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CHAPTER 6
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
When the first aircraft came into existence, the main goal was to launch the aircraft and
keep it airborne as long as possible. At first, it was not possible to keep the aircraft in
the air for longer than a few minutes. However, as engines and aircraft structures were
improved, the aircraft was able to remain aloft for a longer time. Along with these
improvements came the need for instruments. The first aircraft instruments were fuel
and oil pressure instruments. These instruments warned the pilot of engine trouble so
the aircraft could be landed before the engine failed. Later, when the aircraft could fly
over considerable distances, weather became a problem. This led to the development
of instruments that helped pilots fly through snowstorms, thunderstorms, and other bad
weather conditions.
The instruments used in aircraft years ago are reasonably simple compared with those
in current aircraft. The jet aircraft has brought many complex problems to instrument
engineering.
Instrumentation is basically the science of measurement. Measurements that are
common on all aircraft are position, direction, speed, altitude, engine condition, fuel on
board, and fuel consumption. In addition, jet aircraft instruments include Mach speed,
angle of attack, and Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) indicators.
There are two ways of grouping aircraft instruments, by their operating principles and by
the job they perform. Instrument operating principles include gyroscopic, pressure or
temperature sensing, magnetism, electrical energy, or a combination of any of these.
This chapter deals with indicating systems and flight, engine, and equipment
instruments in relation to the jobs they perform.
The flight instruments discussed are those instruments that provide aircraft performance
information to the pilot. These instrument systems include the airspeed, altimeter,
vertical speed, attitude, turn and bank, and angle-of-attack. Along with the heading
indicator, these instruments provide primary flight reference to the pilot. The heading
indicator is a flight instrument, which is discussed in the Compass and Inertial
Navigation Systems (INS) chapter.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Describe the operating principles and features of aircraft flight instrument
systems, including the pitot-static, airspeed indicator, angle-of-attack, gyroscope,
and miscellaneous flight instrument systems.
2. Explain the operating principles and characteristics of engine instrument
systems, including tachometer, temperature indicating, fuel flow, oil pressure,
fuel pressure, oil temperature, exhaust-nozzle indicating, and torquemeter
systems.
3. Summarize the operating principles and characteristics of aircraft instrument
systems, including fuel quantity, hydraulic pressure, and position indicating
systems.
4. Identify the various procedures used to maintain, and test aircraft instruments.
6-1
FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
To maintain instruments properly, you, as an Aviation Electrician’s Mate (AE), must
know the basic principles of the flight instrument systems. AEs frequently work with
equipment and systems that use the principles of density and pressure.
You must consider density and pressure when discussing altimetry and airspeed.
Although very light, air has weight and is affected by gravity. By its weight, air exerts
pressure on everything it touches. Since air is a gas, it exerts pressure in all directions.
The weight of the air pressing down from above determines the air pressure at any
given altitude.
The weight of the atmosphere presses the molecules closer together, making them
more numerous per unit of volume. This action takes place at the bottom of the
atmosphere, or where it rests upon the earth’s surface. Therefore, the air at the bottom
of the atmosphere is denser than at higher altitudes. Air pressure at sea level on an
average day will support a column of mercury 29.92 inches high (Figure 6-1).

Figure 6-1 — Mercurial barometer.

Atmospheric pressure is a force per unit area, and force is equal to mass multiplied by
acceleration. Therefore, a pressure change occurs if either the mass of the atmosphere
changes or the molecules within the atmosphere accelerate. Although altitude exerts
the dominant control, temperature and moisture alter pressure at any given altitude.
Figure 6-2 shows the standard pressure and temperature at given altitudes.

6-2
Conditions are very seldom
standard for temperature or
pressure; therefore, you must
correct the formula to find density
altitude or true airspeed. Let’s
consider an airfield under the
influence of a low-pressure
climatic condition, where the
temperature is very hot. Together,
these two conditions may reduce
the density of the air to such an
extent that it affects aircraft
engine performance. This
reduction of air density makes
takeoff capability marginal,
especially for a helicopter. The
density of air also directly affects
aircraft movement through the air,
and thus the true airspeed of the
aircraft. The denser the air, the
more difficult it is for the aircraft to
move through it.

Figure 6-2 — The standard atmosphere.

6-3
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
The aircraft pitot-static system (Figure 6-3) includes instruments that operate on the
principle of the barometer. The system consists of a pitot tube, static air vents, and
three indicators, which connect with pipelines that carry air. The three indicators are
Airspeed, Altimeter, and the Vertical Speed.

Figure 6-3 — Pitot-static system.

The airspeed indicator shows the speed of the aircraft through the air, and the altimeter
shows the altitude. The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) indicates how fast the aircraft is
climbing or descending. All of these indicators operate on air that comes in from outside
the aircraft during flight.
The pitot tube mounts on the outside of the aircraft (Figure 6-3) at a point where the air
is least likely to be turbulent. The tube points in a forward direction parallel to the
aircraft’s line of flight. One general type of airspeed tube mounts on a streamlined mast
extending below the nose of the fuselage. Another type mounts on a boom extending
forward from the leading edge of the wing. Although there is a slight difference in their
construction, the tubes operate identically.
The Pitot System measures impact pressure, which is the pressure of the outside air
against the aircraft flying through it. The tube that goes from the pitot tube to the
airspeed indicator applies the outside air pressure to the airspeed indicator. The
airspeed indicator calibration allows various air pressures to cause different readings on
the dial. The purpose of the airspeed indicator is to interpret pitot air pressure in terms
of airspeed in knots.
Generally, static air vents (Figure 6-3) are small, calibrated holes in an assembly
mounted flush with the aircraft fuselage. Their position is in a place with the least
amount of local airflow moving across the vents when the aircraft is flying.
Static means stationary or not changing. The static part of the pitot-static system also
introduces outside air. However, the outside air is at its normal outside atmospheric
pressure as though the aircraft were standing still in the air. The static line applies this
outside air to the airspeed indicators, the altimeter, and the vertical speed indicator.
6-4
Airspeed Indicators
Readings from an airspeed indicator are used to estimate ground speed and to
determine throttle settings for the most efficient flying speed. These readings also
provide a basis for calculating the best climbing and gliding angles. They warn the pilot
if diving speed approaches the safety limits of the aircraft’s structure. Since airspeed
increases in a dive and decreases in a climb, the indicator is an excellent check for
maintaining level flight. Figure 6-4, view A, shows a cutaway view of a typical airspeed
indicator.
An airspeed indicator has a
cylindrical, airtight case that
connects to the static line from
the pitot-static tube. Inside the
case is a small aneroid
diaphragm of phosphor bronze
or beryllium copper. The
diaphragm is very sensitive to
changes in pressure, and it
connects to the impact pressure
(pitot) line. This construction
allows air from the pitot tube to
enter the diaphragm. The side of
the diaphragm fastens to the
case and is rigid. The needle or
pointer connects through a
series of levers and gears to the
free side of the diaphragm.
The airspeed indicator is a
differential pressure instrument.
It measures the difference
between the pressures in the
impact pressure line and in the
static pressure line. The two
pressures are equal when the
aircraft is stationary on the
ground. Movement through the
air causes pressure in the
impact line to become greater
than that in the static line. This
pressure increase causes the
diaphragm to expand. The
expansion or contraction of the
diaphragm goes through a
series of levers and gears to the
face of the instrument to
regulate needle position. The Figure 6-4 — (A) Airspeed indicator; (B)
needle shows the pressure maximum allowable airspeed indicator.
differential in MPH or knots. All
speeds and distances are in nautical miles.
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE AIRSPEED INDICATOR – Figure 6-4, view B, shows the
face of a maximum allowable airspeed indicator. The dial face measurements are in
6-5
knots from 50 to 450 with an expanded scale below 200 knots. The dial has an
indicating pointer and a maximum safe airspeed pointer. The maximum safe airspeed
pointer moves as the maximum safe airspeed changes because of static pressure
changes at different altitudes.
No matter where the pitot-static tube is located, it is impossible to keep it free from all air
disturbances set up by the aircraft structure. You must make allowances for this
installation error when reading the indicator. Temperature is another cause of error.
Also, imperfect scaling of the indicator dial with respect to the airspeed differential
pressure relationship will cause an error in reading. You can make simple adjustments
to the instrument mechanism to correct the tendency to read fast or slow.
MACH SPEED INDICATORS – In some cases, the term Mach speed is used to
express aircraft speed. The Mach speed is the ratio of the speed of a moving body to
the speed of sound in the surrounding medium. For example, if an aircraft is flying at a
speed equal to one-half the local speed of sound, it is flying at Mach 0.5. If it moves at
twice the local speed of sound, its speed is Mach 2.
Figure 6-5 shows the front view of a typical airspeed and Mach speed indicator. The
instrument consists of altitude and airspeed mechanisms incorporated in a single
housing. This instrument gives the pilot a simplified presentation of both indicated
airspeed and Mach speed. Both indications are read from the same pointer.

Figure 6-5 — Airspeed/Mach speed indicator.

6-6
The pointer shows airspeed at low speeds, and both indicated airspeed and Mach
speed at high speeds. Pitot pressure on a diaphragm moves the pointer, and an aneroid
diaphragm controls the Mach speed dial. The aneroid diaphragm reacts to static
pressure changes because of altitude changes. Figure 6-6 is a mechanical schematic of
an airspeed and Mach speed indicator.

Figure 6-6 — Airspeed/Mach speed indicator mechanical schematic.

The range of the instrument is 80 to 650 knots indicated airspeed and from 0.5 to 2.0
Mach speed. Its calibrated operating limit is 50,000 feet of altitude. A stationary
airspeed dial masks the upper range of the movable Mach dial at low altitudes. The
stationary airspeed dial is graduated in knots. The instrument incorporates a landing
speed index and a Mach speed setting index. You can adjust both indexes by a knob on
the lower left-hand corner of the instrument. You can adjust the landing speed index
over a range of 80 to 150 knots. The index operates with the knob in its normal position.
You may adjust the Mach speed index over the entire Mach range. The index adjusts by
depressing the knob and turning it.

6-7
Altimeter
An altimeter is an instrument that measures static pressure. Before you can understand
how the altimeter works, you need to understand altitude. Remember, even though the
altimeter reads in feet, it is actually measuring pressure. The word altitude is vague, so
it needs further defining. The term altitude includes altitude above Mean Sea Level
(MSL) and altitude Above Ground Level (AGL). It also includes pressure altitude,
indicated altitude, density altitude, and elevation.
MEAN SEA LEVEL – Since about 80 percent of the earth’s surface is water, it is natural
to use sea level as an altitude reference point. The pull of gravity is not the same at sea
level all over the world because the earth is not perfectly round and because of tides. To
adjust for this, an average (or mean) value is set; this is the mean sea level. Mean sea
level is the point where gravity acting on the atmosphere produces a pressure of 14.70
pounds per square inch. This pressure supports a column of mercury in a barometer to
a height of 29.92 inches. This is the reference point from which you measure all other
altitudes. See Figures 6-1 and 6-2. The altitude you read from an altimeter refers to
MSL.
ELEVATION AND TRUE ALTITUDE – Elevation is the height of a land mass above
MSL. Elevation is measured with precision instruments that are far more accurate than
the standard aircraft altimeter. You can find elevation information on charts or, for a
particular spot, painted on a hangar near an aircraft ramp or taxi area.
True altitude is the actual number of feet above MSL. A ruler or yardstick is used to
measure the altitude. In standard day conditions, pressure altitude and true altitude are
the same.
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE – Absolute altitude is the distance between the aircraft and the
terrain over which it is flying. It is referred to as the altitude Above Ground Level (AGL).
Due to variations in terrain, AGL is typically unreliable information. However, it is useful
when flying near the ground, such as in a takeoff or landing pattern. You find AGL by
subtracting the elevation of the terrain beneath the aircraft from the altitude read on the
altimeter (MSL). A radar altimeter indicates actual altitude above the terrain; you call
this indication radar altitude.
PRESSURE ALTITUDE – To measure altitude, instruments sense air pressure and
compare it to known values of standard air pressure at specific, measured altitudes. The
altitude you read from a properly calibrated altimeter referenced to 29.92 inches of
mercury (Hg) is the pressure altitude.
Refer back to Figure 6-2. If a pressure altimeter senses 6.75 pounds per square inch
pressure with the altimeter set to sea level and barometric pressure 29.92 inches of
mercury, the altimeter indicates 20,000 feet. This reading does not mean that the
aircraft is exactly 20,000 feet above MSL. It means the aircraft is in an air mass exerting
a pressure equivalent to 20,000 feet on a standard day. You can see that pressure
altitude is not true altitude.
INDICATED AND CALIBRATED ALTITUDE – Unfortunately, standard atmospheric
conditions very seldom exist. Atmospheric conditions and barometric pressure can vary
considerably. A pressure change of one-hundredth (0.01) of an inch of mercury
represents a 9-foot change in altitude at sea level. Barometric pressure changes
between 29.50 and 30.50 are not uncommon (a pressure change of about 923 feet).
Indicated altitude is the uncorrected reading of a barometric altimeter. Calibrated
altitude is the indicated altitude corrected for inherent and installation errors of the

6-8
altimeter. On an altimeter without such errors, indicated altitude and calibrated altitude
are identical. Assume that this is the case for the rest of this discussion.
When flying below 18,000 feet, the aircraft altimeter must be set to the altimeter setting
(barometric pressure corrected to sea level) of a selected ground station within 100
miles of the aircraft. Altitude read from an altimeter set to local barometric pressure is
indicated altitude. The accuracy of this method is limited because you must assume a
standard lapse rate; that is, for a given number of feet of altitude, an exact change in
pressure occurs. This exact change seldom happens, which limits the accuracy of the
altimeter. Above 18,000 feet, all altimeters are set to 29.92 (pressure altitude). Although
the altimeter is not accurate, as long as all aircraft have the same barometric pressure
setting, aircraft vertical separation is controlled.
DENSITY ALTITUDE – A very important factor in determining the performance of an
aircraft or engine is the density of the air. The denser the air, the more horsepower the
engine can produce. Also, there is more resistance to the aircraft when flying resulting
in airfoils producing more lift, and propellers producing more thrust. Pressure,
temperature, and moisture content all affect air density. Measurements of air density are
in weight per unit volume (for example, pounds per cubic foot). However, a more
convenient measurement of air density for the pilot is density altitude. This is that
altitude in the standard atmosphere which corresponds to a particular air density.
Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for temperature deviations from the
standard atmosphere. In basic terms, it is the altitude that the aircraft "thinks" it's at. An
increase in density altitude corresponds to reduced air pressure felt by the aircraft. This
results in airfields at higher elevations, particularly when warm temperatures are present
to require more runway for aircraft to take off. Additionally, aircraft will have a reduced
rate of climb and a faster approach and will experience a longer landing roll.
Density altitude does not show on an instrument. It is usually taken from a table or
computed by comparing pressure, altitude, and temperature. Although moisture content
affects air density, its effect is negligible."
Several kinds of altimeters are in use today. They are all constructed on the same basic
principle as an aneroid. They all have pressure responsive elements (aneroid wafers)
that expand or contract with the pressure changes of different flight levels. The heart of
a pressure altimeter is its aneroid mechanism (Figure 6-7), which consists of one or
more aneroid wafers. The expansion or contraction of the aneroid wafers with pressure
changes operates the linkage. This action moves the indicating hand/counter to show
altitude. Around the aneroid mechanism of most altimeters is a device called the bimetal
yoke. As the name implies, this device is composed of two metals. It performs the
function of compensating for the effect that temperature has on the metals of the
aneroid mechanism. The altimeter discussed in the following paragraphs is a simple
one. Several complex altimeters are discussed later in this chapter, along with the
automatic altitude system.

