multiplied by Cosine θ. their characteristic will be that the error is the same on all
headings.

Deviation, given by the value Coefficient A, is the same on all

headings.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 11.1 Fore/Aft and Spanwise Magnetism

4.3. Mechanical faults

Mechanical faults contributing to Coefficient A include
misalignment of the compass with the fore / aft axis of the
aircraft, transmission faults between components of a gyro-
magnetic compass and faults within the heading indicator.

Chapter 11 | Section 4 | Page 158

Chapter 11 | Section 5

General Formula for Deviation

5. General Formula for Deviation

The previous statements about Coefficients A, B and C can be combined into a

11.5 general formula for deviation:

m
co
Deviation on heading θ = A + B Sin θ + C Cos θ

l.
ai
5.1. Finding the values of the Coefficients

gm
i@
COEFFICIENT A is found by adding all the deviations and then dividing by the
number of readings. The positive and negative values of B and C cancel out and

ag
so are eliminated from the total.

c
es
Sum of Deviations on n Headings
vi
Coef f icient A =
n
ja

For this formula to be used, deviations must be measured evenly through 360°.

COEFFICIENT B is found by subtracting the deviation found on West from the

deviation on East with the result then divided by two. In this way, A which is the
same on all headings is eliminated.

Dev E − DevW
Coef f icient B =
2

Chapter 11 | Section 5 | Page 159

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

COEFFICIENT C is found by subtracting the deviation found on

South from the deviation on North, with the result then divided
by two. Again, A is eliminated from the result.

Dev N − Dev S
Coef f icient C =
2

Find Coefficient A, B and C given the following readings:

Aircraft Compass Datum Compass Deviation

m
356°C 002°M +6

co
090°C 089°M -1

l.
ai
185°C 183°M -2

gm
266°C 271°M +5

i@
ag
c
Remember that the deviation is the correction to the aircraft
es
compass to make it agree with the datum compass.
vi
ja

Sum of Deviations +8
Coef f icient A = = =+2
n 4

Dev E − Dev W −1 − ( + 5)
Coef f icient B = = =−3
2 2

Dev N − Dev S +6 − ( − 2)
Coef f icient C = = =+4
2 2

Chapter 11 | Section 5 | Page 160

Chapter 11 | Section 6

Finding the deviation on a given heading

6. Finding the deviation on a given heading

From a knowledge of Coefficients A, B and C, deviation can be calculated on any

11.6 heading by using the general formula:

m
co
Deviation on HDG θ° = A + ( ± B Sin θ) + ( ± C Cos θ)

l.
ai
For example:

gm
i@
A = +2

ag
B = -3

c
es C = +1
vi
ja

Find the deviation on 225°

Assume: Sin 225 = -0.7, Cos 225 = -0.7]

Working:

Deviation = + 2 + ( − 3 x − 0.7) + ( + 1 x − 0.7) = TOTAL + 3.4°

Chapter 11 | Section 6 | Page 161

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

6.1. Calculating residual deviation

Residual deviation is the deviation that is unexplained by known
values of Coefficients A, B and C. It is the deviation that remains
after correction, the values of which appear on the Deviation card.

6.2. Compensation for Deviation

As the result of the compass swing procedure the deviation
affecting the compass is analysed into its separate causes.

m
Coefficients B and C represent the maximum values of deviation

co
due to aircraft magnetism.

l.
ai
These coefficients are corrected by introducing, at the compass,

gm
magnetism in the opposite direction. For example, Coefficient +B Figure 11.2 Deviation Compensation

i@
resulting from magnetism towards the nose of the aircraft, is

ag
corrected by introducing compensating magnetism towards the

c
tail. es
vi
The compensating magnetism is varied by adjusting the N-S and
ja

E-W screws in the base of the Compass.

Coefficient A is corrected by rotating the whole compass to

realign the lubber line with the aircraft’s fore/aft axis.

Chapter 11 | Section 6 | Page 162

Chapter 11 | Section 7

The Deviation Card

7. The Deviation Card

11.7 On completion of the compass swing, a

deviation card is drawn up to present to the

m
co
pilot a record of the residual deviation. Part of

l.
such a card is illustrated above

ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
Figure 11.3 Warrior Standby Compass
vi
ja

Chapter 11 | Section 7 | Page 163

Chapter 11 | Section 8

Effect of Change of Magnetic Latitude on Deviation

8. Effect of Change of Magnetic Latitude on

Deviation
11.8

m
8.1. Deviation due to Hard Iron (HI)

co
l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
Figure 11.4 Hard Iron Deviation
vi
ja

Hard Iron magnetism is considered permanent and so does not change with
latitude.

The Horizontal (H) component of the earth's magnetic field becomes weaker in
high latitudes.

Deviation due to HI is proportional to 1/H and so increases with increase in

latitude.

Chapter 11 | Section 8 | Page 164

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Given values of H and the value of deviation due to HI at one Given values of H and Z and the value of deviation due to VSI at
latitude, the value of deviation at a second latitude can be found one latitude, the deviation at a second latitude can be found
using the formula: using the formula:

Dev2 H Dev2 H Z
= 1 = 1× 2
Dev1 H2 Dev1 H2 Z1

8.2. Deviation due to Vertical Soft Iron (VSI) Horizontal Soft Iron magnetism (induced by H) changes in
strength and polarity with change of heading as well as with
change of latitude, unlike Vertical Soft Iron magnetism which only

m
changes with latitude. It results in Coefficients D and E but

co
corrections for these are not applied.

l.
ai
Note: The major point is to identify that Deviation will change with

gm
regard to Latitude however, those slight changes have little or no effect

i@
on the operational effectiveness of the compass.

ag
Figure 11.5 Soft Iron Magnetism

c
es
vi
Vertical Soft Iron magnetism is induced by the vertical (Z)
ja

component of the earth's magnetic field. As latitude increases so

does Z and VSI magnetism.

The Horizontal (H) component of the earth's magnetic field

becomes weaker in high latitudes.

Deviation due to VSI is proportional to Z/H and so increases with

increase in latitude.

Chapter 11 | Section 8 | Page 165

Chapter 11 | Section 9

JAR Compass Requirements

9. JAR Compass Requirements

EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency) Certification Requirements (CS) state

11.9 what is required of compass systems in terms of the compass installation and its

m
accuracy.

co
l.
Certification requires that from each pilot's position a non-stabilised magnetic

ai
gm
compass and a direction indicator (gyroscopically stabilized, magnetic or non-
magnetic) must be visible.

i@
ag
For the non-stabilised (direct-reading) compass, it specifies that its installation

c
must be such that ‘its accuracy is not affected by the aeroplane’s vibration or
es
magnetic fields'. It may not have a deviation after compensation, in normal level
vi
flight, greater than 10° degrees on any heading.
ja

For the Direction Indicator (gyroscopically stabilized, magnetic or non-magnetic) it

specifies that they must have an accuracy adequate for the safe operation of the
aeroplane. Adequate accuracy is defined as follows:

After correction the deviation on any heading should not exceed 1° except that:

on aeroplanes with a short cruising range, the limit of 1° may be extended after
consultation with the National Authority.

Chapter 11 | Section 9 | Page 166

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

a change in deviation due to the current flow in any item of

electrical equipment and its associated wiring is permissible but
should not exceed 1°. The combined change for all such
equipment, with all combinations of electrical load, should not
exceed 2°.

a change in deviation due to the movement of any component

(e.g. controls or undercarriage) in normal flight is permissible, but
should not exceed 1°.

m
The change in deviation due to the proximity of any item of

co
equipment containing magnetic material should not exceed 1°,

l.
and the combined change for all such equipment should not

ai
gm
exceed 2°.

i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 11 | Section 9 | Page 167

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 11

1. Coefficient A has the following characteristics: 3. Coefficient B is the maximum value of deviation resulting
from components of ……………..acting along the
i) It may be caused by mechanical defects
…………………. axis of the aircraft.
ii) It may be caused by Horizontal Soft Iron
a. hard iron only fore/aft
iii) It causes deviation which is the same on all headings
b. hard and soft iron spanwise (lateral)
Which of these statement is true? c. soft iron only fore/aft

m
a. all are true d. hard and soft iron fore/aft

co
b. (i) and (iii) only are true

l.
ai
c. (i) and (ii) only are true 4. he maximum Deviation on North and South is Coefficient

gm
d. (ii) and (iii) only are true. …………………… and results in deviations which vary with

i@
the ………………………… of the heading.

ag
2. Soft iron magnetism induced by the Earth's magnetic field a. C Sine

c
is ……………… The effect of this type of magnetism on es b. B Sine
vi
the compass …………………… c. B Cosine
ja

a. temporary depends only on latitude. d. C Cosine

b. permanent is unchanging
c. temporary depends on heading, attitude of the aircraft and
its geographical position
d. permanent depends on latitude.

Chapter 11 | Section 10 | Page 168

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 11

5. Deviation due to Vertical Soft Iron tends to …………………. 7. Given the following Coefficients, find what deviation
with increase in latitude because …………………….. at would be expected on 330°M.
higher latitudes.
Coeff A = +2° Coeff B = -3° Coeff C = -2°
a. decrease Z is weaker
a. +5.2°
b. increase the directive force is stronger
b. +2.2°
c. increase H is weaker and Z is stronger
c. +1.8°

m
d. decrease of weakening of all components of the Earth's

co
d. -1.2°
field

l.
ai
gm
8. With increase in latitude, deviation due to Hard Iron will:
6. Given the following coefficients, find what deviation would

i@
a. remain constant as Hard Iron magnetism is constant.
be expected on 180°M.

ag
b. increase because Hard Iron magnetism increases.
Coeff A = -1° Coeff B = +2° Coeff C = +3°

c
es c. decrease because the strength of the earth’s magnetic field
a. -4°
increases closer to the poles.
vi
ja

b. +2°
d. increase even though Hard Iron magnetism remains constant.
c. +1°
d. -3°

Chapter 11 | Section 10 | Page 169

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 11

9. Aircraft compasses are affected by Hard Iron (HI), Vertical 11. Aircraft magnetism caused by Vertical Soft Iron:
Soft Iron (VSI) and Horizontal Soft Iron (HSI) magnetism a. varies with magnetic heading but not with magnetic latitude
that may exist in the aircraft. How are these types of
b. varies with magnetic latitude but not with magnetic heading
magnetism affected by changes of latitude and heading?
c. is not affected by magnetic latitude or heading
Change of Latitude Change of Heading
d. varies as the cosine of the compass heading
a. all are affected only VSI and HSI are affected

m
b. only VSI and HSI are affected all are affected
12. Aircraft magnetism caused by Hard Iron:

co
c. only VSI is affected only VSI and HSI are affected

l.
a. is not in the short term influenced by the earth’s magnetic

ai
d. only VSI and HSI are affected only HSI is affected

gm
latitude
b. varies directly with magnetic latitude

i@
10. Deviations present in a direct reading compass are
c. varies indirectly with magnetic latitude

ag
caused by A +1, B +3 and C –4. What will be the largest

c
value of westerly (negative) deviation? d. is maximum on east and west
es
vi
a. 8°
ja

b. 4°
c. 6°
d. 2°

Chapter 11 | Section 10 | Page 170

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 11

13. Find the values of Coefficients A, B and C from the

following information obtained during a compass swing.

AIRCRAFT DATUM
COMPASS COMPASS
001 001
091 097

m
181 185

co
271 269

l.
ai
gm
Coeff A Coeff B Coeff C

i@
a. -2 -4 +2

ag
b. +2 -2 +2

c
c. +2 +2 -2 es
vi
d. +2 +4 -2
ja

Chapter 11 | Section 10 | Page 171

Chapter 12

The Direct Reading

Compass

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 12 | Section 1

Construction

The Direct Indicating Compass (also known as the Stand-by Compass) is a simple independent compass that
is powered by only the Earth's magnetic field. It is normally centrally mounted on top of the instrument panel,
away from some of the aircraft’s magnetic influences, where it can be read by both pilots. Some parallax

12.1 error is evident.

m
The direct indicating compass is a north seeking device; ie. it has the important ability to find its own datum

co
(magnetic north). However, it is an unstable reference and is difficult to use accurately.

l.
ai
1. Construction

gm
i@
The principle of the Direct Indicating

ag
Compass is similar to that of any other
magnetic compass. It is important to

c
es
remember that the compass needle, or in this
vi
case, the 'suspended sensing system' is the
ja

reference. A compass card is mounted on the

sensing system which ideally stays stationary,
maintaining alignment with magnetic north. It
is the instrument casing on which the lubber
line is marked, which rotates about the
magnet system and the vertical compass
card.
Figure 12.1 The DRC

Chapter 12 | Section 1 | Page 173

Chapter 12 | Section 2

Compass Requirements

2. Compass Requirements
The direct reading compass consists essentially of a pivoted magnet able to align

12.2 itself and remain aligned with the horizontal component of the Earth's field. For the

m
compass to operate efficiently, certain requirements must be satisfied. The most

co
important of these are that the magnet system should be designed so that it is :

l.
ai
gm
Horizontal

i@
Sensitive

ag
Aperiodic.

c
es
vi
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 2 | Page 174

Chapter 12 | Section 3

Summary of Design Features

3. Summary of Design Features

Horizontality

12.3 High Pivot & Low C of G

m
co
Sensitivity

l.
ai
Multiple Magnets (enhanced field strength) &

gm
liquid immersion (reduced friction)

i@
Aperiodic

ag
Short magnets (assembled near centre)

c
es
Low weight
vi
ja

Liquid interacts with assembly providing

damping.

3.1. Horizontality
In order to measure direction in the horizontal, the magnets (normally two or four)
must lie as nearly as possible in the horizontal plane during normal straight and
level flight. A freely suspended magnet assembly would align itself with the earth's
total field so that the magnets would only be horizontal at the magnetic equator.

Chapter 12 | Section 3 | Page 175

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

To achieve horizontality, therefore, the magnet assembly is 3.2. Sensitivity

'pendulously suspended', the centre of gravity of this assembly
being lower than its supporting pivot. The compass sensing system responds to the horizontal
component of the Earth's field in all areas except near the
In this way, the tilting effect caused by the vertical component of magnetic poles where the horizontal component is inadequate.
the Earth's field is opposed by the weight of the magnet
assembly, this equilibrium being achieved at the cost of only a The compass sensitivity therefore depends on the strength of the
slight residual tilt. external field and on the magnetic moment of the magnet.

The magnet's north-seeking end points down by about 2° at mid The magnetic moment also depends on the magnet's length and

m
latitudes in the Northern hemisphere, north-seeking end points up the pole strength. The pole strength is increased by using two or

co
in the Southern hemisphere. four or six short magnets made of an alloy which will accept and

l.
retain the high degree of magnetism required.

ai
gm
Friction is reduced by using a jewelled pivot and by immersing

i@
the assembly in a liquid, such as a clear light oil.

ag
3.3. Aperiodicity
c
es
vi
The magnetic assembly is required to be aperiodic (or 'dead-
ja

beat') which means that it should settle down quickly again on a

Figure 12.2 Pendulous System Figure
steady North indication after being displaced from the magnetic
meridian by turbulence or manoeuvres.