6-9
 Figure 6-7 — Simplified aneroid mechanism.

COUNTER POINTER PRESSURE ALTIMETER – The purpose of the counter pointer

pressure altimeter (Figure 6-8) is to show aircraft height. By studying the dial of the
indicator, you can easily understand the procedure for determining the height of the
aircraft. A description of the mechanical operation of this altimeter follows. As you read
about the operation, refer to Figure 6-9.

Figure 6-8 — Counter pointer pressure

altimeter.
6-10
 Figure 6-9 — Mechanical schematic of a counter pointer pressure altimeter.

Atmospheric changes cause movement of the two aneroid diaphragm assemblies.

These assemblies move two similar rocking shaft assemblies mutually engaged with the
main pinion assembly. This movement goes to the handstaff assembly, which operates
the hand assembly and drives the counter mechanism through a disk. Because of the
special design of the hand assembly, the counter indication is never obscured. An
internal vibrator minimizes friction during the instrument’s operation.
You make barometric corrections by turning the externally located knob. The knob
engages the barometric dial and the main plate assembly that supports the entire
mechanism. You make adjustments so the reading on the barometric dial corresponds
to the area barometric conditions in which the aircraft is flying.

6-11
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
A VSI shows the rate at which an aircraft is climbing or descending. It is very important
for night flying, flying through fog or clouds, or flying when the horizon is obscured.
Another use is to determine the maximum rate of climb during performance tests or in
actual service.
The rate of altitude change, as
shown on the indicator dial, is
positive in a climb and negative
in a dive or glide. The dial
pointer (Figure 6-10) moves in
either direction from the zero
point. This action depends on
whether the aircraft is going up
or down. In level flight the
pointer remains at zero.
The vertical speed indicator is
contained in a sealed case, and
it connects to the static pressure
line through a calibrated leak.
Refer to Figure 6-11. Changing
pressures will result in
expansion or contraction of the
diaphragm, which in turn will
move the indicating needle
through the use of internal gears
and levers. The instrument Figure 6-10 — Vertical speed indicator (VSI).
automatically compensates for
changes in temperature.
Although the vertical speed
indicator operates from the
static pressure source, it is a
differential pressure instrument.
The difference in pressure
between the instantaneous
static pressure in the diaphragm
and the static pressure trapped
within the case creates the
differential pressure.
When the pressures equalize in
level flight, the needle reads
zero. As static pressure in the
diaphragm changes during a
climb or descent, the needle
immediately shows a change of
vertical speed. However, until
the differential pressure
stabilizes at a definite ratio,
indications are not reliable.
Because of the restriction in
airflow through the calibrated Figure 6-11 — Mechanical schematic of a
VSI. 6-12
leak, the differential pressure requires a 6 to 9 second lag for the pressures to stabilize.
The VSI has a zero adjustment on the front of the case. You use this adjustment with
the aircraft on the ground to return the pointer to zero. While adjusting the instrument,
tap it lightly to remove friction effects.

AIR DATA COMPUTER (ADC) SYSTEM

Aircraft operating below 0.9 Mach airspeed use raw pitot and static pressures to
develop accurate airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed indications. Aircraft operating in
this speed range use the pressures that the pitot-static ports sense.
Modern supersonic aircraft operate in a higher speed range and require more accurate
pressures. At high speed, pressures build upon the external skin of the aircraft. These
pressures cause a distortion of the normal flow of air, causing the pitot-static system to
sense false pressures. The system then supplies erroneous information to the flight
instruments. The altimeter, for instance, may show an error of more than 3,000 feet. A
3,000-foot error in altitude is intolerable and could put an aircraft in an extremely
dangerous position.
The system that compensates for altitude and other pitot-static errors is the Air Data
Computer (ADC) system. Many variations exist in both the name of the systems and the
method of data development.

Purpose
Many inputs are common to the various types of ADC systems. ADCs differ in how they
process input data and distribute output data to the various systems using the data.
Data requirements vary with the type and mission of the aircraft.
Figure 6-12 shows the major distribution of systems that depend on all or part of the
ADC. Notice that all inputs, such as pitot and static pressures, go to the ADC. The ADC
receives pneumatic and electrical inputs to produce various outputs. Signals resulting
from the processing of the inputs go to the using systems.

NOTE
To understand air data computer maintenance in modern
aircraft, you must have knowledge of digital electronics,
including logic diagrams and flow charts. Review NEETS,
Module 13, Introduction to Number Systems and Logic
Circuits, NAVEDTRA 14185, and Module 22, Introduction to
Digital Computers, NAVEDTRA 14194 before continuing.

The ADC receives information from pressure-sensitive and temperature-sensitive units

mounted on external points of the aircraft. Using this data, it compensates for errors and
sends the corrected information to other systems in the aircraft. Concurrently, it detects
any changes in pressure and temperature information. It converts these changes into
usable signals and sends them along with the pressure and temperature signals. The
electrical signal outputs are representative of altitude, Mach speed, true airspeed, angle
of attack, total temperature, and impact pressure. There is also a pneumatic output of
corrected static pressure. This output is used by the barometric altimeter, airspeed,
VSIs, and some modules within the air data computer.
6-13
Figure 6-12 — Air Data Computer block diagram showing inputs and outputs.

6-14
There are four basic data inputs in every ADC system:
1. Total pressure (pitot)
2. Indicated static pressure
3. Indicated angle of attack
4. Total temperature
Command and test signal inputs use the available raw and corrected primary data for
making functional tests of various ADC outputs.
Table 6-1 contains a list of symbols and their definitions. Since these symbols are used
many times in this section, you should refer to this table for symbol meanings.

Table 6-1 — Symbols Used with an ADC System

SYMBOL DEFINITION

ADC Air data computer

AOA Angle of attack

BIT Built in test

a i Indicated angle of attack

a T True angle of attack

B Constant

∆ Incremental change (delta)

Hp Barometric or pressure altitude

M Mach speed

PD Pressure differential

Ps Correct static pressure

P Indicated static pressure

Pt Correct total pressure

Pti Indicated total pressure

QA Actual impact pressure

Qc Correct impact pressure

Ts Free airstream temperature

Tt Total temperature

Tti Indicated total temperature

Va True airspeed

Vc Calibrated airspeed

6-15
Major Components
The major components that collect and distribute information used in the air data
computer system are listed below.
1. Angle-of-attack transmitter
2. Pitot-static system
3. Total temperature probe
Although the functions of these components are essentially the same on all aircraft the
processing and distribution of air data information varies from aircraft model to model.
When performing maintenance on any ADC system, you shall refer to the latest
Maintenance Instructions Manual (MIM) for that particular aircraft model to ensure you
use correct ADC system information.
ANGLE-OF-ATTACK TRANSMITTER – Forces vary with the angle of attack. The angle
of attack is the angle between the relative wind and the chord of the wing. The chord of
the wing is a straight line running from the leading edge to the trailing edge. Increasing
the angle of attack increases the pressure
felt under the wing and vice versa.
The angle-of-attack transmitter (Figure 6-
13) detects changes in the aircraft’s local
angle of attack. It sends these changes, in
the form of mechanical motion, to
potentiometers within the transmitter.
These potentiometers convert the
mechanical motion to proportional
electrical voltages. These voltages go to
associated angle-of-attack indicating and
interface equipment.
The transmitter has a detector probe that
senses changes in airflow. Changes in
airflow cause the probe paddle to rotate.
This rotation, in turn, drives the wiper arms
of the three internally mounted
potentiometers. Figure 6-13 — Angle of attack
transmitter (probe).
The angle-of-attack system shows the pilot
aircraft pitch attitude with respect to the
surrounding air mass.

6-16
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM – Figure 6-14 shows the airstream sensors of the pitot-static
system. These sensors sense the air surrounding the aircraft and provide impact
(pitot/Pt) pressure and atmospheric (static/Ps) pressure. These pressures go to the
flight instruments and to the ADC.
The pitot-static system is actually two separate systems with individual pitot-static
probes (Figure 6-15), one on each side of the forward fuselage. The ADC receives
static pressure (Ps) from both probes. However, it receives total pressure (Pt) from only
one probe.

Figure 6-14 — ADC system airstream sensors.

Indicated Static Pressure – This pressure (P) is the atmospheric pressure as sensed
at a point on the aircraft that is relatively free from airflow disturbances. At subsonic
speeds, static pressure error is small and of little significance. However, at transonic
and supersonic speeds, the static ports sense extreme static pressure errors. Both
Mach speed and angle of attack can cause significant errors in the static pressure
system. Indicated static pressure (P), as detected by the aircraft static ports, deviates
from true static pressure. These deviations have a definite relationship to Mach speed
and angle of attack. The size of the error is the ratio of true static pressure to indicated
static pressure, as related to Mach speed and angle of attack.

6-17
Impact Pressure – As implied, impact pressure (Qc) is the force of the air against the
aircraft. Qc is measured directly by use of a pitot-static probe (Figure 6-15) or calculated
from the outputs of the static and total pressure transducers. The ADC calculates actual
impact pressure (QA) as a function of Mach speed squared and static pressure.

Figure 6-15 — Pitot-static probe.

Indicated Total Pressure – This pressure (Pti) is the sum of static air pressure and the
pressure created by aircraft motion through the air. The pitot tube senses total pressure,
which you also know by the familiar term pitot pressure.
Corrected Static and Corrected Total Pressures – These pressures, Ps and Pt,
contain errors that must be corrected to get true static and true total pressures. These
errors are a result of slope and offset errors related to Mach speeds. The computer
calculates the specified slope and intercept errors as functions of the indicated pressure
ratio (Pti/P) and of the indicated angle of attack (a i).

CAUTION
Be sure to disable the pitot-static heater before working on
this system. You may be seriously burned by touching the
probes.

6-18
TOTAL TEMPERATURE PROBE – Total temperature (Tt) is the temperature of
ambient air plus the temperature increase created by the motion of the aircraft. Total
temperature is sensed by a probe. This probe includes a platinum resistance element
inside an aerodynamic housing placed in the airstream. The resistive element, whose
resistance varies with temperature, acts as the variable portion of a bridge circuit.
The total temperature probe provides the ADC with accurate outside air temperature
information. The raw information is the indicated total temperature (Tti). The computer
smooths and limits computations on the Tti before using the resultant output to calculate
true Tt. Figure 6-16 shows a typical temperature-sensitive bridge circuit that provides
temperature data to the air data computer.

Figure 6-16 — Total temperature circuit.

AUTOMATIC ALTITUDE SYSTEM

In the past, the air traffic control system radar presented azimuth and distance
information to the controller on horizontal radarscopes. Aircraft identification was done
primarily by voice radio, the use of position reports over definite fixes, identifying turns
of the aircraft to headings requested by the controller, or a beacon identification signal.
Altitude information was given over the voice radio. After this information-gathering
process, the information was recorded on a flight strip by the controller and updated as
required. When the aircraft moved into another controller’s area, the handoff of the
aircraft and the associated information was a manual process. Although the system was
adequate, it became cumbersome during heavy traffic.

6-19
The increase in air traffic since 1950 has caused serious problems of vertical
separation, terrain clearance, and collision avoidance. Because of these problems,
improved air traffic control techniques were developed. These techniques included the
use of altitude-coded transponders for automatic altitude and position reporting.
Automatic altitude reporting equipment that provides continuous automatic identification
of aircraft on the ground controller’s radarscopes has been developed. This equipment
cuts out many of the manual steps required in the old air traffic control system. An air
data computer corrects static pressure errors and provides synchro-driven altitude
information to the pilot’s altimeter. It also provides altitude in digital form to the aircraft
transponder in high-performance aircraft. In low-performance aircraft, the equipment
provides a direct readout of altitude to the pilot and digital altitude information to the
aircraft transponder. The digital information then goes to the ground interrogator and
shows on the radarscopes in alphanumeric form.
The automatic altitude system operation is discussed in the following paragraphs
utilizing the Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) system operation. An interrogation pulse
group goes from the interrogator-transmitter unit through a directional interrogator
antenna assembly. The pulse group triggers an airborne transponder, causing a
multiple pulse reply group to be transmitted. The transponder transmission goes to the
ground interrogator-receiver, which is processed through a computer. It is then
displayed in alphanumeric form on the controller’s radar screen. The length of the
round-trip transit time determines the range of the replying aircraft. The mean direction
of the main beam of the interrogator antenna during the reply determines the azimuth.
The encoded signal from the transponder provides, via mode C, the aircraft’s altitude in
100-foot increments.
Refer to Figure 6-17, which shows the automatic altitude reporting system.

Figure 6-17 — The automatic altitude reporting system.

6-20
As you can see, a semi-automated air traffic control system includes the following
improvements over the past system.
 The automatic altitude reporting system automatically provides the air traffic
controller with a radar presentation. It identifies, in three dimensions, every
properly equipped aircraft within the controllers’ area.
 Because of the three-dimensional presentation, the automatic altitude reporting
system greatly reduces the use of voice radio. It also eases the workload of the
air traffic controller, thus increasing air traffic control efficiency.
 A transponder signal reinforces the radar signal normally seen on the
radarscopes. It makes the signal stronger and much less susceptible to
atmospheric interference.
 The beacon system altitude reporting feature may reduce vertical separation in
the higher flight levels.
 The automatic altitude reporting system continuously updates aircraft altitude and
records in 100-foot increments. Separations permits more accurate traffic control
when aircraft are changing altitude rapidly, as they do in terminal areas.

Altimetry
The three altimeters that work with the automatic altitude reporting system are the AAU-
19/A, AAU-21/A, and AAU-24/A (Figure 6-18).

Figure 6-18 — AAU-19/A, AAU-21/A, AAU-24/A altimeters.

6-21
SERVOED BAROMETER ALTIMETER AAU-19/A – The counter-drum-pointer served
barometric altimeter (Figure 6-19) consists of a pressure altimeter combined with an at-
powered servomechanism.
The altitude display is in digital form, using a 10,000-foot counter, a 1,000-foot counter,
and a 100-foot drum. Also, a single pointer shows hundreds of feet on a circular scale.
The barometric pressure setting (baroset) knob is used to insert the local pressure in
inches of mercury. The baroset knob has no effect on the digital output (mode C) of the
ADC. This digital output is always referenced to 29.92 inches of mercury.

Figure 6-19 — AAU-19/A altimeter.

The altimeter has a servoed mode and a pressure mode of operation. The mode of
operation is controlled by a spring-loaded, self-centering mode switch, placarded
RESET and STBY. In the servoed mode, the altimeter displays altitude, corrected for
position error, from the synchro output of the air data computer. In the standby mode,
the altimeter operates as a standard altimeter. In this mode, it uses static pressure from
the static system that is uncorrected for position error.
The servoed mode is selected by placing the mode switch to RESET for 3 seconds. The
ac power must be on. During standby operation, a red STBY flag appears on the dial
face. The altimeter automatically switches to standby operation during an electrical
power loss or when the altimeter or altitude computer fails. The standby operation is
selected by placing the mode switch to STBY. An ac-powered internal vibrator

6-22
automatically energizes in the standby mode to lessen friction in the display
mechanism.
With the local barometric pressure set, the altimeter should agree to ±75 feet of field
elevation in both modes.
AAU-21/A ALTIMETER – AAU-21/A altimeter is used in low/slow aircraft. It has a
counter-drum-pointer display similar in appearance to the AAU-19/A. The altimeter
contains a servo-driven encoder. The encoder provides an altitude signal to the aircraft
transponder for transmission to a ground station.
AAU-24/A ALTIMETER – The AAU-24/A altimeter (Figure 6-20) contains a precision
pressure sensing device, counter, and pointer drive mechanisms. It also contains a
combination counter-drum and pointer for altitude display. The counter displays two
digits, showing multiples of 10,000 feet and 1,000 feet respectively, and moves
intermittently. The drum shows multiples of 100 feet and moves continuously. The
pointer travels one revolution for each increment of 1,000 feet of altitude. The pointer
scale is from 0 to 9, each step representing an increment of 100 feet. Each 100-foot
step is split into two increments of 50 feet each.

Figure 6-20 — AAU-24/A altimeter dial face.

The barometric setting (baroset) knob is located in the lower left corner of the bezel. It
protrudes a maximum of 0.73 inch in front of the bezel. The baroset knob works with a
four-digit counter, designated IN Hg, to set the altitude indication to the prevailing
barometric pressure. It is adjustable from 28 to 31 inches of mercury. Next to the
baroset knob is a locking screw. This screw is used only during calibration procedures
to align the barometric pressure (IN Hg) indication with altitude indication.
Two sets of internal lights, one red and one white, provide dial lighting. Each set
consists of four lights. Controls for dial lighting are external to the altimeter.
To overcome the effects of stop-and-jump friction in altimeter mechanisms, the altimeter
has an internal, electrically operated mechanical vibrator.
6-23
ANGLE-OF-ATTACK (AOA) INDICATING SYSTEM
The Angle-of-Attack (AOA) indicating system detects aircraft angle of attack from a
point on the side of the fuselage. It furnishes reference information for the control and
actuation of other units and aircraft systems. It provides signals to operate an AOA
indicator (Figure 6-21) on the pilot’s instrument panel. This indicator displays a
continuous visual indication of the local angle of attack. A typical AOA system provides
electrical signals for operating the rudder pedal shaker. The shaker warns the pilot of an
impending stall when the aircraft is approaching the critical stall angle of attack.
Electrical switches in the AOA indicator operating at various preset angles of attack
energize colored lights in the approach light system and an approach index light in the
cockpit. These lights furnish the landing signal officer and the pilot with an accurate
indication of approach angle of attack during landing. An angle-of-sideslip system,
consisting of an airstream direction detector, and angle-of-sideslip compensator, is
installed on some aircraft. The outputs from these are used for controlled rocket firing.

Figure 6-21 — AOA indicators: (A) radial; (B) vertical scale.

The AOA indicating system consists of an airstream direction detector transmitter

(Figure 6-22) and an indicator. The airstream direction detector measures local airflow
direction relative to the true angle of attack. It does this by determining the angular
difference between local airflow and the fuselage reference plane. The sensing element
works with a servo-driven balanced bridge circuit, which converts probe positions into
electrical signals.

6-24
 Figure 6-22 — AOA transmitter.

The AOA indicating system operation is based on detection of differential pressure at a

point where the airstream is flowing in a direction that is not parallel to the true angle of
attack of the aircraft. This differential pressure is caused by changes in airflow around
the probe. The probe extends through the skin of the aircraft into the airstream.
The exposed end of the probe
contains two parallel slots
(ports). These slots detect the
differential airflow pressure
(Figure 6-23). Air from the slots
passes through two separate air
passages to separate
compartments in a paddle
chamber. Any differential
pressure, caused by
misalignment of the probe to the
direction of airflow, causes the
paddles to rotate. The moving
paddles rotate the probe,
through mechanical linkage,
until the pressure differential is
zero. Alignment occurs when
the slots are symmetrical with
the airstream direction.

Figure 6-23 — Mechanical schematic of

airstream direction detector.

6-25
Two potentiometer wipers, rotating with the probe, provide signals for remote
indications. Probe position, or rotation, converts into an electrical signal by the
potentiometer that is the transmitter component of a self-balancing bridge circuit. When
the angle of attack of the aircraft changes, the position of the transmitter potentiometer
alters. The alteration causes an error voltage to exist between the transmitter
potentiometer and the receiver potentiometer in the indicator.
Current flows through a sensitive polarized relay to rotate a servomotor located in the
indicator. The servomotor drives a receiver potentiometer in the direction required to
reduce the error voltage. This action restores the circuit to a null or electrically balanced
condition. The polarity of the error voltage determines the resultant direction of rotation
of the servomotor. The indicating pointer is attached to, and moves with, the receiver
potentiometer wiper arm to show on the dial the relative angle of attack.
Figure 6-24 shows the relationship of the AOA indexer lights indication and stall
warning. The AOA indexer lights mounted on the pilot’s Heads Up Display (HUD)
Combiner Assembly has two arrows and a circle illuminated by colored lamps to provide
the pilot with approach information. Two Angle of Attack Transmitters (AOATs) provide
angle of attack information to the flight control computers, which in turn control the AOA
indexer display. The upper arrow is for high angle of attack (green). The lower arrow is
for low angle of attack (red). The circle is for optimum angle of attack (amber). An arrow
and a circle together show an intermediate or optimum position for landing approach.

6-26
Figure 6-24 — Angle-of-attack (AOA) indications. 6-27
The indexer lights function only when the landing gear is down. A flasher unit causes
the indexer lights to pulsate when the arresting hook is up with the HOOK BYPASS
switch in the CARRIER position.

STALL WARNING SYSTEM

Many aircraft have stall warning indicators to warn the pilot of an impending
aerodynamic stall. In the past, stall warning indicators were of a pneumatic control type.
These devices activated either
warning horns or flashing lights.
Later, research found that a stall
relates directly to the angle of
attack, regardless of airspeed,
power setting, or aircraft loading.
The stall warning devices of most
aircraft now in the fleet operate at
a specified angle of attack. The
devices operate through cams in
the AOA indicator. The cam-
driven switch activates a vibrator
motor connected to either a
rudder pedal or the control stick.
Figure 6-25 shows a simplified
schematic of the rudder shaker
system. When the aircraft
reaches stall angle of attack, the
AOA indicator cam-actuated
switch completes the rudder
shaker motor circuit to ground.
When the angle of attack returns
below stall conditions, the cam de- Figure 6-25 — Rudder shaker schematic
actuates the switch. The switch (simplified).
action removes the ground from
the rudder shaker motor.

GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
Early aircraft were flown by visually aligning the aircraft with the horizon. With poor
visibility, it was not possible to fly the aircraft safely. The need for flight instruments to
correct this condition led to the development of gyroscopic instruments. The gyroscopic
properties of a spinning wheel made precision instrument flying, precise navigation, and
pinpoint bombing practical and reliable. Some of the instruments that use this principle
are the turn-and-bank indicator, directional gyro, gyro horizon, and drift meter. Systems
that use the gyroscopic principle include the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS),
gyrostabilized flux-gate compass, and inertial navigation system. The following
paragraphs contain a brief review of gyroscopic principles.

NOTE
You should review NEETS, Module 15, Principles of
Synchros, Servos, and Gyros, NAVEDTRA 14187 before
continuing.
6-28
A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or rotor with universal mounting. This mounting allows
the gyroscope to assume any position in space. Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic
properties. The wheel, with specific design and mounts to use these properties, is a
gyroscope. The two important design characteristics for instrument gyros are:
1. High-density weight for small size
2. High-speed rotation with low friction
The mountings of the gyro wheels are gimbals. They can be circular rings or rectangular
frames. However, some flight instruments use part of the instrument case itself as a
gimbal. A simple gyroscope is shown in Figure 6-26.
The two general types of
mountings for gyros are the free
or universal mounting and the
restricted or semi-rigid
mounting. The type of mounting
the gyro uses depends on the
gyro’s purpose.
A gyro can have different
degrees of freedom. The degree
of freedom depends on the
number of gimbals supporting
the gyro and the arrangement of
the gimbals. Do not confuse the
term degrees of freedom, as
used here, with an angular value
as in degrees of a circle. The
term degrees of freedom, as
used with gyros, shows the
number of directions in which
the rotor is free to move. Some
authorities consider the spin of
the rotor as one degree of Figure 6-26 — Simple gyroscope.
freedom, but most do not.
A gyro enclosed in one gimbal, such as the one shown in Figure 6-26, has only one
degree of freedom. This is a freedom of movement back and forth at a right angle to the
axis of spin. When this gyro is mounted in an aircraft, with its spin axis parallel to the
direction of travel and capable of swinging from left to right, it has one degree of
freedom. The gyro has no other freedom of movement. Therefore, if the aircraft should
nose up or down, the geometric plane containing the gyro spin axis would move exactly
as the aircraft does in these directions. If the aircraft turns right or left, the gyro would
not change position, since it has a degree of freedom in these directions.
A gyro mounted in two gimbals normally has two degrees of freedom. Such a gyro can
assume and maintain any attitude in space. For illustrative purposes, consider a rubber
ball in a bucket of water. Even though the water is supporting the ball, it does not restrict
the ball’s attitude. The ball can lie with its spin axis pointed in any direction. Such is the
case with a two-degree-of-freedom gyro, often called a free gyro.
In a two-degree-of-freedom gyro, the base surface turns around the outer gimbal axis or
around the inner gimbal axis, while the gyro spin axis remains fixed. The gimbal system
isolates the rotor from the base rotation. The universally mounted gyro is an example of
6-29
this type. Restricted or semi-rigid mounted gyros are those mounted so one plane of
freedom is fixed in relation to the base.
Practical applications of the gyro are based upon two basic properties of gyroscopic
action:
1. Rigidity in space
2. Precession
Newton’s first law of motion states, “A body at rest will remain at rest, or if in motion will
continue in motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by an outside force.” An example
of this law is the rotor in a universally mounted gyro. When the wheel is spinning, it
stays in its original plane of rotation regardless of how the base moves.
The factors that determine how much rigidity a spinning wheel has are in Newton’s
second law of motion. This law states, “The deflection of a moving body is directly
proportional to the deflective force applied and is inversely proportional to its mass and
speed.” To obtain as much rigidity as possible in the rotor, the rotor has great weight for
size and rotates at high speeds. To keep the deflective force at a minimum, the rotor
shaft mounts in low friction bearings. The basic flight instruments that use the
gyroscopic property of rigidity are the gyro horizon, the directional gyro, and any
gyrostabilized compass system. Therefore, their rotors must be freely or universally
mounted.
Precession (Figure 6-27) is the resultant action or deflection of a spinning wheel when a
deflective force is applied to its rim. When a deflective force is applied to the rim of a
rotating wheel, the resultant force is 90 degrees ahead of the direction of rotation and in
the direction of the applied force. The rate at which the wheel precesses is inversely
proportional to rotor speed and directly proportional to the deflective force. The force
with which a wheel precesses is the same as the deflective force applied minus the
friction in the gimbal ring, pivots, and bearings. If too great a deflective force is applied
for the amount of rigidity in the wheel, the wheel precesses and topples over at the
same time.

Figure 6-27 — Precession resulting from deflective force.

6-30
Any spinning mass exhibits the gyroscopic properties of rigidity in space and
precession. The rigidity of a spinning rotor is directly proportional to the weight and
speed of the rotor, and inversely proportional to the deflective force.

Attitude Indicator
Pilots determine aircraft attitude by referring to the horizon when they can see it. Often,
however, the horizon is not visible. When it is dark or when there are obstructions to
visibility such as overcast skies, smoke, or dust, pilots cannot use the earth’s horizon as
a reference. When these conditions exist, they refer to an instrument called the attitude
indicator. This instrument is also known as a Vertical Gyro Indicator (VGI), artificial
horizon, Attitude Reference Indicator (ARI), or gyro horizon. From these instruments,
pilots learn the relative position of the aircraft with reference to the earth’s horizon.
Although attitude indicators (Figure 6-28, frame 1) differ in size and appearance, they all
have the same basic components and present the same basic information. On the face
of the indicator will always be a miniature aircraft that represents the nose (pitch) and
wing (bank) attitude of the aircraft. The bank pointer on the indicator face shows the
degree of bank (in 10-degree increments up to 30 degrees, then in 30-degree
increments to 90 degrees). The sphere is always light on the upper half and dark on the
lower half to show the difference between sky and ground. Calibration marks on the
sphere show degrees of pitch in 5- or 10-degree increments. An OFF flag comes into
view when the system has a loss of power or the pull-to-cage knob is pulled out (Figure
6-28, frame 3). Each indicator has a pitch trim adjustment or pull-to-cage knob for the
pilot to center the horizon as necessary. When transporting the gyro, keep it in a locked
and fixed position and use the pull-to-cage knob to protect the gimbals from damage.
The knob must be pulled and turned clockwise.

CAUTION
If pull-to-cage switch is locked in caged position, it must be
pulled to extended position before rotating counterclockwise to
un-caged position or damage will result. The pull-to-cage
switch should not be locked in caged position if gyro is
spinning or damage to gyro may result.

6-31
 Interaction Available
Figure 6-28 — Roll and pitch indications on the attitude indicator.

Some attitude indicators have a self-contained gyro. Other more modern indicators use
pitch and roll information from the inertial system or the attitude heading reference
system. These systems are accurate and reliable. They gain their reliability and
accuracy from their larger size, which is not limited by the space of an instrument panel.
Electrical signals from the remote gyro travel via synchros. The signal is amplified in the
indicator to drive servomotors and position the indicator sphere. This positioning is the
same as the vertical gyro position in the gyro case. In the newer attitude indicators, the
sphere is gimbal-mounted and capable of 360-degree rotation. Also, a test function is
provided to test the instrument landing system vertical and horizontal pointers. In
contrast, the older gyros could only travel 60 degrees to 70 degrees of pitch and 100
degrees to 110 degrees of roll.