Any tendency to oscillate must be quickly 'damped out'. The

desired aperiodicity is achieved as follows:

Several short magnets are used instead of one longer one. This
keeps the mass of the assembly near the centre, so reducing the
moment of inertia and consequently making any oscillations

Figure 12.3 Compass Construction

Chapter 12 | Section 3 | Page 176

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

easier to damp out. The sensing assembly is constructed of a

light alloy - this also reduces the effects of inertia.

The whole assembly is immersed in a liquid which has a natural

damping effect. Additional damping wires are fitted to the
assembly of some direct indicating compasses to interact with
the liquid.

The use of this liquid causes other problems. Errors occur in

sustained turns as a result of 'liquid swirl'.

m
co
During a turn, the liquid in contact with the inside of the bowl

l.
tends to be dragged round with the bowl, so producing in the

ai
liquid small eddies which drift inwards from the circumference

gm
and deflect the magnet assembly in the direction of turn. This

i@
effect is due to viscosity, so the liquid chosen should have a low

ag
viscosity to minimise the liquid swirl error.

c
es
The main properties required of a compass liquid are listed below:
vi
ja

Low coefficient of expansion

Low viscosity
Transparency
Low freezing point
High boiling point
Non-corrosiveness
Good lubrication.

Chapter 12 | Section 3 | Page 177

Chapter 12 | Section 4

Turning and Acceleration Errors

4. Turning and Acceleration Errors

The direct reading compass has been constructed with a pendulous suspension

12.4 system (high pivot point) to achieve horizontality as closely as possible. However,

m
as the latitude increases, the 'dip' has an increasing effect and this causes a

co
misalignment between the pivot point and the centre of gravity of the needle

l.
ai
assembly.

gm
When the compass is viewed from above, the pivot point and centre of gravity are

i@
displaced. Note that irrespective of hemisphere, the centre of gravity is always

ag
displaced to the equatorial side of the pivot.

c
es
4.1. Acceleration Errors
vi
ja

When accelerating EAST or WEST, the displacement of the pivot and the C of G.
causes a force couple between the pull of the acceleration acting through the pivot
and the lag (inertia) acting through the C of G.

There is no acceleration error when heading NORTH or SOUTH as the pivot and
the C of G are in line.

The size of the acceleration error depends mainly on:

the aircraft heading,

Figure 12.4 Dip

Chapter 12 | Section 4 | Page 178

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

the magnitude of the acceleration and

the magnetic latitude.

The errors are maximum near the magnetic poles, decreasing to

zero at the magnetic equator. The direction of the errors is
opposite in Northern and Southern Hemisphere.

Deceleration has the opposite effect to acceleration. For example,

deceleration in the Northern hemisphere causes an apparent turn
to South.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Figure 12.5 Acceleration Errors in the Northern Hemisphere

Chapter 12 | Section 4 | Page 179

Chapter 12 | Section 5

Turning Errors

5. Turning Errors
The direct indicating compass relies upon the assumption that the magnet

12.5 assembly will always remain aligned with the magnetic meridian. The compass

m
appears to rotate as the aircraft turns but, contrary to appearances from the

co
cockpit, the compass card should not move in azimuth.

l.
ai
gm
Instead, changes of heading should be registered solely by the rotation of the
aircraft (with the compass lubber line attached) about the magnet assembly.

i@
ag
We have seen how acceleration errors cause actual rotation of the compass card

c
resulting in erroneous heading indications. Turning errors have the same effect,
es
although the causes are more complex and the errors are usually more serious.
vi
ja

Like acceleration error, the primary cause of turning error is the displacement of
the centre of mass of the card assembly away from the pivot. As the aircraft turns,
the centripetal force that pulls the card assembly around the curved path, acts
through the pivot.

The reaction to this turning force - the centrifugal force (or inertia) of the card- acts
through its centre of mass and since this is not aligned with the pivot, a couple is
established that tends to rotate the card about the pivot.

Chapter 12 | Section 5 | Page 180

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

In addition, in level flight the vertical component of the earth's low to mid latitudes, the centripetal effects tend to dominate and
field tends to tilt the card slightly (north-seeking down in the the error is reasonable predictable. These are considered in more
Northern hemisphere), as previously described. detail in the following pages.

However, in a balanced turn the compass card moves from the During a turn through North or South the rotational couple is
horizontal through an angle equal to the aircraft's angle of bank, maximised. In the Northern Hemisphere the card moves in the
allowing the magnetic force that pulls the north-seeking end same direction as the turn when turning around north. The card
downwards to form a couple about the pivot. moves opposite to the turn when turning around south.

This causes further rotation of the card away from the magnetic Consequently - In the Northern Hemisphere Undershoot the

m
meridian. indication of Northern turns and Overshoot the indication on turns

co
around South.

l.
Finally, in a prolonged turn, the liquid in the compass bowl tends

ai
to turn in the same direction as the turn, and to carry the magnet Rule: UNOS (Undershoot North Overshoot South).

gm
assembly with it. This is known as "liquid swirl".

i@
Application : When applying a correction for turn error,
The effects of the various error sources may be additive, or may consideration must be given to the rate of turn and the size of the

ag
tend to cancel each other, depending of the particular heading change through north or south. The correction normally

c
es
circumstances. Due to the number of variables involved, e.g.: applied is 15 to 30°.
vi
ja

instantaneous heading A good compass turn is difficult to achieve and if a turn indicator
is available, a 'timed turn' at rate one (3° per second) is more
rate of turn and its duration
efficient.
bank angle
Similar to acceleration error, the magnitude of Turning Error
hemisphere and local angle of dip depends mainly on:

characteristics of the particular compass heading change through which turn is made.

It is difficult to estimate the magnitude of turning errors. However,

when considering relatively gentle manoeuvres in light aircraft at

Chapter 12 | Section 5 | Page 181

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

rate of turn.

magnetic latitude.

Turning errors are usually more significant than acceleration errors

for the following reasons:

They are inherently of greater magnitude because greater

displacement of the magnet assembly is likely in turns.

Turns occur more often and are likely to be more prolonged

m
than linear accelerations.

co
The basic theory of turning errors is much the same as that for

l.
ai
acceleration errors. It helps to remember that the magnet system

gm
acts like a pendulum. In a turn, this pendulum swings outwards to

i@
take up a position determined by the speed of the aircraft and its

ag
rate of turn.

c
es It is no longer in the true vertical but is aligned more or less with
vi
the aircraft vertical (precisely aligned in a balanced turn, the
ja

magnet system taking up the same angle of bank as the aircraft).

As soon as the rotational axis of the magnet assembly swings out

of the vertical plane through the pivot, there is a turning couple
about this axis and the assembly rotates causing a turning error.

5.1. Summary
Turn errors can be fairly complex as the rate of turn and the
latitude (dip) are significant factors. In the Northern hemisphere,
Figure 12.6 Turning Errors through North and South

Chapter 12 | Section 5 | Page 182

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

when turning around North, the compass appears insensitive

(sluggish).

The pilot needs to undershoot the turn and should roll out 15 -
30° before the desired heading is reached. The opposite is true
for turns around South.

The compass appears lively and the pilot needs to stop the turn
(wings level) 15-30° after reaching the desired heading. The only
error occurring at the magnetic equator is due to liquid swirl and

m
this is usually very small.

co
l.
Note- in the Northern hemisphere - Undershoot North, Overshoot South.

ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 5 | Page 183

Chapter 12 | Section 6

Attitude Limits

6. Attitude Limits
As the aircraft manoeuvres in pitch and roll it is possible the compass rose will

12.6 come into contact with the compass housing, this will cause friction between the

m
two resulting in unreliable readings. The operating manual of individual aircraft will

co
state the compass attitude limits

l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 6 | Page 184

Chapter 12 | Section 7

Conclusion

7. Conclusion
These compass errors provided the incentive for the development of the

12.7 Directional Gyroscope, an instrument which gives stable indications during turns,

m
turbulence and linear accelerations. The DG, having no magnetic sensing

co
capability and being subject to gyroscopic drift, is always used in conjunction with

l.
ai
the magnetic compass with which it must be regularly synchronised.

gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 7 | Page 185

Chapter 12 | Section 8

Cautions

8. Cautions
Keep magnetic material well clear of the compass to prevent the risk of

12.8 interference with the magnetic sensing assembly.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 8 | Page 186

Chapter 12 | Section 9

Serviceability

9. Serviceability
Glass clean.

12.9

m
No discoloration of the fluid.

co
No bubbles visible.

l.
ai
gm
Indications within 5° of a known heading (e.g. runway direction).

i@
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

ag
Acceleration on westerly headings
Acceleration on westerly headings and

c
es and turns to the West cause the
1 1 turns to the West cause the compass
compass system to rotate anti -
vi
system to rotate clockwise.
clockwise.
ja

Acceleration on easterly headings Acceleration on easterly headings and

2 and turns to the East cause rotation 2 turns to the East cause rotation anti -
clockwise. clockwise.
Acceleration causes an apparent turn Acceleration causes an apparent turn to
3 3
to the North. the South.
Turns through North causes the Turns through North causes the compass
4 4
compass to under - indicate the turn. to over - indicate the turn.
Turns through South cause the Turns through South cause the compass
5 5
compass to over-indicate the turn. to under-indicate the turn.
Liquid swirl increases turning errors Liquid swirl increases turning errors
6 6
around North. around South.
Table 12.1 Summary of Turning and Acceleration Errors

Chapter 12 | Section 9 | Page 187

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
Figure 12.7 Summary of Turning Errors in the NORTHERN HEMISPHERE ONLY
vi
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 9 | Page 188

Chapter 12 | Section 10

Vertical compass card

10.Vertical compass card

12.10 A more advanced design of the Direct Indicating

m
Compass is the vertical compass card, the

co
display resembles that of a Directional Indicator.

l.
ai
This compass makes significant improvements

gm
to the inherent errors of the standard DIC, these

i@
improvements are achieved by using the

ag
naturally occurring eddy currents to damp the

c
errors during the turn. The presentation style is
es
much improved in comparison to the DIC.
vi
Figure 12.8 Vertical Compass
ja

Chapter 12 | Section 10 | Page 189

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 12

1. Pendulous suspension of the needle assembly of the 4. The direct reading compass would be assessed as
compass is designed to: serviceable if:
a. increase the magnetic moment. i) only small bubbles are present.
b. reduce the friction at the suspension point ii) there is no physical damage, such as cracked glass.
c. reduce the tendency to oscillate
iii) the liquid is not significantly discoloured.

m
d. overcome the system's tendency to tilt.

co
a. all are true

l.
b. (ii) and (iii) only are true

ai
2. It is a requirement that the compass be aperiodic. This is

gm
c. (i) and (iii) only are true
partly achieved by:
d. (i) and (ii) only are true

i@
a. using a large powerful magnet in the needle assembly.

ag
b. reducing friction through the use of a jewelled pivot.
5. When accelerating on a westerly heading in the Northern

c
c. reducing the moment of inertia of the needle assembly. es hemisphere, the magnet system of a direct reading
vi
d. positioning the pivot above the centre of gravity. compass will:
ja

a. turn clockwise indicating an apparent turn towards the South.

3. If the observer's line of sight is offset, an incorrect
b. turn anticlockwise indicating an apparent turn towards the
reading of the compass may be obtained due to:
North
a. parallax error
c. turn clockwise indicating an apparent turn towards the North
b. centring error
d. turn anticlockwise indicating an apparent turn towards the
c. alignment error
South
d. scale error

Chapter 12 | Section 11 | Page 190

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 12

6. An aircraft in the Northern Hemisphere turns to the right 8. During take-off on runway 06 at an airport in the northern
from a heading of 330°M at Rate 1. After 20 seconds the hemisphere, the needle assembly of the direct reading
compass is likely to read: compass is likely to swing ……… causing an apparent
a. 270° turn to the ……….

b. 030° a. clockwise north

b. clockwise south

m
c. 010°

co
d. 050° c. anticlockwise north

l.
d. anticlockwise south

ai
gm
7. During an acceleration on a westerly heading in the

i@
southern hemisphere, the needle assembly of the direct 9. It is the pilot’s intention to turn left from 080°M to 010°M at
reading compass is likely to swing ……… causing an a position in the southern hemisphere. If the turn is

ag
apparent turn to the ………. carried out on the compass, the wings should be levelled

c
es when the compass reads:
a. clockwise north
vi
a. 340°
ja

b. clockwise south
c. anticlockwise north b. 010°
d. anticlockwise south c. 020°
d. 040°

Chapter 12 | Section 11 | Page 191

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 12

10. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere is intending to turn 12. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere heading 030°C
left from a heading of 250° to 180° and rolls out on when commences a rate 1 turn to the left. After 20 seconds the
the compass is reading 180°. This will cause the aircraft compass is likely to read:
to roll out on approximately ……… and liquid swirl will a. 360°
……… the error.
b. 330°
a. 210° increase

m
c. 310°

co
b. 210° decrease
d. 290°

l.
c. 150° increase

ai
gm
d. 150° decrease
13. In the southern hemisphere, acceleration errors are

i@
11. An aircraft at 55°N heading 150°C commences a right turn greatest on:
through south. Which of the following correctly describes

ag
a. 180°C and 360°C
the behaviour of the compass during the turn?

c
es b. 045°C and 225°C
a. over-indicates the turn
vi
c. 135°C and 315°C
ja

b. indicates the turn correctly

d. 090°C and 270°C
c. under-indicates turn
d. reads 150 until the turn is complete

Chapter 12 | Section 11 | Page 192

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 12

14. During an acceleration on 300°C in the northern

16. An aircraft in the southern hemisphere heading 240°C
hemisphere, the needle assembly of the direct reading
commences a rate 1 turn to the left. After 20 seconds the
compass is likely to swing ……… causing an apparent
compass is likely to read:
turn to the ……….
a. 150°
a. clockwise north

m
b. 170°
b. clockwise south

co
c. 180°
c. anticlockwise north

l.
ai
d. 210°
d. anticlockwise south

gm
i@
15. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere heading 070°C

ag
commences a rate 1 turn to the left. After 30 seconds the

c
compass is likely to read: es
vi
a. 010°
ja

b. 350°
c. 340°
d. 310°

Chapter 12 | Section 11 | Page 193

Chapter 13

The Remote
Indicating Compass

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 13 | Section 1

Comparison with DG and Direct Reading Compass

1. Comparison with DG and Direct Reading

Compass
13.1 To understand the Remote Indicating Compass it is useful to consider how the DG

m
and Direct Reading Compass are used.

co
l.
ai
COMPASS PILOT DIRECTIONAL GYRO

gm
Maintains alignment
Senses the earth's Compares compass and DG

i@
through gyroscopic
magnetic field headings
property of rigidity

ag
The Remote Indicating Compass is an
Subject to turning and Subject to real and

c
instrument which provides an accurate es Synchronises the DG with the
and stable magnetic heading acceleration errors apparent drift
compass periodically
vi
reference for the pilot. It is a remote Has short-term accuracy
ja

[This follows consideration of

instrument because the magnetic Has short-term inaccuracy (largely unaffected by
whether the aircraft is in straight
sensing element is positioned away but long-term accuracy manoeuvres) but long-term
and level, unaccelerated flight]
from the cockpit and so away from inaccuracy.
most of the aircraft magnetic fields.