Operation
The attitude reference indicator receives 115vac 3-phase aircraft power through
energized contacts of relay K1 located in the static power inverter. With 115vac 3-phase
power applied to the attitude reference indicator, the OFF flag goes out of view and the
gyro will spin up and erect. Also, 115vac phase A is applied to the dc power supply
which develops dc voltages for the amplifiers and test circuits. The 115vac phase C is
used to excite the attitude pick-off synchros. If 115vac 3-phase aircraft power is lost,
6-32
relay K1, in the static power inverter, de-energizes and 28-vdc is applied to a dc-to-ac
inverter and develops the 115vac 3-phase power.
An electrically driven vertical gyro (Figure 6-28, frames 5 through 10) maintains vertical
orientation through use of an electronic erection system and provides a continuous
attitude display. Attitude pick-off synchros are mechanically coupled to the gyro and
their output signals are applied to pitch and roll amplifiers. Amplified pitch and roll
analog signals are then sent to control-converter. In the control-converter, pitch and roll
analog signals are applied through Scott-T transformers and an A/D converter to
produce attitude signals. A software built in test BIT samples the attitude signals for
reasonable content and a no-go produces not valid attitude pitch and roll output signals.
The pitch and roll attitude and validity signals are then sent to the Mission Computer
(MC) system and provide backup attitude signals for the various navigation routines and
displays. Variations in aircraft angle-of-attack will cause differences in the caged
position of the gyro spin axis relative to true vertical.
Some aircraft incorporate an all-attitude indicator (Figure 6-29). In addition to pitch and
roll, this indicator shows compass information along the horizon bar. It also shows turn-
and-bank information on the bottom. An even more sophisticated instrument, the flight
director, displays the above information plus radio navigation information, all on one
instrument.

Figure 6-29 — All-attitude indicator (AAI).

6-33
 NOTE
Because of close association and interface with inertial
navigation systems, Chapter 7 of this RTM contains
information about attitude indicating systems.

Turn-and-Bank Indicator
The turn-and-bank indicator (Figure 6-30), also called the turn-and-slip indicator, shows
the lateral attitude of an aircraft in straight flight. It also provides a reference for the
proper executions of a coordinated bank and turn. It shows when the aircraft is flying on
a straight course and the direction and rate of a turn. It was one of the first modern
instruments for controlling an aircraft without visual reference to the ground or horizon.
The indicator is a combination of
two instruments, a ball and a turn
pointer. The ball part of the
instrument operates by natural
forces (centrifugal and
gravitational). The turn pointer
depends on the gyroscopic
property of precession for its
indications. The power for the
turn indicator gyro is either
electrical or vacuum.
BALL – The ball portion of a
turn-and-bank indicator (Figure
6-30) consists of a sealed,
curved, glass tube. The tube
contains water-white kerosene
and a black or white agate or
common steel ball bearing. The
ball bearing is free to move
inside the tube. The fluid
provides a damping action and
ensures smooth and easy Figure 6-30 — Turn-and-bank indicator.
movement of the ball. The curved
tube allows the ball to seek the
lowest point when in level flight. This point is the tube center. A small projection on the
left end of the tube contains a bubble of air. The bubble lets the fluid expand during
changes in temperature. There are two markings or wires around the center of the glass
tube. They serve as reference markers to show the correct position of the ball in the
tube. The plate that holds the tube and the references are painted with luminous paint.
The only force acting on the ball during straight flight (no turning) with the wings level is
gravity. The ball seeks its lowest point and stays within the reference marks. In a turn,
centrifugal force also acts on the ball in a horizontal plane opposite to the direction of
the turn.
The ball assumes a position between the reference markers when the resultant of
centrifugal force and gravity acts directly opposite to a point midway between the

6-34
reference markers. When the force acting on the ball becomes unbalanced, the ball
moves away from the center of the tube.
In a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank. The excessive centrifugal
force moves the ball to the outside of the turn. The resultant of centrifugal force and
gravity is not opposite the midpoint between the reference markers. The ball moves in
the direction of the force, toward the outside of the turn. Returning the ball to center
(coordinated turn) calls for increasing bank or decreasing rate of turn, or a combination
of both.
In a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank. The resultant of centrifugal
force and gravity moves the ball to the inside of the turn. Returning the ball to the center
(coordinated turn) requires decreasing the bank or increasing the rate of turn, or a
combination of both.
The ball instrument is actually a balance indicator because it shows the relationship
between angle of bank and rate of turn. It lets the pilot know when the aircraft has the
correct rate of turn for its angle of bank.
TURN POINTER – The turn pointer operates on a gyro. The gimbal ring encircles the
gyro in a horizontal plane and pivots fore and aft in the instrument case. The major parts
of the turn portion of a turn-and-bank indicator are as follows:
 A frame assembly used for assembling the instrument.
 A motor assembly consisting basically of the stator, rotor, and motor bearings.
The electrical motor serves as the gyro for the turn indicator.
 A plate assembly for mounting the electrical receptacle, pivot assembly, choke
coil, and capacitors for eliminating radio interference.
 A damping unit that absorbs vibrations and prevents excessive oscillations of the
needle. The unit consists of a piston and cylinder mechanism. The adjustment
screw controls the amount of damping.
 An indicating assembly composed of a dial and pointer.
 The cover assembly.

The carefully balanced gyro rotates about the lateral axis of the aircraft in a frame that
pivots about the longitudinal axis. When mounted in this way, the gyro responds only to
motion around a vertical axis. It is unaffected by rolling or pitching.
The turn indicator takes advantage of one of the basic principles of gyroscopes—
precession. Precession, as already explained, is a gyroscope’s natural reaction 90
degrees in the direction of rotation from an applied force. It is visible as resistance of the
spinning gyro to a change in direction when a force is applied. As a result, when the
aircraft makes a turn, the gyro position remains constant. However, the frame in which
the gyro hangs, dips to the side opposite the direction of turn. Because of the design of
the linkage between the gyro frame and the pointer, the pointer shows the correct
direction of turn. The pointer displacement is proportional to the aircraft rate of turn. If
the pointer remains on center, it shows the aircraft is flying straight. If it moves off
center, it shows the aircraft is turning in the direction of the pointer deflection. The turn
needle shows the rate (number of degrees per minute) at which the aircraft is turning.
By using the turn-and-bank indicator, the pilot checks for coordination and balance in
straight flight and in turns. By cross-checking this instrument against the airspeed
6-35
indicator, the pilot can determine the relation between the aircraft lateral axis and the
horizon. For any given airspeed, there is a definite angle of bank necessary to maintain
a coordinated turn at a given rate.

MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

The pilot uses several other indicators to control the aircraft. These indicators are not
always useful, but they are beneficial under special flight conditions. As you read this
section, refer to Figure 6-31.

Figure 6-31 — Miscellaneous flight instruments.

Accelerometer Indicators
The pilot must limit aircraft maneuvers so various combinations of acceleration,
airspeed, gross weight, and altitude remain within specified values. These operational
limits cut out the possibility of damaging aircraft as a result of excessive stresses. The
accelerometer shows the load on the aircraft structure in terms of gravitation (g) units. It
presents information that lets the aircraft be maneuvered within its operational limits.
The forces sensed by the accelerometer act along the vertical axis of the aircraft. The
main hand moves clockwise as the aircraft accelerates upward and counterclockwise as
the aircraft accelerates downward.
6-36
The accelerometer indications are in g units. The main indicating hand turns to +1 g
when the lift of the aircraft wing equals the weight of the aircraft. Such a condition
prevails in level flight. The hand turns to +3 g when the lift is three times the weight. The
hand turns to minus readings when the forces acting on the aircraft surfaces cause the
aircraft to accelerate downward.
The accelerometer operates independently of all other aircraft instruments and
installations. The activating element of the mechanism is a mass that is movable in a
vertical direction on a pair of shafts (Figure 6-32). A spiral-wound main spring dampens
the vertical movement of the mass. The force of the mass travels by a string-and-pulley
system to the main spring and main shaft. From here, it goes to the plus and minus
assemblies. The hand assemblies mount on the plus and minus assemblies. Changes
in vertical acceleration cause movement of the mass on the shafts, which translates into
a turning motion of the main shaft. The turning motion pivots the indicating hands
around the dial. The hand travels a distance equivalent to the value, in g units, of the
upward or downward acceleration of the aircraft.

Figure 6-32 — Accelerometer mechanical schematic.

The accelerometer operates on the principle of Newton’s third Law of Motion. During
level flight, no forces act to displace the mass from a position midway from the top and
bottom of the shafts. Therefore, the accelerometer pulley system performs no work, and
the indicating hands remain stationary at +1 g. When the aircraft changes from level
6-37
flight, forces act on the mass. This action causes the mass to move either above or
below its midway position. These movements cause the accelerometer indicating hands
to change position. When the aircraft goes nose down, the hands move to the minus
section of the dial. When the nose goes up, they move to the plus section.
The main hand continuously shows changes in loading. The two other hands on the
accelerometer show the highest plus acceleration and highest minus acceleration of the
aircraft during any maneuver. The indicator uses a ratchet mechanism to maintain these
readings. A knob in the lower left of the instrument face is used to reset the maximum-
and minimum-reading hands to normal. Thus, the accelerometer keeps an indication of
the highest accelerations during a particular flight phase or during a series of flights.

Clocks
The standard Navy clock is a 12-hour, elapsed-time, stem-wound clock with an 8-day
movement. This type of clock is in the cockpit for use by the pilot or copilot. Clocks may
be located elsewhere for use by other crewmembers as well. The pull-to-set winding
stem is at the lower left of the dial. The dial has 60 divisions, which you read as minutes
or seconds, as appropriate. The face has standard minute and hour hands, a sweep-
second hand, and an elapsed-time minute hand. You may start, stop, or reset the
elapsed-time minute hand by pressing a single button at the upper right of the dial.

Direct-Reading Magnetic Compasses

During the early days of aviation, direction of flight was determined chiefly by direct-
reading magnetic compasses. Today, the direct-reading magnetic compass (Figure 6-
31) is used as a standby compass. Direct-reading magnetic compasses used in Navy
aircraft mount on or near the instrument panel for use by the pilot. They are read like the
dial of a gauge.
A nonmagnetic metal bowl, filled with liquid, contains the compass indicating card. The
card provides the means of reading compass indications. The card mounts on a float
assembly and is actually a disk with numbers painted on its edge. A set of small
magnetized bars or needles fasten to this card. The card-magnet assembly sits on a
jeweled pivot, which lets the magnets align themselves freely with the north-south
component of the earth’s magnetic field. The compass card and a fixed-position
reference marker (lubber’s line) are visible through a glass window on the side of the
bowl.
An expansion chamber in the compass provides for expansion and contraction of the
liquid caused by altitude and temperature changes. The liquid dampens, or slows down,
the oscillation of the card. Aircraft vibration and changes in heading cause oscillation. If
suspended in air, the card would keep swinging back and forth and be difficult to read.
The liquid also buoys up the float assembly, reducing the weight and friction on the pivot
bearing.
Instrument-panel compasses for naval aircraft are available with cards marked in steps
of either 2 degrees or 5 degrees. Such a compass indicates continuously without
electrical or information inputs. You can read the aircraft heading by looking at the card
in reference to the lubber line through the bowl window.

Standby Attitude Indicator

The standby attitude indicator (Figure 6-31) on the pilot instrument panel consists of a
miniature aircraft symbol, a bank angle dial, and a bank index. It also includes a two-
colored drum background with a horizon line dividing the two.
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The indicator roll index is graduated in 10-degree increments to 30 degrees, with
graduation marks at 60 degrees and 90 degrees. The indicator is capable of displaying
360 degrees of roll, 92 degrees of climb, and 79 degrees of dive. Because of the high
spin rate of the gyro, the indicator displays accurate pitch-and-roll data for 9 minutes
after electrical failure. The attitude indicator incorporates a pitch trim knob to position
the miniature aircraft symbol above or below the horizon reference line. The pitch trim
knob also cages the gyro. When the pitch trim knob is pulled out, the gyro will cage.
Rotating the knob clockwise while extended will cause the gyro to lock, in the extended
position. The attitude indicator also incorporates an OFF flag. The flag appears if
electrical power fails, or if you cage the gyro.

Outside Air Temperature Indicator

An indicator displaying uncorrected outside air temperature is located on the pilot’s
instrument panel (Figure 6-31). A temperature-sensitive resistor (temperature bulb) is
exposed to the slipstream. This resistor measures changes in temperature. The
temperature of the air measurement is in the form of changing resistance. The outside
air temperature indicator displays this change in resistance. The graduated indicator dial
is marked in Celsius, from +50 degrees to –50 degrees.

ENGINE INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Engine instruments provide indications of tail pipe temperature, oil and fuel pressure,
engine RPM, oil temperature, and fuel flow rate. The pilot must be aware of engine
operation at all times. If oil pressure falls below the normal operating limit or tail pipe
temperature becomes excessively high, the engine instruments provide these
indications to the pilot.

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TACHOMETER SYSTEMS
The tachometer indicator is an instrument that shows the speed of a gas turbine engine
(jet) main rotor assembly. Figure 6-33 shows tachometer indicators for various types of
engines. The dials of tachometer indicators used with jet engines are shown in
percentage of Revolutions per Minute (RPM), based on takeoff RPM.

Figure 6-33 — Tachometer indicators: (A) jet engine (radial); (B) jet engine
(vertical scale).
Several types and sizes of generators and indicators are used in the tachometer
systems of naval aircraft. As a rule, they all operate on the same basic principle. This
section introduces you to information on tachometer systems. A typical generator and a
typical indicator are described because it is not practical to describe all the generators
and indicators. For detailed information on a particular system, you should refer to the
manufacturer’s manuals.
Essentially, the tachometer system consists of an ac generator coupled to the aircraft
engine and an indicator consisting of a magnetic-drag element on the instrument panel.
The generator transmits electric power to a synchronous motor, a part of the indicator.
The frequency of this power is proportional to the engine speed. An accurate indication
of engine speed is obtained by applying the magnetic-drag principle to the indicating
element. The problem of changes in generator output voltage is cut out by the generator
and synchronous-motor combination. These units make a frequency-sensitive system
for sending an indication of engine speed to the indicator with absolute accuracy.
For many installations, it is desirable to send a single engine-speed indication to two
different stations in the aircraft. The frequency-sensitive system is ideal for this
application because there is no change in indication when a second indicator connects
in parallel with the first. Synchronous motor operation in each indicator depends only on
the availability of enough power in the generator to operate both indicator motors.

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Tachometer Generator
Tachometer generator units are small and compact (about 4 inches by 6 inches). The
generator is constructed with an end shield designed so the generator can attach to a
flat plate on the engine frame or reduction gearbox, with four bolts.
Figure 6-34 shows a cutaway view of a tachometer generator. You should refer to it
while you read this section. The generator consists essentially of a permanent magnet
rotor (callout 1) and a stator (callout 8) that develop three-phase power as the rotor
turns.

Figure 6-34 — Cutaway view of a tachometer generator.

The armature of the generator consists of a magnetized rotor. The rotor is cast directly
onto the generator shaft. The generator may be of either two- or four-pole construction.
The two- and four-pole rotors are identical in appearance and construction. They differ
in that the two-pole rotor is magnetized north and south diametrically across the rotor,
while the four-pole rotor is magnetized alternately north and south at each of the four
pole faces.
The key (callout 2) that drives the rotor is a long, slender shaft. It has enough flexibility
to prevent failure under the torsional oscillations originating in the aircraft drive shaft. It
will also accommodate small misalignments between the generator and its mounting
surfaces. This key goes into the hollow rotor shaft. A pin (callout 3) at the end opposite
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the drive shaft secures the key in place. An oil-seal ring (callout 4) is located inside the
hollow shaft and over this key. This seal prevents oil from leaking into the generator
through the hollow shaft. The shaft runs in two ball bearings (callout 5) set in stainless
steel inserts. The inserts are cast directly into the generator end shields (callout 6). An
adjusting spring (callout 7) at the receptacle end of the shaft maintains the proper
amount of end play.
The stator consists of a steel ring with a laminated core of ferromagnetic material. A
three-phase winding goes around this core and is insulated from it. The winding is
adapted for two- or four-pole construction, depending on the generator in which it is
used. The two end shields are made of die-cast aluminum alloy. They serve to support
the generator stator and rotor by means of a receptacle (callout 9). The receptacle
attaches to the junction box (callout 10) of the generator.

Tachometer Indicators
Tachometer indicators mount on the cockpit instrument panel. They are relatively small
in size. The type of unit varies. Depending on the particular installation, some are single
element and others are dual element. The operating principles of the two types are
basically the same.
Figure 6-35 shows a cutaway view of a single element tachometer indicator (radial). The
unit consists of two parts, a synchronous motor and an indicating element. The motor
runs in synchronism with the tachometer generator. It also drives the indicating element
through a magnetic-drag coupling. The indicating element indicates the speed of the
synchronous motor, and, therefore, the speed of the aircraft engine.

Figure 6-35 — Cutaway view of a tachometer indicator (radial).

The synchronous motor (callout 3) consists of a three-phase stator winding that goes in,
and is insulated from, a laminated circular core. Within the circular core is a shaft. The
rotating parts attach to this shaft. A cotter pin secures a hysteresis disk (callout 1) to the
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shaft. A permanent magnet rotor (callout 2) is free to move on the shaft. The hysteresis
disk at one shaft end and a spring at the other restrain longitudinal motion of the
permanent magnet rotor. The spring is secured to the shaft to transmit torque from the
rotor to the shaft. Ball bearings in the motor end shields support the shaft. These end
shields also serve to locate the stator. This combination secures all parts of the motor
and maintains their proper position with respect to each other.
The armature of the synchronous motor consists mainly of the permanent magnet and
the hysteresis disk. The purpose of the permanent magnet material is to provide starting
and running torque at low speeds. The hysteresis disk provides starting torque at high
speed. High speeds are necessary because the magnitude of flux is great, but the
permanent magnet, by itself, cannot pull into step. At higher speeds, the hysteresis disk
moves the rotor up to near synchronism, and then the permanent magnet pulls it into
exact synchronism.
One end of the motor shaft extends through the front end shield and supports the drag-
magnet assembly (callout 9). The drag-magnet assembly, which is driven by the
synchronous motor, consists of two plates to which small permanent magnets attach.
The arrangement of the magnets concentrates the flux near the outside edge of the
drag disk. This arrangement obtains maximum torque with minimum weight. Between
the two plates, carrying the magnets is a drag disk (callout 4) of conducting material.
This material is an alloy with a low-temperature coefficient, which prevents temperature
changes from affecting the material’s resistance. The magnet assembly spinning around
the disk of conducting material produces torque on the disk.
The drag disk connects to the lower end of the indicator assembly shaft. When the disk
rotates, the indicator pointer moves to show the speed of the aircraft engine. The
indicating element is supported by three posts. These posts have adjustable nuts
(callout 8) for leveling the assembly as necessary. You can obtain further positioning by
moving the adjusting arm (callout 7).
The scale plate (callout 5) is calibrated in either RPM or percentage and shows engine
speed. The cover assembly (callout 6) serves as a protective container for the
mechanism. The receptacle (callout 10) at the rear of the indicator provides electrical
connection to the tachometer generator.

Dual Indicators
With the increasing requirement for more instruments for efficient flight, the combination
of several instruments in one has become very common. The dual tachometer is an
example of a combination of instruments. Some multi-engine aircraft use dual
tachometers.
The dual tachometer consists of two synchronous-motor, magnetic-drag tachometer
indicators housed in a single case. The indicators show the speed of rotation of the
engines simultaneously on a single dial. There is one tachometer indicator for each pair
of engines on the aircraft.

Vertical Scale Indicators

Vertical scale indicators are used on some models of naval aircraft. A vertical scale
shows engine performance data such as fuel flow, engine speed, exhaust gas
temperature, and accelerometer readings. Vertical scale indicators are compact, light in
weight, and easily read.

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All vertical scale indicators
(Figure 6-36), consist of a
vertical tape that operates by an
amplifier, motor, gears, and
sprockets. These systems are
the same as systems used on
other aircraft. Vertical scale
indicators may be utilized
individually or in clusters and
may be analog or digital based
displays depending upon the
Type/Model/Series aircraft.
The engine indicating groups
consist of cockpit indicators and
associated sensing devices
required to monitor left and right
engine performance. Dual
indicators display percentage of
engine compressor rotor rpm
(RPM indicator), turbine
inlet temperature (TIT indicator),
and engine fuel flow (FF
indicator).

Figure 6-36 — Basic engine instrument

vertical scale indicators.

TACHOMETER INDICATOR – The electrical tachometer (RPM) indicator displays

percentage of engine rotor speed on two vertical scales (one each for the left and
right engines). The indicator scales are linear from 0 to 6, and from 6 to 11 multiplied by
10 to get percent of RPM. Upper left and right limit range markers and OFF failure flags
appear between the 10.4 and 11 points of the scales. The absence of the OFF failure
flags confirms the indicator channels are receiving power. The indicator receives
variable frequency signals proportional to compressor speed from each engine
tachometer generator. The signals go to solid-state circuitry to produce a proportional
drive signal for a servomotor. The servomotor drives gears and sprockets to position a
tape on the indicator face, showing percentage of engine rotational speed.

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 TACHOMETER GENERATOR – The compressor rpm tachometer generator is a
two-phase alternator type generator. The generator supplies electrical signals directly
proportional to engine-compressor rotation speed. The tachometer generator is
driven by the high-pressure compressor through the engine accessory gearbox. Signals
from this generator go directly to the electrical tachometer indicator (RPM indicator) at
the crew station. The indicator displays percentage of rotor speed.

TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEMS

To properly monitor the operation of an aircraft engine, you must know various
temperature indications. Some of the more important indications include the
temperatures of the engine oil, free air, and exhaust systems of jet engines. Various
types of thermometers, such as the bimetal and resistance types, collect and present
this information.
The main parts of resistance thermometers are the indicating instrument, the
temperature sensitive element (resistance bulb), and the connecting wires leading from
the bulb.

Wheatstone Bridge System

A schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge thermometer circuit is shown in Figure 6-
37. You should refer to it as you read this section. The resistance bulb element is one
side of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The
other three sides are resistors in the
indicating meter. The circuit receives
voltage from the aircraft dc power supply.
When the temperature bulb senses a
temperature of 0 °C, its resistance is 100
ohms. The resistance of arms X, Y, and Z
are also 100 ohms each. At this
temperature the Wheatstone bridge is in
balance. This means the sum resistance of
X and Y equals the sum resistance of the
bulb and Z. Therefore, the same amount of
current flows in both sides of this parallel
circuit. Since all four sides are equal in
resistance, the voltage drop across side X
equals the drop across the bulb. Since
these voltages are equal, the voltage from
A to B is zero, and the indicator reads zero. Figure 6-37 — Wheatstone bridge
thermometer.

NOTE
If there is an open in the voltage supply circuit, the
galvanometers will also read zero.

6-45
When the temperature of the bulb increases, its resistance also increases. This
unbalances the bridge circuit causing the needle to deflect to the right. When the
temperature of the bulb decreases, its resistance decreases. Again, the bridge circuit
goes out of balance. However, this time the needle swings to the left.
The galvanometer is calibrated so the amount of deflection causes the needle to point
to the number of the meter scale. This number corresponds to the temperature at the
location of the resistance bulb.
This instrument requires a constant and steady supply of dc voltage. Fluctuations in the
power supply affect total bridge current, which can cause an unbalanced bridge. Unless
excessive heat damages the bulb, it will give accurate service indefinitely. When a
thermometer does not operate properly, check carefully for loose wiring connections
before replacing the bulb.

Radiometer System
The radiometer is a temperature indicator that uses two coils in a balanced circuit. In
some instruments, the coils turn between the poles of a permanent magnet. In other
instruments, a small permanent magnet rotor turns between stationary coils.
Radiometer circuits vary in design, but the principle of operation is very much the same
for all.
Figure 6-38 shows a simplified circuit with a permanent magnet rotor. The two coils are
stationary in the instrument, and the indicator needle fastens to the permanent magnet
rotor. The needle position is determined by how the permanent magnet aligns itself with
the resultant flux of the two coils.
For an understanding of how the
circuit operates, let’s trace the
current through the circuit.
Starting at ground, current flows
up through the bulb, centering
potentiometer R5 and R6, to
point D. Current through the left
leg of the bridge is from ground
through R1 to point A. Current
then goes from point A through
the lower part of the expansion
and contraction potentiometer
R2. It also goes from pin 2 of R2
through R4 to point D. Here, the
currents of the two legs combine
and flow through R7 to the
positive 28 volts.
Note that restoring coil L2,
resistor R3, and upper part of
potentiometer R2 forms a
parallel path for current flow Figure 6-38 — Radiometer type temperature
from point A to pin 2 of R2. indicator.
Deflection coil L1 connects
between points A and B. Therefore, any difference in potential between these two points
will cause current to flow through L1.

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The radiometer temperature indicator uses a fixed permanent magnet to pull the pointer
to an off position when the indicator is not operating. Thus, current through restoring coil
L2 must compensate for the pull off magnet when the indicator is operating. Variations
in the resistance of the bulb, because of temperature changes, will cause a change in
voltage at point B. Variations also causes the resulting change in current through
deflection coil L1.

Thermocouple System
Thermocouple temperature indicators show the air temperatures in the heater duct of
anti-icing systems and in the exhaust systems of jet engines.
A thermocouple is a junction or connection of two unlike metals; such a circuit has two
junctions. When one of the junctions becomes hotter than the other, an electromotive
force is produced in the circuit. By including a galvanometer in the circuit, this
electromotive force can be measured. The hotter the high temperature junction (hot
junction) becomes, the greater the electromotive force. By calibrating the
galvanometer’s dial, in degrees of temperature, the galvanometer becomes a
thermometer. The galvanometer contains the cold junction.
The thermocouple thermometer systems used in naval aircraft consist of a
galvanometers indicator, a thermocouple or thermocouples, and thermocouple leads.
Some thermocouples consist of a strip of copper and a strip of constantan pressed
tightly together. Constantan is an alloy of copper and nickel. Other thermocouples
consist of a strip of iron and a strip of constantan. Others may consist of a strip of
Chromel and a strip of Alumel.
The hot junction of the
thermocouple varies in shape,
depending on its application.
Two common types, gasket and
rivet, are shown in Figure 6-39.
In the gasket thermocouple, the
rings of two dissimilar metals
are pressed together, forming a
spark plug gasket. Each lead
that connects back to the
galvanometers must be of the
same metal as the
thermocouple part to which it
connects. For example, a
copper wire connects to the
copper ring, and a constantan
wire connects to the constantan
ring. Thermocouple leads are
critical in makeup and length
because the galvanometers are
calibrated for a specific set of
leads in the circuits. Figure 6-39 — Thermocouples: (A) gasket
type; (B) rivet type.

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TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE INDICATOR SYSTEM – Some aircraft have a
Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) Indicator System (Figure 6-40) to provide a visual
indication of temperatures entering the turbine. The temperature of each engine turbine
inlet is measured by 18 dual-unit thermocouples in the turbine inlet casing. These dual
thermocouples are connected in parallel. One set sends signals through a harness and
aircraft wiring to an indicator. The other set of thermocouples provides signals to the
temperature datum control. Each circuit is electrically independent and provides dual
system dependability.

Figure 6-40 — Turbine inlet temperature indicator system.

All parts of the engine temperature measurement system, including welds, are made of
Chromel and Alumel material. Special wiring and wire identification are in the aircraft
from the thermocouple harness terminal block to the indicator. Plugs in the
thermocouple circuits are also of a special type. The thermocouple harness mounts on
the turbine unit aft of the thermocouple. The harness includes separate leads for each
of the 18 thermocouples, and it maintains two electrically separate circuits. The harness
is located inside a rigid metal, channel type of housing and cover. The leads and
terminals project through holes in the front side of the housing wall. Electrical signals
from the 18 dual-junction thermocouples are averaged within the harness.
The thermocouple assemblies mount on pads provided around the turbine inlet case.
Each thermocouple incorporates two electrically independent junctions within a
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sampling-type probe. AL identifies Alumel terminal studs, and CR identifies Chromel
terminal studs.
Since the average voltage of the thermocouples at the thermocouple terminal blocks
represents the turbine inlet temperature, it is necessary that no interference with the
signal take place while the signal goes to the indicator. Therefore, the wiring from the
thermocouple terminal block to the indicator goes through the harness. The harness
wiring goes separately from other interference producing wiring.
The indicator contains a bridge circuit with cold junction compensation, a two-phase
motor to drive the pointer, and a feedback potentiometer. Also included in the indicator
are the Zener voltage reference circuit, a chopper circuit, an amplifier, a power supply, a
power-off flag, and an over-temp warning light.
Output of the bridge circuit goes to the chopper circuit, so the bridge circuit is not
loaded. The chopper output goes to the amplifier. Output of the amplifier feeds the
variable field of a two-phase motor. This field positions the indicator main pointer and
the digital indicator. The motor also drives the feedback potentiometer to provide a
nulling signal. The signal is relative to the temperature signal and stops the drive motor
upon reaching the correct pointer position.
The Zener diode circuit provides a closely regulated reference voltage in the bridge.
This signal avoids the error caused by voltage variation from the indicator power supply.
The indicator power supply powers the Zener circuit, the chopper, and the amplifier. It
also powers the power-off warning flag and the fixed field of the two-phase motor.
The over-temperature warning light in the indicator comes on when the TIT reaches
1,082 °C. At this point, a switch in the indicator closes to energize the warning light. One
test switch installed external to the indicators lets the crew test all the indicator over-
temperature warning lights at once. The test switch simulates an over-temperature
signal in each indicator’s temperature control bridge circuit.
When power to an indicator fails, a red warning flag becomes visible. Also, the indicator
pointers maintain their position, and the over-temperature warning light becomes
inoperative.
The indicator scale is calibrated in degrees Centigrade from 0 to 12 (times 100 °C). The
digital indicator goes from 0 °C to 1,200 °C in 2-degree increments.
The aircrafts engine also uses the thermocouple principle for indicating engine turbine
inlet temperatures. Each engine has 10 thermocouple probes, distributed at three
stations on the engine. They measure and average engine turbine inlet temperature.
There are three types of thermocouple probes, compressor inlet temperature ,
compressor discharge temperature , and exhaust gas temperature thermocouple
pressure ( – ). Each thermocouple probe has one or more Alumel and Chromel
junctions. When the junctions become hot, a reaction between the dissimilar metal
generates a dc voltage. A thermocouple harness connects the thermocouples in parallel
to provide an average heat signal from each station.
The thermocouple temperature indicator displays turbine inlet gas temperature on two
vertical scales (Figure 6-36), one for each engine. The scales are linear from 0 to 6,
segmented in tens from 6 to 14, and multiplied by 100 °C when read. OFF failure flags
appear at the upper left and right of the indicator to show loss of signal input or electrical
power.
Internally, the indicator has two channels, one for each engine. The channels consist of
a cold junction compensator, rebalance potentiometer, chopper, servo amplifier,
6-49
servomotor, and gear train. Thermocouple signal voltage from the engines goes to the
cold junction compensator in each channel. The compensator provides corrective
voltages to counteract the effect of secondary thermocouple junctions in the indicator
when Alumel and Chromel leads connect to copper ones. A stable voltage goes to the
old junction compensator and rebalance potentiometer.
The feedback of the potentiometer and output of the compensator go to the chopper,
where it compares the inputs. The chopper provides a 400-Hertz error signal to the
servo system. The chopper output (signals relative to temperature change and
potentiometer versus compensator difference) goes to a servo amplifier. The servo
amplifier modifies the signals to drive the servomotor. The shaft of the motor couples to
the rebalance potentiometer and indicator tape through the gear train.
As the amplifier error drives the motor, the rebalance potentiometer goes in a direction
that reduces the error signal, nullifying the condition. The tape shows temperature, on
the front scale of the indicator, relative to thermocouple output. When supplied with 28
volts dc, a test circuit in the indicator energizes a relay, disconnecting the thermocouple
input. Then, it substitutes a test signal of specific value to be processed and to drive the
indicator tape.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEM – The Exhaust Gas
Temperature (EGT) indicating systems provide a visual temperature indication in the
cockpit of the engine exhaust gases. The following is a discussion of a typical EGT
indicating system.
The aircraft contains two separate but identical EGT indicating systems (Figure 6-41),
one for each engine. Each system has 12 dual thermocouples, a combination indicator
and transistorized amplifier, and the interconnecting Chromel and Alumel leads. Power
for the indicator-amplifier is from the essential 115-volt ac bus.