Figure 13.1 Direct Reading Compass Technique

Chapter 13 | Section 1 | Page 195

Chapter 13 | Section 2

Remote Indicating Compass System

2. Remote Indicating Compass System

By comparison with the previous paragraph, it can be readily seen that the

13.2 elements of the Remote Indicating Compass have similar functions. The Detector

m
Unit or Flux Valve detects the earth’s magnetic field, that magnetic information is

co
connected to the Error Detector.

l.
ai
gm
The Error Detector also receives heading information from the Gyroscopic Heading
Unit, if a difference exists, an error signal will be produced which corrects the

i@
Gyro. When zero error exists, the system is said to be synchronized.

c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 13.2 Remote Indicating Compass

Chapter 13 | Section 2 | Page 196

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

DETECTOR SLAVING SYSTEM GYRO UNIT

detects difference and

provides error signal which
results in synchronisation
maintains alignment
senses the earth's
through gyroscopic
magnetic field interrupts synchronisation if
property of rigidity
the aircraft is banked

compares detector and

m
gyro unit heading outputs

l. co
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 13.3 Typical RIC Layout

Chapter 13 | Section 2 | Page 197

Chapter 13 | Section 3

The Detector Unit

3. The Detector Unit

The detector unit senses the aircraft’s heading relative to the Earth's magnetic

13.3 field. This is achieved electro-magnetically by means of a very sensitive

m
transformer which is excited by alternating current.

l.co
The Earth's field influences (adds or subtracts) to the amount of induction which

ai
gm
occurs in each leg of a three spoked core. The secondary pick off coils produce a
complex phased signal which is representative of the Earth's field (magnetic

i@
North). The detector may be referred to as a flux valve.

c ag
Detector Components:
es
vi
Mounting flange Pendulous Weight
ja

Contact Assembly Primary (Excitation) Coil

Terminal Spider leg

Cover Secondary Coil

Pivot Collector Horns

Chapter 13 | Section 3 | Page 198

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The spokes and coils of the flux valve are pendulously

suspended from a Hooke’s joint which allows freedom of about
25° in pitch and roll. The flux valve does not rotate, the
detection of the Earth's magnetic field is resolved
electromagnetically. The whole unit is sealed and a damping
fluid prevents excessive oscillations.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 13.4 The Detector Unit

Chapter 13 | Section 3 | Page 199

Chapter 13 | Section 4

Selfsynchronous (Selsyn) Transmission

4. Selfsynchronous (Selsyn) Transmission

Each secondary coil outputs to its own transmission line. These three wires then

13.4 connect directly to a similar set of coils (Selsyn Stator) in the Error detector unit. At

m
the Error detector unit the phased signals interact in the coils producing a resultant

co
magnetic field which is representative of the Earth's magnetic field. The Selsyn

l.
ai
rotor, which is also connected to the output shaft of the gyro unit (HSI), senses the

gm
resultant magnetic field and if it is not aligned with the field an error signal is

i@
induced.

c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 13.5 Selsyn

Chapter 13 | Section 4 | Page 200

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The rotor error signal is fed to a slaving amplifier and motor which In Figure 13.6, the aircraft heading is magnetic North, as the
drives the rotor to align with the field; the signal is reduced to zero aircraft is heading magnetic North and the Compass (HSI) is
and the motor stops. The physical position of the rotor (slaving indicating magnetic North there will be no error, or the system is
loop) is now representative of the magnetic north. said to synchronized. The synchronization status of the system
will be shown on the annunciator, located on the control panel
below.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
Figure 13.8 The RIC Control Panel

ag
Figure 13.6 Selsyn in Action

c
When the motor slaves the selsyn
es 4.1. Operation in a Turn
vi
rotor to its zero (NULL) position,
In a turn, the gyro maintains its alignment through rigidity and the
ja

the motor also slaves (torques)

casing, which is attached to the aircraft, turns around it. A system
the gyro causing it to precess,
of gears causes the output shaft to rotate so altering the heading
aligning it with the Earth's
indication.
magnetic fields. The remote
indicating compass card is now Attached to the output shaft is the rotor and, provided the gyro
synchronised with magnetic and detector remain synchronised, the changing direction of the
north, it is gyro stabilised and the rotor is matched by the changing output of the detector. Note that
aircraft magnetic heading can be it is rigidity and not precession that provides the change in the
read on the HSI. heading indication.
Figure 13.7 HSI

Chapter 13 | Section 4 | Page 201

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

4.2. Slaving fail, selecting DG now reverts the system to a basic directional
gyro. Synchronization of the HSI is applied manually via the slew
Once initially aligned the detected magnetic field and the switch, alignment is synchronized to another compass source
gyroscope in the HSI will remain in fairly close alignment. either, another RIC system or the DRC approximately every 15
However, some gyroscopic drift will occur and so an error will be minutes.
induced in the selsyn rotor and the gyro will be slaved back into
alignment. The normal slaving rate (slewing) is approximately 2 - 4.4. Off Flag
4° per minute. This slow rate is ample for normal operation and
If electrical power fails an 'OFF' flag will appear in the HSI,
reduces the risk of introducing turning error when the aircraft
normally annotated as “HDG” meaning heading flag, informing
banks.

m
the pilot that the heading information is no longer valid.

co
The system incorporates a roll cut-out which operates whenever

l.
ai
the angle of bank exceeds 10°. The cut-out interrupts the slaving

gm
process, the system now basically works as a directional gyro,

i@
preventing an incorrect input from the Detector Unit causing a
turning error.

cag
On starting, manoeuvring or if turbulence has caused the gyro to
es
drift a synchronizing (slewing) push switch (fast slaving/fast
vi
ja

slewing) is provided. This function directly slews the gyro to its

correct alignment. These precession rates are usually in excess of
60° per minute.

4.3. Operating Modes - Slaved or DG (Free)

A mode switch is provided, the normal mode is the SLAVED
position, which means the system will operate as discussed. A
DG (Free) position is also available. This is a reversionary mode
that can be used if the transmission system or flux valve was to

Chapter 13 | Section 4 | Page 202

Chapter 13 | Section 5

Pre-flight Checks

5. Pre-flight Checks
Instrument in good (clean) condition.

13.5

m
Manual slaving functional.

co
Agrees with 'STANDBY COMPASS'.

l.
ai
gm
5.1.Calibration

i@
The flux valve is situated in a wing tip or at the rear of the aircraft to remove it

ag
from the aircraft magnetic fields. Additionally, compensation circuits are fitted to

c
counteract (minimise) the aircraft magnetism. After a compass swing, which is for
es
compensation and calibration, the remote indicating compass delivers a stable,
vi
ja

magnetic heading accurate to airworthiness requirements.

5.2.Levelling
As stated, the horizontal gyro is slaved in azimuth. It may however develop a
slight topple and so a levelling device maintains the rotor axis horizontal. Mercury
switch and a torque motors are used for this purpose.

Figure 13.9 Levelling System

Chapter 13 | Section 5 | Page 203

Chapter 13 | Section 6

Summary

6. Summary
The remote indicating compass is a reliable, accurate system providing heading

13.6 wherever it is required in the aircraft. The rotor of the selsyn provides a mechanical

m
representation of the Earth's magnetic field. This output can position additional

co
synchros for repeater indicators in other parts of the aircraft. With ADF or VOR

l.
ai
functions added, it is often referred to as a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).

gm
A 'Set Heading' knob which positions a synchro rotor can provide desired heading

i@
signals direct to an auto pilot. The remote indicating compass is not just an RMI,

ag
but has been developed as an Aircraft Heading Reference System (AHRS) and is

c
the backbone of many navigation systems.
es
vi
ja

Chapter 13 | Section 6 | Page 204

Chapter 13 | Section 7

Advantages of the Remote Indicating Compass

7. Advantages of the Remote Indicating

Compass
13.7

m
The following are the advantages of the Remote Indicating Compass when

co
compared with Direct Reading types:

l.
ai
Reduced Deviation. The remote location of the detector unit isolates the

gm
magnetic sensing element from the effects of the aircraft's magnetic field so

i@
allowing deviation to be reduced to no more than 1°.

ag
Reduced Turning and Acceleration Errors. Gyroscopic rigidity provides the

c
essystem with a stable reference so that it is largely unaffected by turning and
acceleration errors.
vi
ja

Improved Presentation. The display of heading can be means of a vertical card,

or by EFIS, so eliminating the parallax errors associated with Direct Reading
types.

Power Output of Heading. The Remote Indicating Compass provides heading to

alternative displays such as the RMI and HSI. It also provides heading to the
autopilot and flight director.

Chapter 13 | Section 7 | Page 205

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 13
1. In relation to the gyro-magnetic compass, decide whether 3. The mounting of the detector unit should enable the
the following statements are true or false: element to sense the maximum effect of the earth's
component H. This requirement is met by pendulous
i) The gyro element significantly reduces the problem of
suspension and a Hookes joint that permits
magnetic deviation.
……………………… freedom in azimuth, ………………
ii) The gyro element stabilises magnetic heading freedom in pitch and ……………………… freedom in roll.
measured by the remote sensor.
AZIMUTH PITCH ROLL
iii) The remote sensing element eliminates turning and

m
a. full limited full
acceleration errors by being fixed in azimuth.

co
b. limited full full

l.
a. All are true

ai
c. no limited limited

gm
b. (i) and (ii) are true
d. limited no no
c. (ii) only is true

i@
d. (ii) and (iii) are true

c ag
es
2. A gyro-magnetic compass can be corrected for
vi
Coefficient A by:
ja

a. rotating the detector unit in azimuth.

b. means of a precession device mounted on the gyro unit.
c. altering the current flow through corrector coils at the
detector unit.
d. adjusting small permanent magnets to change the aircraft's
magnetic field.

Chapter 13 | Section 8 | Page 206

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 13
6. The effect of turning error on a gyro-magnetic compass is:
4. The compass system is provided with a switch with
alternative positions of SLAVED and DG. Which switch a. similar in magnitude to that affecting direct reading
position should be set when: compasses.
i) malfunctioning of directional reference signal circuits b. zero in a correctly executed turn as the tilt of the flux value is
occurs? equal to the aircraft's angle of bank.
ii) the aircraft is being flown at latitudes where the c. dependent on angle of bank, duration of turn, change of

m
horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is an heading, latitude and gyro precession rate.

co
unreliable reference d. eliminated as the detector unit which has no freedom in

l.
ai
a. i) SLAVED ii) DG azimuth.

gm
b. i) SLAVED ii) SLAVED

i@
c. i) DG ii) SLAVED 7. Deviation effects on a gyro-magnetic compass:

ag
d. i) DG ii) DG a. are reduced by mounting the detector unit in the wing tip or

c
es tail where magnetic disturbances are a minimum.
5. During a turn the REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS
vi
b. are eliminated by obtaining the heading read-out from the
ja

indicates a change of heading gyro unit.

because......................................
c. are similar to those affecting the direct reading compass as
a. the detector unit senses a changed orientation of the flux
both types are equally affected by the aircraft's magnetic field.
valve relative to the earth's magnetic field.
d. are reduced to zero as the result of an accurate compass
b. the slaving system precesses the gyro to alter its alignment
swing.
c. the synchronization device is used to re-orientate the gyro.
d. gyroscopic rigidity maintains the alignment of the stable
datum.

Chapter 13 | Section 8 | Page 207

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 13
8. The annunciator:
10. During a turn the output of the (i) ……………… may be
a. indicates whether the system is selected in slaved or DG significantly in error so it is arranged that the heading
mode. displayed is obtained essentially (ii) ……………………
b. shows that the aircraft is changing heading and a. (i) detector (ii) by precessing the gyro
synchronization will occur automatically when the wings are b. (i) gyro unit (ii) from the detector
levelled. c. (i) detector (ii) by reference to the local magnetic meridian

m
c. indicates whether the system is synchronised or not. d. (i) flux valve (ii) from the gyro unit

co
d. indicates either wander by the gyro unit or the effects of tilt on

l.
ai
the detector. 11. A DG flag appears on the pilot’s gyro unit. This indicates

gm
that the compass is:

i@
9. The long term azimuth reference for the gyroscope in the a. unserviceable

ag
gyro-magnetic compass is: b. misaligned

c
es
a. its own stability, provided by the property of rigidity in space. c. no longer monitored by the detector unit
vi
b. the flux valve (or detector unit). d. aligned with the detector unit
ja

c. the local true meridian to which the gyro is slaved by means

of the latitude controller. 12. The output of the flux valve is fed to the:
d. the pilot's input of heading by means of the "set heading" a. annunciator
knob. b. gyro unit
c. precession device
d. error detector

Chapter 13 | Section 8 | Page 208

 Chapter 14

Computing

ja
vi
es
cag
i@
gm
ai
l.co
m
Chapter 14 | Section 1

Von Neumann Computer Architecture

1. Von Neumann Computer Architecture

A computer is a machine that can apply a series of mathematical and logical

14.1 processes to data. The very first computers were 19th century mechanical

m
devices, but as technology developed, electrical components such as relays were

co
used. A relay only has two states, on or off and even to this day, this on/off type of

l.
ai
calculation/logic is the most common method by which a computer operates:

gm
since there are only two states these on/off calculations are known as binary

i@
arithmetic.

ag
In the 1940s relays eventually gave way to thermionic valves and these valve
Computers are an ever-present part of the

c
modern flight deck, but have their origins in machines were constructed using a principle known as the Von Neumann
es
architecture. Von Neumann architecture describes a general framework, or
vi
the 19th century. Since the first computers,
ja

despite their change from mechanical structure, that a computer's hardware, programming, and data should follow.
devices to the semiconductor driven devices
of today, some basic aspects of how they As computers and technology developed further in the 1960s, valves were
work have changed little. This chapter will replaced by transistors and the integrated circuits that we know today. But even
look the origins before going on to give now the vast majority of computers still operate according to the von Neumann
examples of computers in the modern principle.
airliner.
A Von Neumann machine comprises the following components:

Chapter 14 | Section 1 | Page 210

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

An Arithmetic-logic Unit (ALU), which performs the computer’s The instructions are executed sequentially, one instruction at a
arithmetic and logical functions time, with an internal counter pointing to the next instruction.

Memory, where data and instructions are stored Since CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster
than the connections between them, the CPU is continuously
A Control Unit, which directs other components in the
computer to perform certain actions forced to wait for the data that it needs to be transferred to or
from memory. This is known as the Von Neumann bottleneck.
Input and Output devices, such as keyboards and displays,
which interacts with human being There are several techniques to ease this problem, such as
memory caches (stores) and wider buses between the CPU and
These are illustrated in Figure 14.1: the ALU and Control Unit

m
memory. In terms of computers, busses are similar to busbars in

co
combining into a Central Processing Unit (CPU). electricity; these are looked at in Paragraph 14.5.

l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Figure 14.1 Von Neumann Architecture

The main concept behind Von Neumann’s architecture is the

stored-program principle. This principle states that the data, as
well as the instructions used to manipulate that data, should be
stored together in the same memory area of the computer.