Figure 6-41 — Exhaust gas temperature indicating system.

Both exhaust gas temperature indicators are on the pilot’s main instrument panel. They
provide a visual indication of the engine exhaust temperatures. Each instrument is a
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hermetically sealed unit with a single receptacle for a mating plug electrical connection.
The instrument scale ranges from 0 °C to 1,200 °C. There is a vernier dial in the upper
right corner of the instrument face. A power-off warning flag is in the lower portion of the
dial.
Internally, the indicator contains a simulated thermocouple cold junction with
compensating resistors, a reference voltage source, and a dc-to-ac modulator. It also
contains a transistor power output stage, miniature ac servomotor, and the power-off
warning flag. The temperature indicator contains range markings on the instrument
face.
The thermocouples convert engine exhaust gas temperature into millivolts. The voltage
from the thermocouples goes directly to the indicator amplifier through the Chromel and
Alumel leads. The voltage is amplified and drives a small servomotor. The motor, in
turn, drives the indicator pointer. The thermocouple harness consists of two halves,
each containing six dual-loop thermocouples. The assembled halves make up two
independent thermocouple systems, each consisting of 12 thermocouples connected in
parallel. The harness mounts on the turbine frame aft of the turbine rotor.

FUEL FLOW SYSTEMS

Fuel flow indicating systems provide a continuous indication of the rate of fuel delivery
to the engine. The rate of flow is in pounds per hour. In some systems, the indicator
also shows the amount of fuel remaining in the tanks. A typical flow meter consists of
two units, a transmitter and an indicator. The measurements are transmitted electrically
to the panel-mounted indicator. Thus, use of electrical transmission ends the need for a
direct fuel-filled line from the engine to the instrument panel. Removing the fuel line
minimizes the chance of fire and reduces mechanical failure rate.
The fuel flow meter system is quite similar to other synchro systems discussed in Navy
Electricity and Electronic Training Series (NEETS) Module 15, Principles of Synchros,
Servos, and Gyros, NAVEDTRA 14187. The following discussion describes a typical
fuel flow indicating system to acquaint you with flow meters in general. However, you
should always refer to the manuals for the particular system you are maintaining.

Fuel Flow Transmitter

Figure 6-42 shows a cutaway view of a fuel flow transmitter. It is a two-in-one unit, a
fuel-measuring mechanism (or meter) and a synchro transmitter. You can separate
these parts from one another for maintenance purposes, but they join as a single
assembly for installation.
The fuel enters the inlet port of the transmitter and flows against the vane (callout 1),
causing the vane to swing. The spiral fuel chamber design allows the distance between
the vane and chamber wall to become increasingly larger as fuel flow increases. A
calibrated hairspring (callout 2) retards the motion of the vane. The vane ceases motion
when the forces exerted on it by the hairspring and by the fuel are equal.

6-51
The rotor shaft of the synchro
transmitter (callout 3) connects
to a bar magnet (callout 4).
Attached to the vane shaft is a
ring magnet (callout 5). The ring
magnet moves as the vane shaft
moves. The transmitter
mounting frame is between the
bar magnet and the ring
magnet, forming a liquid-tight
seal. This is the seal between
the fuel-metering section of the
mechanism and the synchro.
However, the bar magnet moves
in unison with the ring magnet
because the two magnets are
magnetically coupled. The south
pole of the ring magnet is
opposite the north pole of the
bar magnet. The two magnets
send vane movement, caused
by the fuel flow, to the synchro
rotor. This action results in a
corresponding movement of the
rotor. Therefore, the angular
displacement of the vane in
relation to the fuel chamber
housing determines the synchro
rotor movement with respect to
the stator.
The fuel flow transmitter has a
relief valve, which automatically
opens and bypasses the
instrument when the fuel flow
exceeds the capacity of the
instrument. At such time, only Figure 6-42 — Cutaway view of a fuel flow
part of the fuel flows through the transmitter.
metering portion. As the
pressure across the instrument falls below the value at which the relief valve opens, the
valve closes. This lets the flowmeter again operate normally. The transmitter unit
location is in the fuel line between the fuel pump and fuel nozzle.

Fuel Flow Indicator

The fuel flow meter indicator is located on the instrument panel. It is a remote-indicating
instrument. This indicator consists of a synchro receiver, a step-up gear train, a
magnetic drag cup, and a calibrated spring. When fuel flows through the fuel flow
transmitter, an electrical signal goes to the indicator receiver. This signal drives the
synchro rotor to the proper position. Thus, the indicator pointer shows the rate of fuel
flow.

6-52
Figure 6-43, view A, shows the
face of the single flow indicator.
To determine the amount of fuel
consummation per hour, multiply
the scale reading by 1,000.
Figure 6-44 shows a schematic
diagram of the single fuel flow
indicator.

Figure 6-43 — (A) Fuel flow indicator; (B)

fuel flow totalizer indicator.

Figure 6-44 — Single fuel flow indicating system.

The following discussion uses the basic indicating system as an example of a fuel flow
system. Other aircraft fuel flow systems operate in a similar way.
The fuel flow transmitter consists of a synchronous motor, drum assembly, impeller
assembly, spiral spring, and pickup coils. The transmitter housing has fuel inlet and
outlet attachment flanges. The drum and impeller assemblies have two miniature

6-53
permanent magnets, 180 degrees apart. The motor runs at a constant 120 RPM. The
motor connects through a shaft to the drum assembly.
The impeller assembly rotates over the motor drum shaft and mechanically couples to
the drum with the spiral spring. The pickup coils, one for each assembly, are in line with
the drum and impeller assembly magnets. As the motor rotates the drum, the impeller
also rotates. When there is no fuel flow, the magnets of the drum and impeller
assemblies align. As they pass their respective coil, they generate simultaneous output
signals.
As fuel flow starts and increases through the transmitter housing, it goes through
straightening vanes. These vanes eliminate the swirling motion of fuel. The fuel then
passes through straight drilled passages of the rotating impeller. As fuel flow increases
through the impeller, a proportional drag factor, or resistance to rotation, is imposed on
the impeller assembly. This resistance causes the spring to deflect, equalizing the
loading. The impeller magnets then deflect out of alignment. This action produces a
later signal than that of the drum magnets and coil. Thus, an increased time span
between signals of the rotating assemblies becomes relative to increased fuel flow.
The fuel rate-of-flow power supply consists of a power transformer and power supply,
two signal-conditioning channels, and a motor driver. The transformer receives 115
volts ac, 400 Hertz, and it feeds the power supply. The power supply provides low dc
voltage to operate the motor-driven logic and signal-conditioning channels. Using a
stepping signal to drive control logic, the motor driver controls positive and negative 8-
Hertz ac signals between phases of both fuel rate-of-flow transmitter motors.
The signal-conditioning channel for each engine system receives pulses from the coils
of its transmitter. For each channel, a pulse shaper converts the time between
transmitter drum and impeller coil pulses into a rectangular pulse width signal. An
averaging filter processes this converted signal, which provides a low-ripple dc signal
input to the fuel rate-of-flow indicator. The size (0 to 5 volts dc) of this signal is
proportional to flow rate. A test circuit permits testing the power supply. A tap-off motor,
phases A and B from the motor driver, routes an 8-Hertz signal through an external test
switch to the signal-conditioning channels for processing. The results of the processed
signal are displayed on the indicator.
The fuel rate-of-flow indicator, a vertical scale indicator, displays rate of fuel flow for
each engine on parallel scales. The scales are from 0 to 13. The scale reading,
multiplied by 1,000, shows the rate (pounds per hour) at which the engine is consuming
fuel. The upper left and right OFF failure flags show a loss of power, or signal to the
indicator. The indicator has two separate channels, one for each engine. The channels
include a control transformer servo amplifier, servomotor, gears, and sprockets. The
indicator channels receive 115 volts of ac for signal processing. An input of 0 to 5 volts
dc from the fuel rate-of-flow power supply produces an output. This output is from the
control transformer rotor winding to the servo amplifier.
The servo amplifier modifies the signal to the proper impedance and power level to
drive the channel servomotor. Shaft rotation controls transformer output, and the
rotation reduces transformer output voltage. When the output is null, the motor, gear
train, and sprockets come to rest at a rate equivalent to the input.
The test selector switch on the MASTER TEST panel tests the indicators. The self-test
circuit in the indicators disconnects the fuel rate-of-flow transmitter input circuits. It then
connects to an appropriate test signal within the two indicator channels. The channel
circuitry processes the test signal and drives the indicator tapes to indicate 4,200 to
4,400 pounds per hour.
6-54
Fuel Flow Totalizing Systems
Figure 6-43, view B, shows the indicator of a fuel flow totalizing system. The pointer of
this instrument usually shows the combined rate of fuel flow into two or more engines.
Also, if only one engine is operating, the pointer gives a true indication. A continuous
reading of the pounds of fuel remaining in the aircraft fuel cells appears in the small
window. Before starting the engines, you set the total amount of fuel in the aircraft on
the pounds-fuel-remaining indicator by using the reset knob on the front of the
instrument. As soon as the engines are running, the fuel flow pointer shows the rate of
fuel consummation. The fuel-remaining indicator starts counting toward zero, giving a
continuous reading of fuel remaining in the cells. Numbers rotate past the window like
those of the mileage indicator of an automobile speedometer.
The entire fuel flow totalizing system consists of two or more fuel flow transmitters, an
amplifier, and an indicator.
FUEL FLOW TRANSMITTERS – The fuel flow transmitters are almost identical to those
already discussed in the single system. In the fuel flow totalizing system, the
transmitters connect electrically, so their combined signals go into the fuel flow amplifier
as one.
FUEL FLOW AMPLIFIER – The fuel flow amplifier is an electronic device that supplies
power of the proper size and phasing to drive the indicator. The speed at which the
indicator motor runs depends on the transmitter signal going into the amplifier.
FUEL FLOW TOTALIZER INDICATOR – The fuel flow totalizer indicator contains a
two-phase variable speed induction motor. This motor travels in one direction only;
however, the speed varies. As the rate of fuel consumption increases, more and more
power goes to the indicator motor. This causes the speed of the motor to increase
proportionally to the rate of fuel consumption. The motor turns a magnetic drum-and-
cup linkage (similar to the tachometer indicator hysteresis disk), which causes pointer
deflection. The deflection is proportional to the motor speed, and thus proportional to
the rate of fuel consumption. At the same time, a linkage with a friction clutch drives the
pounds-fuel-remaining indicator.
The clutch is disengaged when
using the reset knob to set the
reading on the pounds-fuel-
remaining indicator.

OIL PRESSURE
SYSTEM
Oil pressure instruments show
whether oil is circulating under
proper pressure. An oil pressure
drop warns of impending engine
failure due to lack of oil, oil
pump failure, or broken lines. Oil
pressure shows on an engine
gauge unit (Figure 6-45). This
unit consists of three separate
gauges in a single case, oil
pressure, fuel pressure, and oil
temperature. The gauge has a

Figure 6-45 — Engine gauge unit. 6-55

Bourdon tube mechanism for measuring
fluid under pressure (Figure 6-46). The
instrument’s oil pressure range is from 0 to
200 pounds per square inch (psi). You read
the scale in graduations of 10 psi. There is
a single connection on the back of the case
leading directly into the Bourdon tube.

Figure 6-46 — Bourdon tube oil

pressure gauge.

In some aircraft, the oil pressure gauge is a separate instrument (Figure 6-47). This
instrument operates on the Bourdon tube principle.
The synchro system is another method of measuring oil under pressure. This type of oil
pressure system is used on most modern aircraft. Essentially, it is a method of directly
measuring engine oil pressure. After the measurements are taken, they go electrically
from the point of measurement to the synchro indicator on the instrument panel. The
synchro system ends the need
for direct pressure lines from the
engine to the instrument panel.
It also reduces the chances of
fire, loss of oil or fuel, and
mechanical difficulties.
The synchro system consists of
a synchro indicator and
transmitter. The synchro
transmitter consists of a
permanent magnet moving
within a stator. The stator is a
circular core of magnetic
material wrapped with a single,
continuous toroidal winding.
Taps divide the winding into
three sections. Voltages in each
of the sections vary with the
position of the permanent
magnet. As the magnet moves,
the ratio between the three
signal voltages varies Figure 6-47 — Bourdon tube oil pressure
accordingly. instrument.
6-56
Look at Figure 6-48. Here, you can see the transmitter and indicator connect in parallel.
When excited by the same fundamental source, the signal voltages in corresponding
sections of the two stators are equal and balanced. The signal voltages remain equal
and balanced as long as the magnets are in the same relative positions. However, if the
transmitter magnet moves to a new position, the voltages in the three sections of the
transmitter are no longer the same. They now differ from the voltages in the
corresponding sections of the indicator. Because of this imbalance, current flows
between the two units. This circulating current sets up additional magnetic lines of force
in each stator, which establishes a magnetic force between the stator and the magnet of
each unit. Since the indicator magnet is free to turn, it moves to a position
corresponding to the position of the transmitter magnet. The indicator magnet connects
to the indicator pointer by a shaft to provide a visual indication. The electrical leads
between the transmitter and the indicator may be any reasonable length without
noticeable effect on the indication.

Figure 6-48 — Schematic of a synchro oil pressure indicating system.