Chapter 14 | Section 1 | Page 211

Chapter 14 | Section 2

Microprocessors

2. Microprocessors
Nowadays microprocessors are used, and incorporate most or all of the functions

14.2 of a CPU on a single Integrated Circuit. They are multipurpose, programmable

m
devices which carry out instructions at incredible speed. In short, they are the

co
brain of the computer.

l.
ai
gm
The single chip microprocessor emerged in the early 1970s and is present in a
huge variety of modern electronic equipment, not only in computers, but also

i@
appliances such as telephones, televisions, and even cars.

c ag
The microprocessor includes:
es
vi
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations
ja

The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes
and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary

A fast-access memory called the CPU cache

A microprocessor is illustrated in Figure 14.2.

Figure 14.2
Microprocessor

Chapter 14 | Section 2 | Page 212

Chapter 14 | Section 3

Memory

3. Memory
The computer memory system stores instructions and data in binary form.

14.3 Depending on the purpose and speed, there are several types of memory, grouped

m
into volatile and non-volatile. Data in volatile memory is lost when power is

co
removed from the memory, whole data in non-volatile remains even when power is

l.
ai
removed from the memory. Volatile and non-volatile memory are summarised in

gm
Table 141.

i@
As mentioned in Table 141, there are various forms of data storage including:

c ag
es Chip Memory. A chip that holds programs and data either:
vi
Temporarily – RAM
ja

Permanently – ROM, PROM (PROM is ROM that can be reprogrammed once)

permanently until changed – EPROM, EEPROM (two types of PROM that can be
erased – EPROM normally by UV light, and EEPROM electrically)

Magnetic Disk. A computer storage device, like tape, data is magnetically

recorded and can be re-recorded over and over.

Optical Disk. A variety of information storage disks that are played or read using
a laser, including Compact Disks (CDs) and Digital Video Discs (DVDs).

Chapter 14 | Section 3 | Page 213

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Types of memory
Volatile Non-volatile
Permanent memory Read Only Memory (ROM)
Generally called Random Access Memory (RAM), it Can store a large amount of data very Data is stored (programmed) in ROM once, usually
is a very fast memory used primarily to store short cheaply. However, it is slower than RAM. before it is connected to the rest of the computer.
term data. Examples of permanent memory are: hard It normally consists of a series of instructions that
drives, which use a magnetic disc to store need to be carried out repeatedly, but don’t need
data; magnetic tape; and, more recently, to be changed.
flash memory. Data stored in ROM cannot normally be modified,
but the data on some types of ROM can be
modified. However, this requires the ROM to be
removed from the computer or connected to

m
external equipment.

co
Table 14.1 Types of memory

l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 14 | Section 3 | Page 214

Chapter 14 | Section 4

Data bus

4. Data bus
The data bus is the subsystem that allows different components inside the

14.4 computer to communicate with each other, or to communicate with other devices.

m
There are two methods of sending data via the data bus: Serial Data Transmission

co
and Parallel Data Transmission. Both transmit data in the forms of ‘bits’, a bit is the

l.
ai
most basic of computer information it is has two possible states: on or off; 1 or 0.

gm
4.1. Serial Data Transmission

i@
ag
Data is sent bit after bit along the same line, so synchronization is very important

c
to tell every bit from another. Popular serial buses are Serial ATA (used widely with
es
internal hard drives) and USB (for peripherals such as mice, printers, cameras,
vi
ja

scanners and external hard drives).

4.2. Parallel Data Transmission

Employ several separate wires to transmit the information simultaneously. If eight
wires are used then, eight times as much information can be transmitted in the
same amount of time. Over the years, the speed of serial data transmission has
increased dramatically, removing the need for parallel data transmission. In the
past when a printer was connected to a computer a thick heavy parallel cable was
needed. Nowadays almost all printers connect to a computer via a much thinner

Chapter 14 | Section 4 | Page 215

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

and lighter USB serial cable. This is illustrated in Figure 14.3.

Most aircraft use serial transmission, as this requires fewer wires.

Parallel transmission can be changed into serial transmission by

using a multiplexer and serial into parallel using a de-multiplexer.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
Figure 14.3 Parallel and Series Data Transmission
vi
ja

Chapter 14 | Section 4 | Page 216

Chapter 14 | Section 5

Inputs and Outputs

5. Inputs and Outputs

Peripherals are items that are not part of the main computer, but may be added to the system to give

14.5 functionality. There are normally two types of peripheral:

m
co
Input: Equipment feeding data into the computer. Examples of input peripherals used in an aircraft are:

l.
ai
Keyboard, side stick, Multifunction Control Display Unit (MCDU) and Mode Control Panel (MCP) providing

gm
information on what the crew would like the aircraft to do

i@
Sensors such as the Inertial Reference System (IRS), the Air Data Computer (ADC) and control surface

ag
position transmitters giving information on what the aircraft is actually doing.

c
es
Output: Equipment taking data from the computer and turning it into a form that can be used by the pilot
vi
or aircraft. Examples of output peripherals used in an aircraft are:
ja

Display units, monitors and electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)

Servo actuators creating movement of a control surface

Command bars of the Flight Director

All of the input and output devices mentioned above are covered in subsequent chapters in this manual.

Chapter 14 | Section 5 | Page 217

Chapter 14 | Section 6

Operating System

6. Operating System
The term refers to the aircraft operational computer system or systems. Two

14.6 typical examples of Aircraft Operation Computer Systems are the Air Data

m
Computer and the Autopilot Flight Director System.

co
l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
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Chapter 14 | Section 6 | Page 218

Chapter 14 | Section 7

Hardware & Software

7. Hardware & Software

7.1. Hardware
14.7

m
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible

co
objects: circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice

l.
ai
are all hardware.

gm
7.2. Software

i@
ag
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such

c
as programs and data. When software is stored in ROM it is sometimes called
es
“firmware” to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between
vi
hardware and software.
ja

7.3. Software Languages

A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate
instructions to a machine. There are several types:

Assembly Language: Assembly language is just one step above the binary code
a microprocessor understands, being very simple instructions like doing
arithmetic calculations or reading a particular memory address. A program
called an ‘assembler’ converts these instructions into the actual binary code. It

Chapter 14 | Section 7 | Page 219

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

may be used for ‘real-time’ programs that need precise timing 7.4. Software safety
and responses, such as simulators, flight navigation systems,
and medical equipment. The safety of operating software in aircraft is of a critical nature
and the certification of that software needs to meet exacting
High Level Language: Writing long programs in assembly
standards. The regulatory authorities refer to it as "Software
language is daunting and error prone. Instead, high level
Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification"
languages are used. One single instruction from a high level
language will translate into several assembly instructions. and document RTCA/DO-178B or EUROCAE ED-12B refers to
Before a computer can interpret instructions from a high level those certification requirements.
language, they are usually converted into what is called
The idea of system safety, although outside the scope of
‘machine code’ using another computer application called a

m
DO-178B, is crucial to understanding how to apply it. The

co
‘compiler’. This process is carried out in its entirety prior to the
computer running the program. High level languages can be regulations governing the certification of airborne systems and

l.
ai
compiled into many different machine codes, so one high level equipment define five levels of failure conditions.

gm
program can be compiled to work on several different types of
The most severe of these is ‘Catastrophic’, representing failures

i@
computer. A examples of this type of language are C or Java.
that result in the loss of ability to continue safe flight and land. A

ag
Script Language: Script language is a language that is catastrophic failure will cause the aircraft to be destroyed,

c
compiled by the computer at the same time as it runs the es resulting in multiple deaths
program, rather than being compiled ahead of time. A scripting
vi
The least severe is ‘No effect’, where the failure results in no loss
ja

language may be a general-purpose programming language or

it may be limited to specific functions used to enhance the of operational capabilities and no increase in crew workload.
running of an application or system program. Script languages
such as JavaScript or PHP are widely used in Web Between Catastrophic and No effect are Hazardous, Major and
technologies. Minor, which define various levels of loss of functionality resulting
in corresponding levels of workload and potential for loss of life.
These five levels map directly to the five levels of software defined
in DO-178B.

Computer systems on board aircraft are designed so that no

single failure should adversely affect the safety of the passengers

Chapter 14 | Section 7 | Page 220

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

and crew. To achieve this, computers are duplicated, so that even

if one computer fails completely, the other will automatically take
over.

The software is designed so that if one or more inputs to this

remaining computer are missing, the computer will go into a
reversionary mode, keeping the aircraft safe but with slightly
reduced functionality.

To ensure that the software itself doesn’t fail, the software for a

m
pair of computers controlling the same thing will be written by two

co
different teams. This software is then independently checked by a

l.
team not connected to either software company.

ai
gm
In most cases the final layer of protection if the computer system

i@
fails completely, is having aircraft systems that have the ability to

ag
be switched to a manual mode of operation.

c
es
vi
ja

Chapter 14 | Section 7 | Page 221

Chapter 14 | Section 8

Multitasking & Multiprocessing

8. Multitasking & Multiprocessing

Computers give the appearance of performing several different processes at the

14.8 same time, but in reality they are running one at a time, and being rapidly switched

m
between each. This is called multitasking.

co
l.
Some computers are designed to actually run several processes at the same time,

ai
gm
distributing the work across several CPUs. This technique only used to be
employed in large supercomputers, but nowadays even small laptop computers

i@
employ this multi-core concept

c ag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 14 | Section 8 | Page 222

Chapter 14 | Section 9

ADC & DAC

9. ADC & DAC

Many inputs to on board computers are aspects of the flight environment which

14.9 have been measured and converted into a voltage. This voltage will have a

m
maximum and minimum value and be infinitely variable in between. This is referred

co
to as an analogue signal. An example would be the pilot input from a side stick on

l.
ai
an Airbus aircraft.

gm
Digital computers cannot interpret these analogue signals, so a means of

i@
converting analogue signals to a digital format is necessary. Similarly, outputs from

ag
a computer will be in digital format, but need to be converted to analogue to be

c
used for the flight control system, flight deck displays or other systems.
es
vi
9.1. Analogue to Digital Converter
ja

This is a device that converts an analogue signal into a series of digital values. It
works by averaging out the amplitude of the analogue signal over a short period of
time and converting this value into a binary number. The number of times this
happens per second is known as the sample rate.

If the analogue value only changes very slowly, for example airspeed, then the
sample rate will be quite small, around 10 times per second. However, rapidly

Chapter 14 | Section 9 | Page 223

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

changing analogue values need a much higher sample rate to

ensure that no significant loss of data occurs during the
conversion process

9.2. Digital to Analogue Converter

This does the reverse of the analogue to digital converter. It
converts a series of binary numbers output from the computer
into an analogue signal. An example of both of these converters
would be found in a mobile phone.

m
co
The analogue signal from the microphone is converted into a

l.
digital stream of data for transmission. The received digital

ai
gm
information is converted back into an analogue signal which is fed
to the earpiece

i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 14 | Section 9 | Page 224

Chapter 14 | Section 10

Summary

10.Summary
Von Neumann architecture uses a processing unit and a single storage struc-

14.10
•

ture to hold both instructions and data, it comprises

m
- An ALU Control unit

co
A memory

l.
-

ai
Input and output devices

gm
-

• An ALU is a digital circuit that performs basic functions

i@
• Hardware are the physical components of the computer

ag
Software is a collection of computer programs resident in a read only mem-

c
•
es ory
vi
EPROM is a read only memory and is non-volatile
ja

• RAM:
- Rapid access
- Read and write access
- Is volatile
• A bus is a system that transfers data between computer components
• Multi-tasking is where multiple tasks share a common resource e.g. a CPU

Chapter 14 | Section 10 | Page 225

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 14

Complete the following questions. Correct answers are 3. In computer technology, an EPROM is:
shown after the questions.
i) A read-only memory
ii) A write memory
1. In computer technology, an input peripheral is a:
iii) Erases its content when power supply is cut off
a. keyboard

m
b. screen unit iv) Keeps its content when power supply is cut off

co
c. hard disk drive The combination regrouping all the correct statements is:

l.
ai
d. diskette drive a. i, iv

gm
b. i, iii

i@
2. In computer technology, an output peripheral is a: c. ii, iii

ag
a. hard disk drive d. ii, iv

c
b. diskette drive
es
vi
c. screen unit
ja

d. keyboard

Chapter 14 | Section 11 | Page 226

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 14

4. In computer technology, a storage peripheral is a: 6. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer
a. keyboard essentially consists of:
b. screen unit i) An Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
c. hard disk drive ii) A control and timing unit
d. printer
iii) Memory

m
The combination which regroups all the correct statements

co
5. Which of these signals are inputs, at least, in the stall
is:

l.
ai
warning computers?
a. i, ii, iii

gm
a. Angle of attack and flaps and spoilers deflection.
b. i, ii

i@
b. Angle of attack, flaps deflection and EPR.
c. i, iii

ag
c. Angle of attack, flaps deflection, EPR and N1.
d. ii, iii

c
d. Angle of attack and flaps and slats deflection. es
vi
7. In an on-board computer, the software is:
ja

a. resident in a read-only memory (EPROM, EEPROM…)

b. loaded from a floppy disk
c. loaded from a hard disk
d. resident in a random access memory (RAM)

Chapter 14 | Section 11 | Page 227

Chapter 15

Air Data Computer,

Temperature, AoA
Measurement and
Stall Warning

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja
Chapter 15 | Section 1

Air Data Computer

In most large aircraft the conventional pressure instruments which show air data
such as altitude, airspeed and Mach number are replaced by indicators displaying
information generated by a central computer. The computer unit , input sensors of

15.1 of pitot pressure, static pressure, angle of attack air temperature and possibly
configuration, displays and a power-source form the aircraft’s AIR DATA SYSTEM

m
(ADS). Whilst such a system is self-contained, its outputs are essential to the

co
operation of the aircraft's automatic flight control system (AFCS). Air Data System

l.
ai
(ADS) outputs may also be used in the height transponder, flight recorder, inertial

gm
reference system and elsewhere.

i@
The standard ADS instruments show altitude, vertical speed, airspeed and Mach
No. Additional instruments can display Total Air Temperature (TAT), Static Air

ag
Temperature (SAT) and TAS. The ADC outputs required for other systems are

c
es
various and may include TAS, Altitude, Log Mach No, Reciprocal Mach No and Log
Vertical Speed.
vi
ja

The ADC fitted to Concorde computes side-slip as well as more standard data. A
schematic diagram of an ADS is shown below. The ADC may well connect direct to
the IRS, becoming an ADIRU.