6-57
FUEL PRESSURE SYSTEM
The fuel pressure gauge provides a check on the operation of the fuel pump and fuel
pressure relief valve. The pilot must check the gauges often to ensure that the fuel
pressure is correct. With the fuel pressure correct, the engines have a full range of
power at all altitudes. The fuel pressure gauge operates on the same principle as the oil
pressure gauge.
Fuel pressure indicators may be located in the cockpit by means of synchro systems.
This type of system is the same for both fuel and oil pressure indications. However, the
oil system transmitter is NOT interchangeable with the fuel system transmitter.
Look at Figure 6-49. This synchro system is used to show fuel pressure. A change in
fuel pressure introduced into the synchro transmitter causes an electrical signal to go
through the interconnecting wiring to the synchro receiver. This signal moves the
receiver rotor and the indicator pointer a distance proportional to the amount of pressure
exerted by the fuel.

NOTE
You can see that the transmitter has a vent to the
atmosphere. This allows the transmitter to accurately
measure the differential between pump pressure and
atmospheric pressure.

Figure 6-49 — Fuel pressure synchro system.

6-58
OIL TEMPERATURE SYSTEM
Two types of oil temperature gauges are available for use in the engine gauge unit. One
unit consists of an electrical resistance type of oil thermometer, supplied with electrical
current by the aircraft dc power system. The other unit, the capillary oil thermometer, is
a vapor pressure thermometer. It consists of a bulb connected by a capillary tube to a
Bourdon tube and a multiplying mechanism connected to a pointer. The pointer shows
the oil temperature on a dial.

EXAUST NOZZLE INDICATING SYSTEM

The exhaust nozzle position indicating system shows the pilot engine variable exhaust
nozzle position. This indication, in turn, provides a measure of percentage of
afterburning, since constant temperatures are indicated throughout the afterburner
range.
Each engine has a separate but identical nozzle position indicating system. Each
system consists of a transmitter potentiometer in the nozzle area control unit and an
indicator on the main instrument panel. Power for the system is from the essential 28-
volt dc bus.
Each indicator is a hermetically sealed unit containing a single receptacle for a mating
plug electrical connection. The instrument scale ranges from OPEN to CLOSE, with
markings at the ¼, ½, and ¾ positions (Figure 6-50).

Figure 6-50 — Exhaust nozzle position indicating system.

The transmitter potentiometer consists of a resistance winding with a movable brush.

This brush connects to a linkage within the nozzle area control and moves in relation to
the variable exhaust nozzle. Current in the resistance winding is picked up by the
movable rush, and it varies according to the location of the brush. Then, this signal
current goes to one of the indicator field coils. The indicator contains two field coils and

6-59
a rotor. The polarized rotor mounts on a free-moving shaft. The shaft is located in the
center of the magnetic field created by the two coils. One coil connects to the
transmitter potentiometer in the nozzle area control. The second receives a constant
current to give smooth indicator operation. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field.
The magnetic field varies as the signal received from the potentiometer varies. A pointer
mounted on the rotor shaft shows rotor position in relation to nozzle position.

TORQUEMETER SYSTEMS
The electric torquemeter system in turboprop aircraft measures the torque (horsepower)
produced by the engine at the extension shaft. Each system consists of a transmitter
(part of the engine extension shaft), a phase detector, and an indicator (Figure 6-51).
The system measures the torsional deflection (twist) of the extension shaft as it sends
power from the engine to the propeller. Magnetic pickups detect and measure this
deflection electronically. The indicator registers the amount of deflection in shaft
horsepower.

Figure 6-51 — Torquemeter system: (A) pickup assembly; (B) indicating

6-60
system.
The extension shaft of the engine consists of two concentric shafts. The inner shaft is
the power-transmitting shaft. The outer shaft attaches to the inner shaft at the rear end.
Toothed flanges on the front end of each shaft rotate in the field of magnetic pickups.
When the engine is running, the teeth on the flange of the driving (inner) shaft move in
relation to the teeth on the flange of the outer reference shaft. The displacement
between the shafts is proportional to the torque load on the driving shaft. This
displacement causes a phase displacement between the pickup signals. The phase
angle of the resultant signal is linearly proportional to the shaft deflection. The phase
detector and amplifier in the indicator convert the signal to current. The current goes to
a servomotor, which drives the indicator pointers. The servomotor also drives the rotor
of a synchro control transformer in the indicator. The synchro control transformer
balances the synchro system when the pointer registers the measured torque.

MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

On most Navy aircraft, another group of instruments does not fall under flight
instruments or engine instruments. Usually referred to as miscellaneous instruments,
this group consists of instrumentation for such systems as fuel, hydraulics, flap and gear
positions, and cabin pressure.

Capacitive-Type Fuel Quantity Indicating System

The capacitive-type fuel quantity system electronically measures fuel weight (not
gallons) of the fuel in the tanks of an aircraft. The main units of the system are an
indicator, tank probes, a bridge unit, and an amplifier. In some systems, the bridge unit
and amplifier are one unit mounted in the same box. In the design of newer systems,
the bridge and a transistorized amplifier are contained in the indicator.

Fuel Quantity Indicator

The fuel quantity indicator (Figure 6-52) is a hermetically sealed, self-balancing, motor-
driven instrument. It contains a motor, pointer assembly, transistorized amplifier, bridge
circuit, and adjustment potentiometers. As the quantity of fuel in the tank changes, the
capacitance value of the tank probe changes proportionately. The tank probe is one arm
of a capacitance bridge circuit. The change of capacitance of the probe unbalances the
bridge circuit of the amplifier power unit. The unbalance in the circuit causes an error

6-61
Figure 6-52 — Fuel quantity indicator.
voltage. The amplified error voltage goes to the motor. The motor drives the pointer
mechanism and the rebalancing potentiometers to restore the bridge to a balanced
condition. The direction of change in the capacitance of the probe unit determines the
phase of the error voltage. The phase determines the direction of motor rotation and,
therefore, the direction of pointer movement.

Tank Probe
A tank probe and a simplified version of a tank circuit are shown in Figures 6-53. The
capacitance of a capacitor depends upon three factors, the area of the plates (A), the
distance between the plates (d), and the dielectric constant (K) of the material between
the plates, or

C=
Where A = the area of the plates
d = the distance between the plates
K = the dielectric constant of the materials between the plates

The only variable factor in the tank probe is the dielectric of the material between the
plates. When the tank is full, the dielectric material is all fuel. Its dielectric constant is
about 2.07 at 0 °C, compared to a dielectric constant of 1 for air. When the tank is
empty, there is only air between the plates, and capacitance is less. Any change in fuel
quantity between full and empty produces a corresponding change in capacitance.

Figure 6-53 — Fuel quantity transmitter.

6-62
System Operation
Look at Figure 6-54. As the tank unit capacitance increases or decreases, it is
necessary to maintain the bridge circuit in a balanced condition. This prevents the
indicator motor from continually changing the position of the indicating needle. To
balance the bridge circuit, a balancing potentiometer (R128) connects across part of the
transformer secondary. The indicator motor drives this potentiometer wiper in the
direction necessary to maintain a continuous balance in the bridge.

Figure 6-54 — Fuel quantity indicator schematic.

The circuit shown in Figure 6-54 is a self-balancing bridge circuit. An empty-calibrating

potentiometer and a full-calibrating potentiometer connect across portions of the

6-63
transformer secondary winding. You can adjust these potentiometers so the bridge
voltage balances over the empty-to-full capacitance range of a specific system.
A test switch (not shown) unbalances the bridge circuit momentarily when checking the
operation of the system. When the switch actuates, pin F connects to ground,
unbalancing the circuit. As a result, the indicator drives toward the empty end of the dial.
Opening the switch should restore the bridge to balance and return the indicator pointer
to its original position. This test proves that the system is operating correctly.
In installations where the indicator shows the contents of one tank, and the tank is fairly
symmetrical, one probe is sufficient. However, for increased accuracy in peculiarly
shaped fuel tanks, use two or more tank units in parallel. This configuration minimizes
the effects of changes in aircraft attitude and sloshing of fuel in the tanks.
Two classes of tank units (Figure 6-55) are used in a typical capacitance fuel quantity
measuring system, non-characterized and characterized.

Figure 6-55 — Fuel quantity tank units: (A) non-characterized; (B)

characterized.

Non-characterized tank units are variable capacitors, vertically mounted in the fuel cell.
As the fuel level changes, the capacitance of the tank unit changes. This change in
capacitance is uniform the entire length of the tank unit.
Characterized tank units are similar in construction and are mounted to the non-
characterized tank units. As the fuel level changes, the capacitance of the tank unit
changes. This change in capacitance is NOT uniform the entire length of the tank unit.
Since neither electrode of the tank unit goes to ground, and one lead to the amplifier is
shielded, capacitance to ground does not enter into the circuit. Therefore, the length of
the tank unit leads does not affect the accuracy of the system.
FUEL CHARACTERISTICS – The characteristics of fuel are such that the dielectric
constant and density deviate because of temperature change. Also, the variable factor
in the fuel composition changes the dielectric constant and density. The weight by
6-64
volume of aircraft fuel depends on its density, which, in turn, depends on its
temperature. As the temperature of the fuel goes down, the density increases. As the
temperature of the fuel goes up, the density decreases. Any change in the dielectric
constant or density of the fuel affects the movement of the indicator pointer. For
example, assume that the indicating system is at balance with the tank unit immersed to
a given depth. The fuel it is immersed in has the density and dielectric constant of the
fuel for which the system is calibrated. The indicator pointer will then reflect the correct
amount of fuel in terms of pounds. Then, the tanks are drained and then refilled to the
same level. This time the fuel has a greater density and higher dielectric constant, which
causes the pointer to show a greater weight. The new reading is correct only if the effect
of the changes in density and dielectric constant are proportional. However, the effect of
the increase in dielectric constant is greater than the effect of the increase in density.
The results are an incorrect indication. The system reduces this error by varying the
capacitance of the reference capacitor in the bridge leg opposite the immersed tank
unit.
COMPENSATION – The reference capacitor is varied by connecting a compensator
unit in parallel with it. The compensator, like the tank probe, is a variable capacitor.
However, the compensator mounts at the lowest level of fuel so it is completely
immersed until the tank is almost dry. Its capacitance depends on the dielectric content
of the fuel rather than the quantity. The compensator connects into the common
reference leg for both phases of the bridge circuit. This connection allows it to become a
part of the reference capacitance. A change in the dielectric constant of the fuel affects
both the tank probe and the compensator capacitance. Therefore, the current change in
the tank probe leg of the bridge is counteracted by a similar change in the reference leg
of the circuit.
Various capacitor-type fuel quantity systems operate on the principle just described.
Indicators, tank probes, and power units may differ as to shape, size, and specifications
from system to system. For this reason, you should always consult the manufacturer’s
manuals for specific information on a particular system.

HYDRAULIC PRESSURE INDICATORS

In most naval aircraft, the hydraulic system operates the landing gear, flaps, speed
brakes, bomb bay doors, and certain other units. Aircraft hydraulic pressure gauges
show either the pressure of the complete system or the pressure of an individual unit in
the system. A typical direct reading gauge contains a Bourdon tube and a gear-and-
pinion mechanism. The mechanism amplifies and transfers the tube’s motion to the
pointer. The position of the pointer on the calibrated dial shows the pressure in pounds
per square inch.
The pumps supplying pressure for operating the aircraft’s hydraulic units are driven by
an aircraft engine, an electric motor, or both. Some installations employ a pressure tank
or accumulator to maintain a reserve of fluid under hydraulic pressure. In such cases,
the pressure gauge registers continuously. With other installations, operating pressure
builds up only when needed, and pressure registers on the gauge only during these
periods.
The pressures of hydraulic systems vary for different models of aircraft. In older
pressure systems, the gauges registered from 0 to 2,000 psi. With later model aircraft,
the pressure ranges have increased. Some aircraft have systems with pressure ranges
as high as 4,000 psi. The trend is away from the direct reading pressure gauge and
towards the synchro (electric) type of gauge.
6-65
Figure 6-56, view A, shows the hydraulic pressure indicator of a late model naval
aircraft. This aircraft has two hydraulic systems. The indicating system shows the
hydraulic system (HS) No. 1 and HS No. 2 system pressures. The hydraulic pressure
indicator pointers, driven by signals from the hydraulic pressure transmitters, respond to
signals from matching synchronous motors in the pressure transmitters. The indicating
system consists of two remote hydraulic pressure transmitters and a dual pointer
indicator. The system uses 26-volt, 400-Hertz, single-phase alternating current from the
26-volt, single-phase bus.

Figure 6-56 — (A) Hydraulic pressure indicator; (B) hydraulic pressure

indicating schematic.

Each hydraulic pressure system line contains a Bourdon tube type of pressure
transmitter. Expansion and contraction of the Bourdon tube travels by mechanical
linkage to the rotor of the transmitter synchro. The pressure transmitter synchro sends
an electrical signal to the receiving synchro within the indicator. The receiving synchro’s
rotor links mechanically to the indicator pointer. The pressure indicator contains two
synchros that attach mechanically to two separate pointers.

PNEUMATIC PRESSURE SYSTEMS

The cabin pressure altitude indicator (Figure 6-57) is a sensitive altimeter that measures
cabin pressure. The instrument contains a sensitive diaphragm that expands or
contracts with changes in cabin pressure. The altitude equivalent of cabin pressure
shows on the dial, in increments of 1,000 feet. The range is from 0 to 50,000 feet. An
opening in the back of the instrument case allows it to sense cabin pressure. You can
also use this instrument to reflect pressure suit altitude rather than cabin altitude when
wearing a pressure suit.

6-66
 CAUTION
Remove the cabin pressure altitude indicator if the aircraft is to
undergo a cabin pressurization test on the ground. Failure to remove
the indicator will result in damage to the instrument from excessive
pressure.

Figure 6-57 — Cabin pressure altitude

indicator.

POSITION INDICATING SYSTEM (DC SYNCHRO SYSTEM)

The dc synchro system shows remote mechanical conditions, specifically the movement
and position of wing flaps, cowl flaps, oil cooler doors, and similar movable parts of the
aircraft. The system consists of a transmitter, an indicator, and connecting wires. A dc
voltage from the aircraft’s electrical power system supplies the voltage to operate the
system. The transmitter mechanically connects to the movable device that is actually
supplying the positioning data. The indicator repeats this information on a properly
calibrated scale in the indicator on the instrument panel. Figure 6-58 illustrates a
complete three-wire system.

6-67
 Figure 6-58 — Three-wire dc synchro system.

Transmitter
The three-wire system transmitter consists of a continuous circular toroidal resistance
winding with two diametrically opposite brushes continuously touching the winding.
These brushes apply dc to the winding. The brushes rotate with the movement of the
aircraft part to which they are mechanically attached.

Indicator
The three-wire system indicating element consists of an annular core, a permanent
magnet rotor, a damping cylinder, and three field coils. The leads between the coils
connect to the three taps of the transmitter winding. As voltages at the transmitter taps
vary through brush rotation, the distribution of current in the indicator coils varies. This
variation causes the resulting magnetic field of the three coils to position the pointer’s
permanent magnet rotor.
A copper cylinder provides a damping effect. The induced eddy currents in this cylinder
oppose movement of the rotor. This reduces the tendency of the pointer to oscillate.