Chapter 15 | Section 1 | Page 229

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

m
co
l.
ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Figure 15.1 Air Data Computer – Block Schematic Diagram

Chapter 15 | Section 1 | Page 230

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

ADC computes static error correction from inputs of Mach

1. Air Data Computer number and angle of attack.
Early models of Air Data Computers used electro-mechanical
Thermometer error is a function of Mach number. The ADC
analogue computing techniques to convert pressure and
computes SAT from TAT using an internal input of Mach number.
temperature data into electrical signals which were transmitted to
the display instruments and to other systems. The latest air data It should be noted that the ADC obtains Mach number from
systems use piezo crystal transducers and digital techniques that inputs of pitot and static using the formula:
make use of advances in micro-processor technology.
P−S
The relationships between TAS, Mach No, Temperature, Pitot and Mach Number α
S

m
Static pressures can be expressed as mathematical formulae. The

co
ADC resolves these formulae continuously to produce the TAS is computed from Mach number and temperature so

l.
ai
required outputs from static, dynamic, angle of attack and avoiding compressibility error.

gm
temperature inputs in the form of electrical signals.
1.1. System Redundancy

i@
The ADC has the capacity to make cross connections between

ag
channels so that an error in the measurement of one parameter Provision for blockages and/or failure of an ADC is made through

c
es
that is dependant on another can be greatly reduced. Some change-over cocks that permit an alternative static source to be
vi
examples of these cross connections are as follows: connected to the computer or by the use of electrical switching
ja

that enables the Captain's instruments to be fed from the First

Error in the measurement of angle of attack occurs because the Officer's ADC and vice versa.
direction of the local airflow at the vane is not representative of
the direction of the airflow at other points. The ADC computes In some aircraft the ADS is designed so that the outputs from
Mach number which affects the airflow and by compensating for each computer are not directed exclusively to instruments on one
this parameter, the ADC computes corrected angle of attack. side of the panel. By mixing the sources of air data to each side,
the possibility of an undetected malfunction is reduced. In the
Position error largely depends on the direction and speed of the event of total failure of both air data computers, due perhaps to
airflow past the static vent. Aircraft configuration may also alter loss of power supply, the flight can be continued by reference to
the level of error hence the configuration input to the ADC. The the standby instruments.

Chapter 15 | Section 1 | Page 231

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

1.2. Advantages of an Air Data System standby airspeed indicator and altimeter. Shorter pitot/static
lines save space and are easier to maintain.
An ADS has certain advantages when compared with
Failure Warning. A comparison monitor can be incorporated to
conventional mechanical instruments:
compare the outputs of the ADC's and to give automatic
Improved Displays. Electrical instrumentation allows the warning to the pilot of malfunction. With a purely mechanical
manufacturer complete freedom to design new displays that system, comparison between left-hand and right-hand
are easy to read and unambiguous. These include digital, instruments must be carried out visually. A warning flag will
moving tape and integrated displays including EFIS. appear on the appropriate ADS instrument if there is loss of
valid data or if an internal failure occurs. In addition, a light may
Reduced Instrument and Lag Errors. The major cause of illuminate either on the instrument warning panel or on the

m
instrument error in conventional mechanical instruments is

co
central warning system indicator.
friction loss within the linkages. The limited response rate of

l.
ai
such linkages gives rise to lag error. Such problems are largely 1.3. Typical Pitot-Static System for an Air Data

gm
overcome by ADC’s as linkages are not required.
System

i@
Error Correction. Computation of height, airspeed and other

ag
variables within one computer permits error correction to be In a typical commercial aircraft, identical sets of air data

c
applied appropriate to the particular aircraft. For example,
es instruments are provided on the Captain's and First Officer's
position error correction (PEC) can be calculated within the instrument panels. Each set of instruments are connected to one
vi
Mach No computer channel for additional use within the height of two Air Data Computers fed from independent pitot and static
ja

and airspeed channels. sources, as in Figure 16.2 In addition to the indicators powered
by the two Air Data Computers, there is a standby barometric
Central Source for Other Systems. The ADC provides not only
altimeter and a standby airspeed indicator fed from pitot and
the conventional information displayed on the instrument panel
but also air data in any form as required for other systems. static sources separate to those used for the ADC's . Each of the
three independent pitot-static systems makes use of cross
Clean Design. The use of electrically-driven instruments coupled static vents located on each side of the fuselage. This
reduces the amount of pneumatic plumbing required behind arrangement is designed to reduce error due to side-slip or yaw.
the instrument panel to only those lines connected to the

Chapter 15 | Section 1 | Page 232

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

m
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l.
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gm
i@
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es
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ja

Figure 15.2 Pitot-Static System

Chapter 15 | Section 1 | Page 233

Chapter 15 | Section 2

Air Temperature

2. Air Temperature
Air temperature is one of the basic parameters used as an input to the Air Data

15.2 Computer (ADC). In a static condition air temperature is relatively easy to measure

m
using a common thermometer.

l. co
However, air temperature in flight is affected by the adiabatic compression of the

ai
gm
boundary layer air slowing down or stopping in relation to the aeroplane.

i@
The temperature increase which results from the conversion of kinetic energy into

ag
heat energy is commonly known as “Ram Rise”.

c
es
The ram rise due to full adiabatic compression may be calculated mathematically
vi
as a function of Mach number.
ja

Therefore, a useful temperature reading may be obtained in flight if the

temperature measuring device registers:

no ram rise

complete ram rise

a constant proportion of the ram rise.

Chapter 15 | Section 2 | Page 234

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.1. Static Air Temperature SAT Static Air Temperature

OAT Outside Air Temperature No Ram Rise
SAT is the ambient air temperature. Ambient Temp. Atmospheric Temperature
TAT Total Air Temperature
This temperature is often called the Outside Air Temperature
Tt Total Temperature Full Ram Rise
(OAT) and is the temperature of the undisturbed or freestream air
Indicated Outside Air
ie. with no ram rise. IOAT
Temperature
RAT Ram Air Temperature Some Ram Rise
2.2. Ram Air Temperature
2.4. Recovery Factor (Ct)
RAT is the ambient air temperature plus some ram rise.

m
The recovery factor is an expression of the ability of the

co
The proportion of ram rise is dependent on the ability of the thermometer to pick up ram rise, e.g. If the Ct is given as 0.8 the

l.
ai
equipment to sense or recover the adiabatic temperature rise. probe will measure SAT + 80% ram rise

gm
The sensitivity of the equipment to ram rise is expressed as a
2.5. Correction Formula

i@
decimal which is called the “Recovery Factor”.

ag
If a particular temperature sensor has a recovery factor of 0.8 the The error due to kinetic heating (ram rise) can be calculated using

c
es
sensor will measure the ambient temperature plus 80% of the the formula:
vi
ram rise. SAT 1
=
ja

TAT 1 + 0.2k m2
2.3. Total Air Temperature
where M is Mach number, k is the recovery factor and SAT and TAT are
TAT is equal to the ambient temperature plus all of the ram rise, expressed in Kelvin
an older term still used for TAT is Indicated Outside Air
Temperature (IOAT). 2.6. Typical Temperature Sensing
In other words, total air temperature is equal to RAT when the Temperature sensors can be broken into two different groups,
recovery factor is equal to 1.00. those required to measure air temperature unaffected by and
those required to take into account “ram rise”.

Chapter 15 | Section 2 | Page 235

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Aircraft such as the Warrior and Seneca do not need to account (FMC), Auto Throttle (A/T), Flight Control Computer (FCC) and the
for “ram rise” and therefore use a simple helical bi-metallic Air Temp/True Airspeed Indicator.
sensing element. The element works on the principle of
The flight manual states that the inflight TAT indication is
expansion and contraction giving a direct reading onto a
comprised of outside air temperature (OAT) plus all of the ram
temperature gauge.
rise.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
Figure 15.3 Helical Bi-metallic Temperature Sensor

i@
The Total Air Temperature sensor or probe illustrated in Figure 15.

ag
4 consists of a hermetically sealed platinum resistance element,

c
an air scoop and a de-icing element. es
vi
The heating element is self-compensating however insignificant
ja

errors, ranging from 0.09° C at 60kts to 0.15°C at 500kts TAS, are

possible.

The resistance of the platinum element changes with change of

temperature causing a variation of the current flow to the
Figure 15.4 Total Air Temperature Probe.
indicating element which may use the ratiometer principle.

In a typical system one or more TAT probe is installed providing

independent temperature data to each ADC. TAT is used by the
Inertial Reference System (IRS), Flight Management Computer

Chapter 15 | Section 2 | Page 236

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

2.7. Errors in the Measurement of Air

Temperature
Aircraft thermometers used for measuring air
temperature are subject to the following sources of
error:

Instrument error is caused by imperfections in

manufacture. Such errors are small and may be
allowed for by applying a correction read from a

m
card.

co
l.
Environmental errors may result from the exposure

ai
gm
of the sensitive element to direct solar heating and
from the effects of ice accretion. The effects of icing

i@
can be reduced by incorporating a heater, from

ag
which the sensitive element is shielded.

c
Heating errors may be of the “ram rise” type, as
es
vi
previously described, or may result from frictional
ja

effects if the sensor is mounted on a flat plate flush

Figure 15.5 Typical Temperature Electrical Resistance Circuits
with the skin of the aircraft.

Chapter 15 | Section 2 | Page 237

Chapter 15 | Section 3

Angle of Attack Sensors

3. Angle of Attack Sensors

The sensors which measure angle of attack are commonly referred to as 'alpha

15.3 probes'. The most common type consists of an aerodynamic vane (aerofoil) which

m
aligns itself with the direction of the local airflow. The position of the vane

co
determines the magnitude of an electrical signal produced by a synchro. The

l.
ai
sensors are heated to prevent problems from icing.

gm
The angle of attack measured by the vane is determined by the direction of the

i@
airflow relative to the longitudinal datum of the aircraft. The local airflow at the

ag
vane may not be representative of the free stream airflow so introducing an error.

c
Corrections for airflow are produced within an Air Data Computer using a Mach No
es
input.
vi
ja

The signal produced by the Angle of attack sensor is used as an input to the
following systems; Air Data Computer, Stall Warning Computer, Wind Shear
Detection System, the Flight Envelope Protection element of the AFCS and maybe
as a AoA Display.

Some aircraft are fitted with conical, or null seeking slotted probes in place of the
moving vane sensor, Figure 15.7. The small conical shape protrudes from the side
of the fuselage and is free to rotate about its axis of symmetry. The airflow passing
over the conical surface enters into forward facing slots, and any pressure
Figure 15.6 Angle of Attack Sensor

Chapter 15 | Section 3 | Page 238

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

difference sensed by the slots is used to rotate the cone to

equalize the pressures. The cone is then accurately aligned with
the airflow, and its angular position is transmitted to the systems
requiring AoA, as previously described.

m
co
l.
ai
gm
Figure 15.7 Conical Angle of Attack Probe

i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Chapter 15 | Section 3 | Page 239

Chapter 15 | Section 4

Stall Warning Systems(SWS)

4. Stall Warning Systems(SWS)

Certification requirements demand that transport aircraft are either designed or

15.4 equipped so that the pilot has clear a warning of approaching the stall, at a speed

m
that is equivalent to five percent or 5 knots, whichever is the greater above the stall

co
speed. Not all aircraft have the natural buffeting associated with approaching the

l.
ai
stall, many sweptwing aircraft cannot provide that natural warning, so artificial

gm
warning is required.

i@
Stall warning systems are fitted to almost all aircraft, the system can be a simple

ag
audible buzzer warning or something more sophisticated. Larger commercial

c
aircraft normally use warnings in the form of a “stick shaker” and aural alert.
es
vi
The “stick shaker” physically shakes the pilot's control column at a high frequency.
ja

The vibration is created by a small electric motor attached to the control column
that rotates an out of balance rotor. The SWS is isolated on the ground by the air/
ground logic switching.

4.1. Basic SWS

Activation of the stall warning system is triggered by the AoA information feeding
the Stall Warning Computer (SWC). The synchro output of the AoA sensor signals
the SWC with actual AoA information, this plus configuration (flaps,slats and
Figure 15.8 Stall Warning System

Chapter 15 | Section 4 | Page 240

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

possibly gear) determine the AoA at which the warning will 4.2. Advanced SWS
initiate.
In addition to the above requirements, high performance aircraft
The system is rigged (calibrated) to provide the warning require additional functionality from the SWS. Changing
appropriate to the stall speed plus an addition of 5kts or 5% circumstances make it essential to alter the point at which the
whichever is greater. stall warning is activated.

No information of weight, load factor or speed are required in the Other parameters have an effect on the point at which the stall
basic SWS, it is purely a function of the lift requirement, the lift may occur and for those reasons it is necessary to have inputs to
formula reveals how. the SWC such as follows:

m
co
Engine Thrust (N1 and N2 or EPR)- The pitching moment from

l.
the engine thrust on some aircraft are undesirable and the stall

ai
warning will be activated earlier depending on the thrust

gm
setting.

i@
Airspeed- It is desirable to initiate the stall warning earlier if the

ag
rate at which the approach to the stall is aggressive. AoA and

c
es airspeed provide the SWC with the information required to
vi
effect this change. The SWC outputs to the PFD speed tape,
ja

via the symbol generator, display or annunciate the low speed

buffet and the stall.

Mach number or Corrected AoA- The effects of compressibility

reduce the CLmax value, the SWS therefore requires to initiate
the stall warning earlier.

Figure 15.9 Stall Warning Annunciation

Chapter 15 | Section 4 | Page 241

Chapter 15 | Section 5

Stall Protection System

5. Stall Protection System (Flight Envelope

Protection)
15.5

m
Stall Protection Systems can broadly fall into two categories, those in operation in

co
manual and automatic flight, and those operating only during automatic flight or in

l.
Fly by Wire aircraft.

ai
gm
Aircraft flying manually or automatically may be protected from the stall by the

i@
operation of the “stick push” system or automatic deployment of the leading edge

ag
devices. These systems only operate on activation of the stall warning.

c
es
Fly by Wire or, non FBW aircraft with the auto-pilot(AP), auto-throttle (A/T) or both
vi
engaged, have automatic Stall Protection via the Flight Envelope Protection
ja

circuits in the Flight Control Computers(FCC). If a command signal is received by

the FCC that cause the aircraft pitch attitude and speed to approach the stall
warning, the FCC will maintain the pitch attitude below and the speed above the
stall warning. AoA and airspeed information are required for the sensing, the
source information can be direct to the FCC or via the SWS, see Figure 15.8.

The purpose of the stall protection system is to prevent the stall from occurring,
very different to the SWS which, provides a warning for the pilot to initiate the
recovery.

Chapter 15 | Section 5 | Page 242

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 15

1. Which of the following correctly lists inputs used by the 3. The Air Data Computer has certain advantages when
Air Data Computer? compared with conventional separate instruments. These
a. Temperature, Wind velocity, Mach number and Dynamic are as follows:

pressure i) Reduced position error

b. Angle of attack, Acceleration, Pitot pressure and Calibrated ii) Comparator system for failure warning

m
Airspeed. iii) Shorter pitot/static lines

co
c. Track, Heading, TAS and Total Air Temperature.
a. (i) and (ii) only are correct

l.
ai
d. Pitot pressure, Static pressure, Angle of attack and
b. (i) and (iii) only are correct

gm
Temperature.
c. (ii) and (iii) only are correct

i@
d. (i), (ii) and(iii) are correct

ag
2. The Air Data Computer finds TAS from:

c
es
a. IAS with computer corrections for instrument and position 4. Which of the following is not an output from an air data
vi
errors computer?
ja

b. Dynamic pressure obtained from pitot and static inputs a. Altitude rate
c. CAS with allowance for density and compressibility errors b. Rate of terrain closure
d. Mach number and temperature. c. Density
d. Angle of Attack

Chapter 15 | Section 6 | Page 243

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 15
1. The abbreviation TAT is used for 4. Flush bulb sensors measure RAT whereas probes that
a. Total Air Temperature and refers to the indicated temperature project into the airflow measure TAT.

b. Total Air Temperature and refers to the error in temperature a. TAT is normally warmer than RAT
c. True Air Temperature and refers to ambient temperature b. TAT becomes equal to RAT at high Mach numbers.
d. True Air Temperature and refers to temperature in the c. TAT may be equal to SAT but RAT is always lower than SAT
Standard Atmosphere. d. TAT and RAT are always cooler than SAT.

m
co
2. The difference between SAT and TAT depends on: 5. Given FL 330, Mach 0.80, SAT -45°C, TAT -15°C, if the
recovery factor at the ram air temperature sensor is 0.8

l.
ai
a. deviation from ISA.
the RAT is:

gm
b. altitude with increasing altitude causing increase in error.
a. -21°C

i@
c. Mach number with increases in Mach number causing an
b. -30°C

ag
increase in the difference.
c. -33°C

c
d. the manufacturer with some thermometers having no es d. -36°C
difference between SAT and TAT.
vi
ja

6. Angle of Attack sensors or alpha probes provide an

3. The recovery factor of an air temperature sensor is 0.80. electrical signal according to the displacement of the
This means that the sensor will measure: vane to the:

a. 80% of the static air temperature (SAT) a. Flight Management, Inertial and Electronic Display Systems.
b. 80% of the total air temperature (TAT) b. Air Data Computer and TCAS.
c. 80% of the ram air temperature (RAT) c. Flight Control Computer and Weather Radar.
d. static air temperature plus 80% of the ram rise. d. Ground Proximity Warning System (Mode7-Wind Shear) and
the Stall Warning Computer.

Chapter 15 | Section 7 | Page 244

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 15
7. Angle of Attack sensors provide accurate outputs: 10. The resistance wire element in an aircraft thermometer
a. at high altitude only designed to measure air temperature is likely to be:

b. at high Mach numbers only a. potassium

c. at high airspeeds only b. plutonium
d. down to stalling speeds c. platinum
d. a bimetallic strip

8. The Angle of Attack sensor is an input source to which of

m
co
the following? 11. A remote reading thermometer depends upon a change of
electrical ……… to indicate change in temperature.

l.
i) Air data Computer

ai
gm
a. resistance
ii) Windshear Detection System
b. capacitance

i@
iii) Stall Warning Computer
c. impedance

ag
a. All of the above
d. voltage

c
b. Only (i) and (ii) es
vi
c. Only (ii) and (iii)
ja

d. Only (i) and (iii)

9. What is –40°F when converted into degrees Celsius?

a. -40°C
b. -72°C
c. -8°C
d. -10°C

Chapter 15 | Section 7 | Page 245

Chapter 16

Radio Altimeter

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Chapter 16 | Section 1

Principle of the Radio Altimeter

1. Principle of the Radio Altimeter

The radio altimeter is self-contained and needs no ground facilities for its

16.1 operation. The system operates on principle of primary radar and it consists of; the

m
transmitter receiver- unit, a display and separate transmit and receive aerials.

co
l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
A radio altimeter is a system used to

c
measure height above the terrain, es
normally in the range 0 to 2500 feet
vi
The radio altimeter is used to provide
ja

accurate information to the pilot about

aircraft height agl during the approach
and landing phases of flight. It is also an
important input to the aircraft's GPWS
(Ground Proximity Warning System) and to
the auto-pilot flight control computer.

Figure 16.1 Basic Radio Altimeter

Chapter 16 | Section 1 | Page 247

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The aerials are down-ward looking and are mounted on the

underside of the aircraft fuselage in such a way that the receiving
aerial is shielded from the transmitter.

The radio altimeter measures the amount of time taken for the
radio signal to travel from the aircraft to the terrain and back
again.

Because radio waves travel at a known speed, the height of the

aircraft can be calculated. To measure this time, the radio

m
altimeter varies its transmitter frequency at a fixed rate and as a

co
result, the received frequency is different to the frequency

l.
currently being transmitted.

ai
gm
i@
cag
es
vi
ja

Chapter 16 | Section 1 | Page 248

Chapter 16 | Section 2

Radio Altimeter Operation

2. Radio Altimeter Operation

Radio altimeter transmissions are described as FMCW (Frequency Modulated

16.2 Continuous Wave). A typical altimeter generates a CW signal of 4300 MHz

m
modulated by± 50MHz. A sample of the transmitter frequency pattern is passed to

co
the receiver and as time has elapsed since the received signal left the transmitter,

l.
ai
a difference exists between the frequency of the received signal and the frequency

gm
currently being transmitted. The time difference between the transmission pattern

i@
and receiving pattern is multiplied by the speed of the radio waves to give the total
distance travelled. The distance is halved to identify the height above agl.

c ag
It is worth noting a couple of characteristics regarding the rad alt transmissions.
es
As the system is working on the principle of the difference in frequency of
vi
ja

transmitted and received signals to establish time. It is possible the timing of t1

and t2 could be confused regarding points A or B, and other points, creating
ambiguity in the height agl measured. To avoid this situation the Modulation
sweep rate is low!!!, 0.01s to modulate from 4300Mhz -4350-4250 and back to
4300Mhz.

The rad alt system is mostly used when the aircraft is descending in close
proximity to the ground, auto-land and GPWS. The movement of the aircraft will
create a low Doppler effect, which could cause ambiguity of height measurement.
The low Doppler effect is overcome by using a very large depth of modulation,
Figure 16.2 Principle of Operation

Chapter 16 | Section 2 | Page 249

Chapter 16 | Section 3

Radio Altimeter Displays

3. Radio Altimeter Displays

A typical indicator displays height -20 to +2500 feet and has annunciators which

16.3 display decision height and failure flags.

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es
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Figure 16.3 Radio Altimeter Display

Chapter 16 | Section 3 | Page 250

Chapter 16 | Section 4

Calibration

4. Calibration
It is desirable for the radio altimeter to read zero feet at touchdown. Compensation

16.4 is made for the height of the aerials above the main gear in the landing attitude.

m
co
l.
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gm
i@
c ag
es Figure 16.4 Zero Calibration
vi
ja

Compensation is also made for the delay caused by the length of the coaxial
cables. Note that after landing, a negative figure may be displayed.

Chapter 16 | Section 4 | Page 251

Chapter 16 | Section 5

Pitch and Roll Limits

5. Pitch and Roll Limits

The radio altimeter transmits an elliptical cone of radio energy so permitting

16.5 accurate readings to be obtained during manoeuvres. A typical radio altimeter

m
permits angles of pitch to about 25° and angles of roll to about 40°.

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l.
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gm
i@
c ag
es
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Chapter 16 | Section 5 | Page 252

Chapter 16 | Section 6

Advantages of the Radio Altimeter

6. Advantages of the Radio Altimeter

The radio altimeter provides height above ground level and its readings can be

16.6 used directly for the purposes of terrain clearance.

m
co
The radio altimeter can be used to cross check the pressure altimeter if the height

l.
of the terrain is known.

ai
gm
The readings of the radio altimeter are highly accurate (±2 feet or 2%, whichever is

i@
greater from 500 feet to touch-down)

ag
The radio altimeter provides an essential input to other system, such as GPWS

c
es
and Autoland.
vi
ja

Chapter 16 | Section 6 | Page 253

Chapter 16 | Section 7

Range of the Radio Altimeter

7. Range of the Radio Altimeter

Range is usually limited to -20 to + 2500 feet but some radio altimeters have range

16.7 to 5000 feet.

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gm
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c ag
es
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Chapter 16 | Section 7 | Page 254

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 16
1. Which of the following would be a typical wavelength of a 4. The reading on the radio altimeter may be negative. This
radio altimeter? is most likely to be the result of:
a. .7 metres a. delay caused by the use of long lengths of coaxial cable in
b. 6.9 cm the installation
c. 7 metres b. inaccuracy due to transmitter frequency instability.
d. 69 metres c. a landing at an airport below sea-level.
d. compensation for the height of the antenna above the landing

m
co
2. Modern radio altimeters operate in the ……………… gear.
frequency band using …………… to measure height above

l.
ai
the terrain.

gm
5. As aircraft height above terrain increases, the difference
a. UHF phase difference between the received and transmitted frequencies will:

i@
b. SHF frequency modulation a. increase

ag
c. SHF pulse technique b. decrease

c
d. UHF pulse modulation
es
c. remain constant
vi
ja

d. increase or decrease depending on the phase of the

3. The strongest return signals will be obtained from: frequency modulation.
a. water
6. The radio altimeter may be conveniently used to:
b. snow
a. feed height information to the autoland system
c. heavily foliated areas
b. check the accuracy of the pressure altimeter
d. dry, fine, loose soil
c. maintain level flight

Chapter 16 | Section 8 | Page 255

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 16
7. Which of these statements are true? 10. Which of the following systems does not use radio
a. All are ture altitude?

b. (i) only is true a. TCAS

c. (i) and (ii) only are true b. GPWS
d. (ii) and (iii) only are true c. AUTOLAND
d. WEATHER RADAR

8. If the elapsed time measured by the radio altimeter

m
co
between the transmitted and received signal is 936 nano- 11. The cone-type antennas used by radio altimeters ensure
seconds, what will be the radio altimeter reading (absolute that signals will continue to be received typically to a bank

l.
ai
altitude)? The aircraft is flying over a surface with angle of:

gm
elevation 210 feet. a. 10°

i@
a. 280 feet b. 15°

ag
b. 460 feet c. 40°

c
c. 670 feet es d. 60°
vi
d. 920 feet
ja

9. The accuracy of a typical radio altimeter reading 300 feet

is:
a. ± 2 feet
b. ± 6 feet
c. ± 10 feet
d. ± 20 feet

Chapter 16 | Section 8 | Page 256

Chapter 17

Inertial Navigation

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Chapter 17 | Section 1

Principle of Inertial Navigation

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Inertial Reference Systems (IRS) are entirely
self-contained and provide world-wide navigation information independently of
external aids. Navigation information is only part of the story, outputs include

17.1 functions of attitude, heading, acceleration, angular rates, track angle,

groundspeed, wind data and position.

m
co
Note: In order to calculate wind the inertial system requires a TAS feed from the Air

l.
Data Computer.

ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
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ja

Figure 17.1 INS

Chapter 17 | Section 1 | Page 258

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Initial Position + Change of Position = Present Position

1. Principle of Inertial Navigation
The process of measuring aircraft acceleration is complex
Any inertial system must be given a starting reference point on
because the aircraft has movement in pitch and roll; flying over
which it will base all its calculations. When provided with accurate
the surface of the earth which is itself rotating and moving
ramp co-ordinates (Lat/Long) the inertial system can align thus
through space. Angular displacement is measured by mechanical
enabling a heading and attitude reference framework to be
rate gyros, displacement gyros or ring-laser gyros. A computer
defined. Change of position is computed from the outputs of two
determines corrections to accelerometer outputs based on
acceleration measuring devices (accelerometers) monitoring axes
angular displacement and other factors to isolate aircraft
at 90° to each other. Commonly the alignment of accelerometers
horizontal and vertical accelerations.

m
is North/South or Longitudinal axis and East/West or Lateral axis.

co
Some systems include a third accelerometer aligned to sense There are two methods of compensating for aircraft attitude

l.
vertical acceleration, this output allows, vertical speed and

ai
changes and movement in space:
altitude to be computed.

gm
1. Mounting the accelerometers on a 'stable platform'. The

i@
It should be noted that only aircraft accelerations are sensed and platform is ‘gimbal mounted’ so that it can be kept horizontal to

ag
from these values are computed velocity, distance travelled and the Earth's surface and correctly aligned with the local meridian.

c
change of position. Corrections are generated by sensing-gyros on the platform
es
which control motors between the gimbals and the aircraft. The
vi
ja

inertial computer develops further corrections for movement in

space and over the earth. This system is known as an Inertial
Navigation System INS.

2. Fixing the accelerometers and Gyros reference to the aircraft

axis is known as a 'Strap-down' system. In such systems, the
accelerometers sense all accelerations, including those in pitch,
roll and yaw of the aircraft. This system is known as an Inertial
Reference System IRS.

Figure 17.2 Aligning the INS/IRS

Chapter 17 | Section 1 | Page 259

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Note: a modern IRS will use Laser gyros but older models had mechanical gyros.
The outputs of accelerometers mounted on a stable platform are N/S and E/W components of acceleration which can directly be
converted into change of position. However, 'strap-down' accelerometers provide raw data which requires computer corrections before it
can be used as components of horizontal acceleration.

The inertial system, once aligned, provides attitude information, heading, track and wind data for all other aircraft displays and systems.
The raw heading and track data is referenced to True North however, the inertial computer has a variation data base, 73N to 60S, which
applies corrections to its output, therefore providing a Magnetic North reference.

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es
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Figure 17.3 Stable Platform Figure 17.4 Strap-down System

Chapter 17 | Section 1 | Page 260

Chapter 17 | Section 2

Accelerometers

2. Accelerometers
Accelerometers are designed to accurately measure aircraft accelerations along

17.2 defined axes. The most common type works on the principle of force balance, i.e.

m
Acceleration can be measured from the amount of restoring force required to keep

co
a pendulum vertical.

l.
ai
gm
i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 17.5 Practical Accelerometer

Chapter 17 | Section 2 | Page 261

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The pivot of the pendulum allows it to swing along one alignment Accelerometer characteristics:
axis only e.g. N/S or E/W. The greater the acceleration along the
Low Sensitivity Threshold 10-6g
swing axis the more the pendulum tries to swing from the vertical
as it lags behind the pivot. Wide Sensitivity Range -10 to +10g

Movement of the pendulum is then sensed, typically by E and I High Accuracy +.001%
bars similar to those found in servo altimeters. The E bar is fixed
to the stable platform with its legs pointing up and the I bar lies Shock Proof (withstands up to 60 g)
horizontally above it, fixed to the bottom of the pendulum.

m
Movement of the pendulum takes the I bar out of the horizontal,

co
upsets the gaps between E and I bars and causes an electrical

l.
signal to be generated.

ai
gm
This signal is fed to the inertial system computer which then

i@
feeds current to the restoration coils to pull/or push the pendulum

ag
back to the vertical and thus keep the I bar parallel to the E bar.

c
es
The strength of the current needed to achieve this is directly
vi
proportional to the acceleration and is used by the computer to
ja

measure the acceleration along the swing axis of the

accelerometer.

An amplifier is included in this ‘error’ circuit which enables

extreme sensitivity; so that the smallest of changes in
acceleration are measured.

Chapter 17 | Section 2 | Page 262

Chapter 17 | Section 3

Integration

3. Integration
Once the accelerations are known we can ‘sum them over time’ to calculate

17.3 velocity, this process is known as ‘Integration’.

m
co
We then repeat the process with Velocity to obtain Distance and thus change in

l.
position. Integration can be thought of as the process of the addition of all the

ai
gm
small changes in acceleration or speed during infinitely short periods of time to
obtain their present values.

i@
ag
In the case of the stable platform, the outputs of the second stage of integration

c
are N/S and E/W components of distance travelled.
es
vi
Distance N/S in nautical miles equates to change of latitude in minutes and when
ja

applied to initial latitude, leads to present latitude.

Distance E/W requires an input of the secant of the latitude to obtain change of
longitude (remember the Departure formula from NG!).

When applied to initial longitude, present longitude is obtained.

Chapter 17 | Section 3 | Page 263

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

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Figure 17.6 Integration

Chapter 17 | Section 3 | Page 264

Chapter 17 | Section 4

Gyroscopic Displacement Measurement

4. Gyroscopic Displacement Measurement

Both 'stable platform' and 'strap-down' systems require gyros to measure rates of

17.4 angular rotation. In the case of stable platforms, gyro outputs are fed to gimbal

m
motors to restore the displaced platform to its level and aligned position. Strap-

co
down systems use gyro outputs to update system knowledge of attitude that is

l.
ai
needed to compute the required corrections to raw accelerometer data.

gm
i@
c ag
es
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Chapter 17 | Section 4 | Page 265

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

It should be noted that INS uses either mechanical rate gyros or

ring laser gyros to measure angular rates, and that platforms are
not stabilized through gyroscopic rigidity. The rate integrating
gyros and the ring laser gyros used in INS and IRS are described
in chapter 8 of these notes.

INS uses three rate integrating gyros:

One Azimuth Gyro to sense any movement of the platform in

azimuth.

m
Two Tilt Gyros to sense North / South (East gyro) or East / West

co
(North Gyro) tilt of the platform.

l.
ai
gm
IRS uses three or more gyros to measure changes to the attitude
established during the alignment process. Note that although the

i@
latest ‘strap-down’ inertial systems use laser gyros, mechanical

ag
gyros could be used. Strap-down systems and laser gyros are

c
es
parallel technical developments, one not being dependent on the
vi
other.
ja

Chapter 17 | Section 4 | Page 266

Chapter 17 | Section 5

Initial Levelling and Alignment

5. Initial Levelling and Alignment

The process of levelling and alignment must be carried out on the ground with the

17.5 aircraft stationary. With older systems, the process takes about 15 minutes, but

m
the latest IRS, equipped with ring laser gyros, can complete alignment in about 10

co
minutes.

l.
ai
gm
Initial levelling is achieved by monitoring the output of the accelerometers. Any
output with the aircraft stationary is the result of a component of gravity sensed

i@
when the accelerometers are not level. The accelerometer outputs are used as

ag
error signals to bring about fine levelling.

c
es
With INS initial azimuth alignment is achieved by monitoring the output of the
vi
EAST (North/South tilt sensing) gyro. With the aircraft stationary, any force that is
ja

sensed by this gyro is due to earth rotation. As earth rotation has a zero
component in the North/South plane, any force sensed is due to misalignment.

The misalignment causes a signal to be produced by the N/S accelerometer which

is then fed to the azimuth gimbal motor.

The platform is then adjusted in azimuth until the signal is cancelled. This process
of fine alignment is known as “gyro-compassing”. (To prevent oscillations,

Chapter 17 | Section 5 | Page 267

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

corrections take place outside of the Schuler loop, which is

described later in this chapter.)

Even on the ground, correct levelling and alignment can only be

maintained if corrections are continuously applied for Earth
rotation.

These corrections depend on latitude and if the ramp position is

incorrectly set, the INS will fail to enter the NAV mode and
navigation information will be unavailable.

m
co
IRS also uses the component forces due to Earth rotation sensed

l.
by the gyros to determine the attitude at the time of alignment.

ai
This attitude, in three planes, may be referred to as the computed

gm
‘Trihedron’.

i@
The force that is sensed by the gyros depends on the latitude at

ag
which the aircraft is parked and if the measured rates do not

c
es
correspond to the expected rates (based on the ramp position
vi
entered) this indicates malfunctioning of the gyros or movement
ja

of the aircraft.

Note: Modern systems are able to discriminate between gusty winds,

aircraft loading and passenger movement and actual movement of the
aircraft. In older systems any of these would have delayed the
alignment process or resulted in a failed alignment.

Chapter 17 | Section 5 | Page 268

Chapter 17 | Section 6

Typical Inertial Navigation System

6. Typical Inertial Navigation System

17.6
A typical system will have the following units:

m
NAV UNIT. The Nav Unit contains the platform on which the accelerometers and gyros are mounted and

co
also the digital computer.

l.
ai
MODE SELECTOR UNIT (MSU). The MSU is in the overhead panel. It is used to switch on and to align the

gm
INS prior to push-back. The Attitude mode is a down-graded mode of operation which may be selected in

i@
flight to restore attitude and heading outputs in the event of failure of NAV function. IRS equipped aircraft

ag
have a single MSU panel to control two or three inertial reference units.

c
es
vi
ja

Figure 17.7 Mode Selector

MODE SELECTOR SWITCH- selects operating modes of INS

OFF Turns INS power off.

Chapter 17 | Section 6 | Page 269

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

STBY Turns INS power on, selects standby mode. Pilot

inserts present position (latitude and longitude)

ALIGN Selecting align causes the INS to go thro ugh the

alignment process to make the INS ready to navigate

NAV The NAV position is used for normal operation after

alignment is complete.

ATT REF When operating in the ATT REF mode, the INS
provides pitch, roll and platform heading outputs only. The

m
alignment reference is lost and the NAV mode cannot be

co
selected until the system is automatically aligned on the

l.
ground.

ai
gm
a. INERTIAL CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT (CDU). The CDU

i@
permits control and display of navigation information,
providing the interface between the pilot and the inertial

ag
Figure 17.8 CDU
unit.

c
es
In normal circumstances, following the successful alignment, 3. TK CHG PUSH BUTTON allows numbers in FROM -TO display
vi
the flight plan route will be loaded (manually or by data transfer) in to be changed for the purpose of manual track leg change. Key
ja

to the inertial computer. The inertial system will now navigate the lights when activated.
aircraft along Great Circle tracks between the planned waypoints 4. WPT SWITCH (THUMB WHEEL) selects waypoint number (1 to
(WPTs) 9) for latitude and longitude insertion.
5. FROM-TO DISPLAY two non-flashing numbers display the
1. AUTO/MAN SWITCH selects automatic leg switching by the
waypoints defining the current navigation leg
INS (AUTO) or manual leg switching by the pilot (MAN).
6. HOLD PUSH BUTTON used to freeze displayed position, to
2. DISPLAY SELECTOR selects CDU data displays. (See
perform manual position update, and to display the
following paragraph)
non-updated (inertial) position. Key lights when activated.
Note: When TEST is selected, causes all indicators on CDU and MSU
to light and all displays to show 8's

Chapter 17 | Section 6 | Page 270

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

7. LEFT AND RIGHT DATA DISPLAYS displays data from INS Display
computer as selected by the display switch. Selector Left Display Panel Right Display Panel
Position
8. INSERT PUSH BUTTON inserts loaded data into the computer.
Present Track (T)to Present Groundspeed to
It normally lights while data is being loaded into CDU and goes TK/GS
nearest 1/10 of a degree nearest knot
out when pressed to insert data into the INS computer.
Present Heading (T)to Drift Angleleft or right of
9. ALERT ANNUNCIATOR lights amber two minutes before HDG/DA
nearest 1/10 of a degree HDG to nearest degree
airplane reaches waypoint during flight. In MAN the light will
Cross Track Distance left Track Angle Error left or
flash as the waypoint is passed and will continue to do so until XTK/TKE or right of desired track,right of desired track, to
the waypoint change is made manually. In AUTO the Automatic to nearest 1/10 of a nm nearest degree
Flight Control System (AFCS) will make the necessary heading Present Position to Present Position to

m
change at the waypoint , the light will go out and the INS will POS nearest 1/10 of a minute of
nearest 1/10 of a minute of

co
change the FROM-TO display. latitude longitude

l.
ai
Waypoint Position to Waypoint Position to
BATT ANNUNCIATOR lights amber when INS is operating on

gm
10. WAY PT nearest 1/10 of a minute of
nearest 1/10 of a minute of
battery power. latitude longitude

i@
Time to nearest 1/10 of a
11. WARN ANNUNCIATOR lights red when INS detects an Great Circle Distance to
DIS/TIME minute at present

ag
abnormal condition, e.g. a parameter out-of-tolerance. nearest nm (Note1)
groundspeed (Note1)

c
Selection of STS (system status) –see next page- allows code
es Wind Direction (T) to Wind Speed to nearest
numbers to be read which identify the malfunction. WIND
vi
nearest degree knot
ja

12. DATA PUSH BUTTONS (KEYS 0 THROUGH 9) consists of 10 Desired (initial) Great
System Status Action/
keys to load data into data displays and FROM TO displays. Circle Track
Malfunction codes
CLEAR PUSH BUTTON used to cancel a data loading between the two
13. DSRTK/STS (Normally only of
waypoints in the FROM/
operation prior to pressing INSERT. relevance to the
TO Display to the nearest
technicians)
degree (T) (Note1)

6.1. The Display Selector (Number 2, above)

Note 1.- When cross checking waypoint insertion it is very easy to miss an
The Display Selector controls the read out in the Left and Right incorrect Lat and Long insertion, to avoid this it is normal to check the leg
display panels at the top of the CDU, as follows. between waypoints by selecting Dist/Time and DSRTK.

Chapter 17 | Section 6 | Page 271

Chapter 17 | Section 7

Typical Inertial Reference System (IRS)

7. Typical Inertial Reference System (IRS)

A typical IRS consists of a Control and Display Unit (CDU) and a Nav Unit. The IRS

17.7 is often connected to the Air Data Computer, as they often share information,

m
when connected they are known as an Air Data Inertial Reference Unit, ADIRU The

co
IRS is fully integrated with the FMS and some control over the IRS is achieved via

l.
ai
the FMS Control and Display Unit. The Strap Down IRS can be considered to work

gm
in the same way as the Stable Platform system, the difference being that no

i@
platform is required, the output from the accelerometers and the Ring Laser Gyros
are integrated mathematically to provide the same information with better

ag
accuracy.

c
es
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ja

Figure 17.9 Modern IRS Control Pane

Chapter 17 | Section 7 | Page 272

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The CDU has several differences: The operation of the RLGs has been explained earlier in this
manual however, it is worth highlighting some of the operating
Standby mode is no longer required as no is time needed to
features and advantages gained from using these devices. Take
heat the oil of the mechanical gyros.
special notice of the operation, construction, advantages and
Less display requirements as the information now appears on disadvantages.
the EFIS displays.
7.2. IRS Alignment Procedure
The system status lights are different, the alignment light is
illuminated during the alignment and extinguishes when it is The alignment is normally activated by selecting the mode switch
complete. There is back up power status lighting, informing the to Nav, the selection triggers the Inertial computer to start the

m
crew if the back up power has failed or if it has replaced the alignment process. The first action is to check the back up power

co
normal AC power supplies. supply and the “On DC” light will momentarily illuminate, if the

l.
back supply fails the “DC FAIL” light will illuminate.

ai
7.1. Ring Laser Gyroscopes

gm
The current position input is required, this is normally activated

i@
from the FMS CDU but, can be selected at the IRS CDU.

ag
If an incorrect position is entered, based on a 4 mile radius of the

c
es last IRS shutdown position, the system will generate an alert
vi
message in the FMS CDU.
ja

If the position is re-entered correctly the IRS will align. If the

position is entered incorrectly with respect to Longitude, the
system will eventually accept that Longitude.

If the Latitude is entered incorrectly it may take several attempts

to convince the IRS however, it will eventually accept your
incorrect input and the system will navigate using the wrong
datum.
Figure 17.10 Ring Laer Gyro Operatig Features

Chapter 17 | Section 7 | Page 273

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

The IRS is capable of determining the latitude via the RLGs, that is why an incorrect Latitude input will be more difficult for the IRS to
accept. The IRS cannot be aligned whilst in motion, that is why it is not possible to align whilst airborne.

Although the mode select switch is Nav, the IRS will remain in align mode until the alignment is complete. A fast alignment is available on
the ground during short turnaround times, select align for 30secs and back to Nav.

m
co
l.
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gm
i@
c ag
es
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Chapter 17 | Section 7 | Page 274

Chapter 17 | Section 8

Schuler Loop

8. Schuler Loop
An inertial platform maintained level with the surface of the earth behaves like a

17.8 pendulum of length equal to the radius of the earth.

m
co
The period of oscillation of a pendulum when disturbed can be calculated from its

l.
length; in this case, the period is 84.4 minutes (the pendulum length is basically

ai
gm
the earth radius and even at high altitude will only change by a very small
percentage).

i@
c ag
es
vi
ja

Figure 17.11 Schuler Loop

Chapter 17 | Section 8 | Page 275

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

It can be observed that certain errors in an inertial system are platform pointing to the pole because of the high slew rates required. This
cyclical, ie. they oscillate about a mean rather than increase with problem is overcome by using a system known as a Wander Azimuth
System that uses knowledge of platform alignment to correct accelerometer
time, and their cycle period corresponds to that of the pendulum
outputs into N/S and E/W components.
just described.

Errors that cycle between maximum values in each direction do

so because they exist within a loop of correction and over-
correction.

This is referred to as a “Schuler Loop”, after Dr M Schuler who

m
discovered the earth pendulum. Errors within a Schuler Loop do

co
not increase with time and so are described as BOUNDED.

l.
ai
Examples of BOUNDED and UNBOUNDED errors are as follows:

gm
i@
Error Affecting Inertial Systems

ag
Inaccurate Accelerometer Bounded

c
Initial Levelling Error Bounded es
vi
Inaccurate 1st Stage Integrator Bounded
ja

Inaccurate 2nd Stage Integrator Unbounded

Initial Misalignment In Azimuth Unbounded
Azimuth And Levelling Gyro Drift Unbounded

Note: Azimuth gyro drift, for example, results in an error in position that is
proportional to t squared (t²) where t is time since platform was first aligned.
Note: The INS so far described is known as a North Aligned System. Near
the poles, the north aligned system cannot cope with the task of keeping the

Chapter 17 | Section 8 | Page 276

Chapter 17 | Section 9

INS v IRS

9. INS v IRS

17.9
Comparison – INS/IRS
INS IRS

m
Low Gimbal friction Mass Much lower Mirror coating

co
Gyro drift
imbalance “noise”

l.
Accuracy 1.5nm/hr (expect better) 1.5nm/hr (better than INS)

ai
gm
Problems Mechanical Laser lock
Gyros Platform Strap-down

i@
Accelerometers Platform Strap-down

ag
Mathematical computation
Horizontal and vertical Gyro-stabilised (platform

c
(algebraic matrix
es datum torqueing)
transformation)
vi
Integration Yes Yes
ja

Algebraic matrix
Earth rate Platform torqueing
transformation
Algebraic matrix
Transport wander Platform torqueing
transformation
Schuler oscillation Yes (electromechanically) Yes (Mathematically modelled)
Gyro-compassing (platform Gyro-compassing (algebraic
Alignment
torqueing) matrix transformation)
Both latitude and longitude
Initial position Latitude must be correct
must be correct
Alignment time About 15 min About 10 min (JAA answer)

Chapter 17 | Section 9 | Page 277

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Note: The JAA answer for alignment does not distinguish INS or IRS but
uses 10 minutes. Except at high latitude where the minimum alignment time
is 17 min.
The latest IRS are embedded with GPS, these systems are
capable of an airborne alignment, although that information is
outside the syllabus.

The following are examples of mathematical questions found in

the Gen Nav syllabus
Chlong × sin(ML at) 20° × sin50 15.3°

m
CA = = = = 7.6°
2 2 2

co
Sample NG Question 1

l.
And

ai
An aircraft is flying between A: N50 W040 and B: N50 W020 using

gm
an inertial system coupled to the autopilot (therefore the aircraft Distance A − B = dlong × cos(L at) = (20° × 60′) × cos50 = 771 nm

i@
follows a GC track). What will the latitude readout show as the
aircraft passes the mid – point? (Currently this question is on hold

ag
Then
in the UK and is unlikely to be asked in the exam).

c
es 7.6 × 771
× (di f ference bet ween RL GC) = = 25.47nm*
230
vi
Solution
ja

To find the max cross track distance (X) between a RL and a GC So

CA × Distance bet ween points in question L at at mid point will be N 5025.47

X=
230
Note: # Departure should really be along the RL but this approximation is
Or acceptable.
* 25.47Nm is measured up a Meridian which is a GC and thus produces
CA × Depar ture distance A − B 25.47’ of Lat.
X=
230

Chapter 17 | Section 9 | Page 278

 FTEGround Manuals | Basic Instruments

Sample NG Question 2 0.1°/hr × 4hr

Error Angle = = 0.2°
2
An inertial system azimuth gyro has a drift rate of 0.1º/Hr, after 4
hours of flying at a Groundspeed of 480 Kt what will be the P to Q is given by 480 Kt x 4 Hr = 1920 Nm
approximate cross track error (XTE)? Dri f t Rate × Time
Error Angle =
2
Solution
However, it is easier to write the 480 as 8 x 60 so that the triangle
The drift ‘Rate’ produces an unbounded error, which is an error
becomes
building upon an error with no final limit. If this were expressed
graphically it would produce an exponential curve:

m
co
l.
To get an accurate answer to the above question would involve a

ai
gm
lot of complex Maths but, there is a simple approximation which
works for JAA questions:

i@
cag
es Thus XTE = 32 x 0.2 = 6.4 Nm (or 32 1 in 60 triangles)
vi
ja

The total ‘Error Angle’ accumulated over time T is given by the

approximation:

Which in this case is:

Now we can now solve the triangle to find XTE, the easiest way is
to use 1 in 60!

Chapter 17 | Section 9 | Page 279

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17

m
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l.
ai
1. The aircraft in the diagram above is being navigated by an 2. If DIS/TIME is selected, the left display will show:

gm
inertial system, between Waypoints 3 and 4. It is currently a. 4 nm

i@
at the position shown and 3-4 is showing on the FROM-
b. 40 nm (approximately)

ag
TO waypoint display.
c. 50 nm (approximately)

c
es
If the selector switch on the CDU is set to DSRTK/STS, The
d. 90 nm
vi
left numerical display will show:
ja

a. 080
b. 082
c. 084
d. 086

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 280

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
3. If DIS/TIME is selected, the right display will show: 5. If TK/GS is selected, the left display will show:
a. Time interval since leaving waypoint 3. a. Initial GC track from Waypoint 3 to Waypoint 4.
b. Time to fly from waypoint 3 to waypoint 4 b. Mean GC track from Waypoint 3 to Waypoint4.
c. Time to fly from present position to waypoint 4 at the current c. Present GC track.
GS. d. Required GC track from present position to Waypoint 4.
d. Time to fly from present position to waypoint 4 at flight plan
GS. 6. If XTK/TKE is selected, the display will indicate.......

m
co
LEFT RIGHT

l.
ai
4. If WIND is selected, direction and speed........... a. R4.0 L4

gm
a. Will depend upon forecast values. b. L4.0 R4

i@
b. Will be computed from INS track and groundspeed, compass c. L4.0 L4

ag
heading and ADC input of TAS. d. R4.0 R4

c
c. Will be computed entirely from INS derived data
es
vi
d. Will only be displayed if the ADC value of TAS is provided to 7. While enroute to Waypoint 4, the pilot wishes to check
ja

that the coordinates of Waypoint 5 and 6 have been

the INS.
correctly inserted. This can be achieved by selecting 5-6
on the FROM-TO display and the following setting of the
data selector switch....
a. DIS/TIME and DSRTK/STS
b. POS and XTK/TKE
c. HDG/DA and TK/GS
d. TK/GS and DIS/TIME

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 281

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
8. If the amber BAT light illuminates on the CDU of an INS, it 10. If the Mode Selector Switch is selected to ATT in flight.......
indicates that.... a. The switch should be returned to NAV as soon as possible to
a. There is insufficient battery power to sustain INS operations. regain navigation computations.
b. The aircraft is before/at the next waypoint. b. The switch should be selected to ALIGN and then to NAV after
c. The INS is operating on back-up battery power. about 15 minutes.
d. The battery should be immediately replaced. c. Only attitude outputs are available and navigation data

m
including heading is no longer available.

co
d. The INS must be realigned on the ground before navigation

l.
9. If on approach to waypoint 4 the aircraft continues to

ai
navigate by INS but with MAN selected on the AUTO/MAN functions will be restored

gm
switch, track change for the leg 4-5 will be made by the e.

i@
-------and the ALERT light will --------on arrival over 11. Earth rate and Transport wander corrections require

ag
Waypoint 4. accurate inputs of........

c
a. INS FLASH es a. Latitude and longitude
vi
b. PILOT GO OFF b. Aircraft acceleration
ja

c. PILOT FLASH c. Coriolis

d. INS COME ON d. Latitude
12.

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 282

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
13. Which of the following would result in an error increasing 15. In an INS system, the application of the secant of the
throughout the flight? latitude is necessary to:
a. Inaccurate 1st stage integrator. a. Convert distance travelled north-south into change of latitude.
b. Initial levelling error. b. Convert distance travelled east-west into change of longitude.
c. Initial misalignment in azimuth. c. Convert groundspeed in knots into distance travelled in
d. Inaccurate accelerometer. nautical miles.
d. Convert acceleration into groundspeed.

m
co
14. The purpose of the second stage integrator in an INS
system is to:

l.
16. Gyro-compassing occurs:

ai
gm
a. Integrate speed against time to give distance a. Only with the system in the align mode
b. Integrate acceleration against time to give speed.

i@
b. Only when the nav ready light is illuminated.
c. Integrate acceleration against distance to give time.

ag
c. Only with the system in the navigation mode.
d. Integrate acceleration against time to give distance.

c
es d. Whenever the system is operating, regardless of the mode
selected
vi
ja

17. An alternative to the north aligned system in a stable

platform INS is:
a. The strap down system
b. The random wander system
c. The wander azimuth system
d. The free gyro system

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 283

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
18. The radial error rate for an INS which gives a position of 21. An aircraft which has a stable north aligned INS platform
36 49.0'N 76 20.0'W just prior to shut down at ramp is heading 090°T. The aircraft pitches nose up. This
position 36 55.0'N 76 10.0'W, after 8 hours in the manoeuvre affects:
navigation mode is: a. only the north gyro
a. 1.45 nm/hr b. only the east gyro
b. 1.25 nm/hr c. only the azimuth gyro
c. 1.15 nm/hr d. both the north and the east gyros

m
d. 1 nm/hr

co
22. In an INS system, a unbounded error is said to exist when:

l.
ai
19. In an INS rate integrating gyro:

gm
a. the magnitude of the error oscillates about a mean
a. the spin axis and the input axis are coincident b. the magnitude of the error increases with time

i@
b. the spin axis, the input axis and output axis are mutually at c. the magnitude of the error remains constant

ag
90° to each other d. either the magnitude of the error oscillates about a mean zero,

c
c. the spin axis and the output axis are coincident
es
or the magnitude of the error remains constant
vi
d. the retaining spring balances the forces acting on the gyro as
ja

the aircraft manoeuvres. 23. A Schuler loop oscillation of the stable platform in an INS
causes:
20. In a stable platform INS system the output of the azimuth a. bounded errors
gyro: b. unbounded errors
a. drives any and/or all of the torque motors c. random and irregular errors
b. drives only the roll torque motor d. oscillatory errors of random and irregular duration
c. drives only the pitch torque motor
d. drives only the azimuth torque motor

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 284

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
24. If an INS is deprived of aircraft power in flight, and the INS 26. Assuming no error of the INS, the ground distance
internal battery pack fails to supply power to the system: covered between waypoints 5 and 6 will be:
a. The INS can be reset in flight once the power is restored a. 344.1 nm
b. The INS can only be reset in flight once the power is restored b. 600 nm
if an accurate fix is obtained c. less than 344.1 nm
c. The INS can only be reset in flight once the power is restored d. more than 344.1 nm
providing that the previous radial error rate was known

m
co
d. The INS cannot be reset in flight 27. When the INS indicates longitude 25 00.0'W, the latitude
readout will be:

l.
ai
gm
The automatic flight control system of an aircraft is coupled a. 55 00'N
to the outputs from the aircraft inertial system. Assume that b. south of 55 00'N

i@
the aircraft is flying between waypoint 5 (55 00.0'N 20 00.0'W) c. north of 55 00'N

ag
and waypoint 6 (55 00.0'N 30 00.0'W), both waypoints having
d. only 55 00’N if the INS is free of error

c
been correctly inserted. es
vi
Using this information answer questions 24 to 28
ja

28. With XTK/TKE selected on the CDU at the instant of

crossing 25 00'W, the XTK read out will show:
25. With DSR TK/STS selected on CDU, the initial track
a. 5.7 right
readout between waypoints 5 and 6 is:
b. 5.7 left
a. 270°
c. Zero
b. 090°
d. Left
c. more than 270°
d. less than 270°

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 285

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17

29. Assuming that a constant drift had been experienced, the 31. The DA display would show:
aircraft's true heading between the two waypoints would a. R 5
have:
b. R 10
a. decreased by more than 10°
c. L 5
b. decreased by less than 10°
d. L 10
c. remained constant

m
d. increased

co
32. The XTK display would show:

l.
An aircraft fitted with a CDU as part of its INS equipment is

ai
a. R 1

gm
north of the planned route from waypoint 2 to waypoint 3, at
b. R 3
the position shown on the chart at time 10.25. The aircraft is

i@
c. L 1
heading 075°(T) and tracking 085°(T) at a groundspeed of 495

ag
kt. The TAS is 460 kt. d. L 8

c
The FROM/TO waypoint display on the CDU shows 2/3.
es
vi
33. The TKE display would show:
ja

By using the above information and the following chart,

answer questions 29 to 35. a. R 1
b. R 3
30. The DSR TK display would show: c. L 1

a. 075 d. L 3

b. 085
c. 089
d. 095

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 286

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17

34. The DIS display would show:

a. 20
b. 40
c. 65
d. 32

m
co
35. The time display would show:

l.
a. 6

ai
gm
b. 8

i@
c. 10

ag
d. 12

c
es
36. The wind velocity displays would show:
vi
ja

a. 330 90
b. 150 90
c. 337 130
d. 317 55

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 287

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
37. The INS platform is maintained level by means of 40. Which of the following is the source of a bounded error in
corrections for...... an aircraft INS?
a. earth rotation, real drift and coriolis a. initial misalignment in azimuth
b. azimuth gyro drift, nutation and gyroscopic inertia b. initial levelling error (platform tilt)
c. earth rotation, transport wander and coriolis c. inaccurate 2nd stage integrator
d. variation in rotor speed, geostrophic force and real wander. d. azimuth and levelling gyro drift

m
co
38. INS accelerometers utilising the pendulum principle 41. If initial position is set in error by 30' latitude or more,
measure aircraft accelerations from.......... there will be.......

l.
ai
gm
a. the restorer current a. an error in platform levelling
b. the angular displacement of the gyros b. an error in platform azimuth alignment

i@
c. the tilt of the platform c. illumination of the WARN light on the CDU

ag
d. the mass of the pendulum multiplied by the displacement d. errors in both platform levelling and azimuth alignment

c
es
force.
vi
ja

42. If ‘NORMAL’ is selected on the heading reference switch

39. Initial alignment “gyro compassing” of an INS stable between 73°N and 63°S, what north reference will be used
platform is achieved when........ for the RDMI and the EHSI?

a. transport wander is no longer sensed RDMI EHSI

b. accelerometer outputs fall to zero a. true true
c. the azimuth gyro no longer detects earth rotation b. true magnetic
d. the east gyro no longer detects apparent wander. c. magnetic magnetic
d. magnetic true

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 288

 FTEGround Manual Worksheets | Basic Instruments

Worksheet 17
43. With a ‘strap-down’ IRS, which of the following
44. The purpose of the ring laser gyro as used in an IRS is to:
components will move with the aircraft?
a. measure aircraft acceleration along orthogonal axes
i) the accelerometers
b. sense angular rate of rotation about a single axis
ii) the gyros c. sense change of aircraft position along N/S and E/W axes
a. both (i) and (ii) d. measure aircraft manoeuvres by the law of precession
b. neither (i) nor (ii)

m
c. only (i)

co
d. only (ii)

l.
ai
gm
i@
ag
c
es
vi
ja

Chapter 17 | Section 10 | Page 289

Chapter 18

Worksheet Answers

m
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gm
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c
es
vi
ja
 FTEGround Manual Worksheet Answers | Basic Instruments

Worksheet Answers
Worksheet 1 Pitot-Static System Worksheet 3 VSI
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A C C C A A C C C C A D D A D

11 12 13

Worksheet 1A Pitot-Static System B B B

m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Worksheet 4 ASI

co
A D C C C A C C B D

l.
ai
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

gm
11 12
D A C B A B C A D C

i@
A A

ag
Worksheet 5 Machmeter
c
Worksheet 2 Pressure Altimeter es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
vi
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ja

C C C C B A B B A D
C B A B A B B B A A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16
A B A C C B C A D C
C D C D B C

Worksheet 6 Gyroscopic Principles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A D D D A A D C D B

Chapter 18 | Page 291

 FTEGround Manual Worksheet Answers | Basic Instruments

Worksheet Answers
Worksheet 7 DG Worksheet 11 Aircraft Magnetism
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

C D C A A C A A C D A C D D C A C D D D

11 12 13 14 15 11 12 13

B C D B A B A D

m
co
Worksheet 8 AI Worksheet 12 Direct Reading Compass

l.
ai
gm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

i@
B D D A C A C D D C D C A B B C B A A B

ag
11 12 13 14 15 16

c
Worksheet 9 Turn and Balance es A A D C A D
vi
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ja

A A C B B B B C C B Worksheet 13 Remote Indicating Compass

11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A C B D C C A C D D C A C B D

11 12
Worksheet 10 Terrestrial Magnetism C D

1 2 3 4 5 6

C B C B A D

Chapter 18 | Section 1 | Page 292

 FTEGround Manual Worksheet Answers | Basic Instruments

Worksheet Answers
Worksheet 14 Computing Worksheet 17 Inertial Navigation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A C A C D B A A C C D C D A C C D

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Worksheet 15 Air Data Computer, Temperature… D C A B A C B B D A

m
1 2 3 4 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

co
D D D B B A D C C C C B C B

l.
ai
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

gm
Worksheet 15A Air Data Computer, Temperature… C D C B A C A D B C

i@
ag
41 42 43
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

c
es C A B
A C D A A D D A A C
vi
11
ja

Worksheet 16 Radio Altimeter

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B B A D A C B B D C

Chapter 18 | Section 1 | Page 293