6-68
Landing Gear
An example of a position indicating system is a wheel position indicator. The system
consists of three back-mounted indicators. A series of limit switches in the landing gear
control circuit control these indicators. The wheel instrument (Figure 6-59, view A) gives
a ready indication of the landing gear position. There are three positions on a drum that
move about an axis. One position of the drum has a landing gear wheel symbol. The
center position has a diagonal barber pole (black and white warning lines). The other
position has the word UP. The wheel symbol shows that the wheel is down and locked.
The UP indicator shows the wheel is up and locked. The barber pole shows the wheel is
somewhere between up and down, or not locked in position.
The position indicator operates through the landing gear limit switches in the wheel
wells of the aircraft. When the landing gear moves the contact of S1 (Figure 6-59, view
A) to the up position, the indicator shows the wheel is up and locked. When the landing
gear moves the contact of S2 to the down position, the indicator shows the landing
wheel, indicating the wheel is down and locked. Each switch connects to a solenoid in
the indicator. As the solenoids energize, the indicator element moves to reveal the
position of the aircraft landing gear. When the landing gear is moving, both the up lock
and down lock switches release. This opens both circuits to the corresponding indicator,
causing the black and white barber pole to show. It also causes the warning light in the
landing gear handle to illuminate. Figure 6-59, view B, shows a schematic for a
complete aircraft landing gear position-indicating system.

6-69
Figure 6-59 — Landing gear position indicating system: (A) typical; (B) system
6-70
schematic.
Flaps
You can show the aircraft flap position in a manner similar to the landing gear. These
indicators show UP, ½, DN (down), and barber pole. The indicator (Figure 6-60)
energizes through limit switches.

Figure 6-60 — Flap position indicating system.

Other aircraft show the position of the flaps using the dc synchro system of remote
indication. This system consists of a transmitter and an indicator (Figure 6-61). A
change in flap position moves the transmitter rotor, and a similar rotor movement occurs
in the indicator on the instrument panel. A pointer attached to the indicator rotor shows
the amount of travel of the flaps in percent of full extension. The transmitter mounts on
the flap drive control unit and actuates by the control actuating mechanism.

6-71
Figure 6-61 — DC synchro flap position indicating system.
INSTRUMENT SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
You need a wide variety of skills to maintain aircraft instruments and their associated
equipment. It is important for you to check, inspect, and maintain these instruments
because the aircraft will not perform properly unless the instruments present reliable
information.
Instruments used in high-speed aircraft must give correct indications. The accuracy of
instruments such as percent-type tachometers, tailpipe temperature indicators, and gyro
attitude indicators require preventive maintenance. The existence of excessive errors in
instrument systems directly relates to flight safety and efficient aircraft performance.
You cannot assume that borderline instrument errors are acceptable. This is particularly
important in high-speed aircraft.
As an AE, you will perform functional tests on aircraft instruments to make sure they
give accurate indications. Operational and functional tests take time. When you perform
an inspection, you need to know how the particular aircraft instrument operates. Also,
you need to know what tools and test equipment you will need. Without this knowledge
and these skills, you cannot properly perform the tasks assigned to your rating.

GENERAL MAINTENANCE
General maintenance of instruments falls into two categories, scheduled and
unscheduled maintenance. The material condition of the systems and reliability of
instruments are ensured by the day-to-day maintenance routine.

Cases
Instruments come in one of four different kinds of cases:
1. One-piece phenolic composition cases
2. Two-piece phenolic composition cases
3. Nonmagnetic all-metal cases
4. Metallic-shielded cases
The cases come in several different sizes so instruments can be easily removed and
maintenance simplified. Special instruments that contain mechanisms too large for
adaption to a standard case come in specially designed cases.
Instruments easily mount on the instrument panel with locking devices molded into the
instrument flange assembly, by spring locknuts or mounting clamps. You can easily
remove instruments that use a mounting clamp by unscrewing the tension screw in the
instrument’s lower right corner. You do not have to remove the tension screw to release
the tension on the clamp assembly.

Markings and Graduation

Markings on the glass instrument face cover help flight personnel confirm instrument
operation to within the prescribed ranges of the equipment. The markings usually
consist of a white arc on the outer edges of the instrument glass. They show the normal
operating range. A red mark shows the operating limit that should not be exceeded.

6-72
 WARNING
An index marking of white paint, not over one-sixteenth inch wide
by three-sixteenths inch long, is at the bottom center of all
instruments color-marked for operating ranges. Place this index
mark at the point between the glass and the case. This mark will
show whether or not the glass cover moves at any time after
marking the ranges. Obtain the proper range markings for the
aircraft instruments from the Naval Air Training and Operating
Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) flight manual for the
particular aircraft.

Panels
Instrument panels are made from sheet aluminum alloy, with sufficient strength to resist
flexing. The panel is nonmagnetic and painted a dull black or gray to eliminate glare and
reflection. Some panels are constructed in two layers, and the instrument faces are
flush with the rear panel. The front panel is a reflector panel that mounts over the rear
panel with sufficient clearance to supply an indirect lighting effect. The indirect lighting
system is not standard for all aircraft. Some aircraft have spotlights, edge lighting, or a
combination of these. Some instruments have their own internal lighting system.
Instrument panels are shock mounted to absorb low frequency, high-amplitude shocks.
The mounts consist of square-plated absorbers in sets of two, each secured to separate
brackets. You should inspect the mounts periodically for deterioration; if the rubber is
cracked, replace the pair.
As an AE, your instrument maintenance duties include certain inspections that you
should conduct at regular intervals. Your daily inspection includes the following checks
in accordance with applicable Periodic Maintenance Instruction Cards, Phase Cards,
Daily Inspection Requirements Cards or MIM as required:
 Check pointers for excessive errors. Some indicators should show existing
atmospheric pressure, existing temperatures, etc. Others should indicate zero.
 Check instruments for loose or cracked cover glasses. Replace pitot-static
instruments if damaged.
 Check instrument lights for proper operation.
 Check caging and setting knobs for freedom of movement and correct operation.
 Carefully investigate any irregularity the pilot reports.
When performing a phase/calendar inspection, make the following checks in
accordance with applicable Periodic Maintenance Instruction Cards, Phase Cards, Daily
Inspection Requirements Cards or MIM as required:
 Check the mounting of all the instruments and their dependent units for security.
 Check for leaks in instrument cases, lines, and connections.
 Check for dull or marred luminous paint on dial markings and pointers.
 Check the condition of operation and limitation markings.

6-73
  Check for contact and condition of bonding on instruments.
 Check shock mountings for condition of rubber and security of attachment.
 Check for freedom of motion of all lines and tubing behind the instrument panel.
Also, check that they are properly clamped or taped to avoid chafing, and that
they are free from moisture, crimps, etc.
After starting the engine, check the instrument pointers for oscillation. Also, check the
readings for consistency with engine requirements and speeds. On multi-engine aircraft,
check the instruments for the various engines against each other. Investigate any
inconsistency; it may indicate a faulty engine, component, or instrument.
After you have diagnosed a particular discrepancy and found the instrument to be faulty,
remove and turn it into supply. Remember the following precautions when removing and
installing instruments:
 Handle instruments carefully at all times. Additional damage may result if you
abuse the instrument.
 Do not change the location of an indicator.
 Do not force the mounting screws. If the screw is cross-threaded, replace it. Do
not draw the screws up too tight against the panel. This may distort the case
enough to affect the operation of the instrument, crack the case, or break off the
mounting lugs.
 When removing or installing tubing of a pressure-operated instrument, use a
backup wrench to avoid twisting the tubing or fitting. Do not exert undue force
while tightening the connection.
 Install all electrical plugs hand tight.
 Before connecting an electrical plug to an instrument, check the plug for bent or
broken pins.
 Cap the open electrical receptacles, plugs, and hose connections to prevent
foreign material from entering the instrument or system.

Aircraft Plumbing
Rigid and flexible tubing is extensively used in aircraft. These tubes come in many
different sizes. Sizing is usually determined by the outside diameter of the tube and
ranges from one-eighth inch to 2 inches in diameter. The type of material and wall
thickness determines the amount of pressure that a tube can safely withstand. When
replacing or repairing tubing, you should use caution to make sure that you use the
proper type. You can find detailed information on tubing and tubing repairs in the
aircraft-specific technical manual.
RIGID TUBING – Rigid metal tubes are widely used in aircraft for fuel, oil, coolant,
oxygen, instrument, hydraulic and vent lines. Corrosion-resistant steel (stainless steel)
and aluminum alloy tubing are the most commonly used tubing. You may identify the
basic tube material by either visual inspection or by the alloy designation stamped on
the tubing.
Tube fittings connect tubes together and connect tubes to instruments. The shape of the
fitting determined by the particular installation; some are straight, while others have
various angles. The fittings secure to the tube by a beaded or flared joint. The beaded
joint (or upset joint) is used in low-pressure lines. Systems that use low-pressure lines
6-74
include vacuum, deicer, and oil systems that use rubber hose fittings. All high-pressure
and some low-pressure lines use flared joints. Grip dies and flaring or beading tools are
used to form flared and beaded joints. When working rigid tubing, you should consult
the manuals on the beading and flaring tools to use the tools properly.
If piping and lines are damaged, you should replace them with new parts. To repair
tubing, you must determine how much tubing to remove. Consider the following factors
when deciding how much tubing to remove:
 The location of the tubing
 The extent of damage
 The most convenient location for tool manipulation
There is a tendency to over tighten tubing nuts to prevent high-pressure fluid from
escaping. Such over tightening may severely damage or completely cut off the tube
flare. When you remove a tube, check the flare. If you find a flare with less than 50
percent of its original wall thickness, reject the tube.
When bending tubing, you must be careful to prevent collapsing of the tube at the bend.
When making bends for fluid tubing, make sure that you use the proper bending radius.
These specifications can be found in the aircraft-specific technical manual.
Bands of paint or strips of tape around the line near each fitting identify each rigid line in
the aircraft. There is at least one identifying marker in each compartment.
All lines less than 4 inches in diameter have identification tape on them. The exceptions
to this rule are cold lines, hot lines, and lines in an oily environment. Another except ion
is any line in engine compartments where there is a chance of the tape going into the
engine intake. In these cases, and all others where you do not use tape, use paint to
identify the lines.
Identification tape codes show the function, contents, hazards, direction of flow, and
pressure in the fluid line. When applying these tapes, refer to MIL-STD-1247C. MIL-
STD-1247C standardizes rigid line identification throughout the Department of Defense
(Figure 6-62).

Figure 6-62 — Electrical line identification application. 6-75

The function of the line is identified by a 1-inch-wide tape that contains printed word(s),
color(s), and a geometric symbol. Functional identification markings (see MIL-STD-
1247C) are the subject of an international standardization agreement. Three-fourths of
the total width on the left side of the tape is a color or color code. This code shows one
function only per color or colors. The function of the line is printed in English across the
colored portion of the tape. Color-coding is utilized to provide universal recognition and
understanding regardless of language for aircraft maintenance and troubleshooting. The
right-hand one-fourth of the functional identification tape contains a geometric symbol.
This symbol is different for every function. The symbol allows a colorblind person to
identify the line function by means of the geometric design rather than by the color.
Refer to Figure 6-63. Here, you see a listing of the functions and their associated
identification media as used on the tapes.

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Figure 6-63 — Functional identification tape data. 6-77
The identification-of-hazards tape shows the hazard associated with the contents of the
line. Tapes that show hazards are one-half inch wide, with the abbreviation of the
hazard printed across the tape. There are four general classes of hazards found with
fluid lines.
1. Flammable Material (FLAM). The hazard marking FLAM identifies all materials
ordinarily known as flammables or combustibles.
2. Toxic and Poisonous Materials (TOXIC). TOXIC identifies lines containing
materials that are extremely hazardous to life or health.
3. Anesthetics and Harmful Materials (AAHM). AAHM identifies all materials
producing anesthetic vapors and all liquid chemicals and compounds hazardous
to life and property. However, they do not normally produce dangerous quantities
of fumes or vapors.
4. Physically Dangerous Materials (PHDAN). PHDAN marks a line carrying material
that is not dangerous within itself. However, the material is asphyxiating in
confined areas or is generally handled in a dangerous physical state of pressure
or temperature.
Table 6-2 lists some of the fluids that you may work with and the hazards associated
with each.

Table 6-2 — Hazards Associated With Various Fluids

CONTENTS HAZARD

Air (under pressure) PHDAN

Alcohol FLAM
Carbon dioxide PHDAN
Freon PHDAN
Gaseous oxygen PHDAN
Liquid nitrogen PHDAN
Liquid oxygen PHDAN
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) FLAM
Nitrogen gas PHDAN
Oils and greases FLAM
JP-4 FLAM
Trichloroethylene AAHM

FLEXIBLE TUBING (HOSE) – Flexible hose assemblies consist of lengths of hose

coupled with threaded end fittings. There are two classes of flexible tubing, high
pressure and low pressure.
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You can get the specifications for flexible hose by interpreting the identification code on
the hose. This identification, a series of dots and dashes, gives hose size, temperature
range, and date of manufacture. The date of manufacture is in quarter of year and year.
Refer to the aircraft-specific technical manual for a detailed discussion of flexible hose
identification.
You cannot construct high-pressure flexible hose at the organizational level. You must
order it through supply, as organizational maintenance cannot perform high-pressure
tests.
You can order the parts for a low-pressure flexible hose through supply and make the
hose locally. You can reuse fittings from a damaged hose if they meet the required
specifications.
When you install hose, make sure it will not twist under any operating condition. This
type of installation lessens the tendency for connecting fittings to loosen. When you
replace a hose in hydraulic, fuel, oil, alcohol, and pneumatic systems, make sure the
new hose is an exact duplicate of the old hose. Specifically, the length, outside
diameter, inside diameter, material, type, and shape (except on directed modifications)
must be the same as the old hose.
If a bend is necessary when installing hose in fluid systems, the radius must not be
smaller than the minimum specified in the aircraft-specific technical manual or as Naval
Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) instructions may direct. When practical, use a radius
that is larger than the specified minimum.
When you install hose through holes in brackets and when you use supporting clips,
ensure there is no reduction in hose diameter. When these conditions are present, they
reduce flow, and damage to the hose may occur.
The hose must have support every 24 inches. Closer supports are desirable when
practical. The flexible line support should never cause deflection of the rigid connecting
lines under any possible relative motion that may occur. Flexible hose between two rigid
connections may restrain excessive motion where necessary, but never be rigidly
supported. To avoid chafing, use suitable bulkhead-type grommets or cushioned clips.
Protect hose installations from excessive temperature, such as exhaust blasts and
supercharger ducts, by either shrouding or relocating. Use flame-resistant hose forward
of the firewall on certain aircraft as specified in the aircraft-specific technical manual or
NAVAIR instructions may direct.
Where hoses connect to an engine or to engine-mounted accessories, provide 1½
inches of slack between the last point of support and engine attachment. This prevents
the chance of the hose pulling off the nipple due to engine movement. Whenever
possible, install the hose so all hose markings are visible.
All hose materials deteriorate from exposure to heat, sunlight, excessive moisture, and
ozone. Therefore, you should stow hoses in a cool, dry place and away from electrical
equipment. You can obtain age limits of shelf items based on the manufacturer’s code
from current accessory bulletins. Stow hose in straight lengths to prevent it from setting
in a curved position. Replace the hose if cover material is peeling or flaking, or if the
braid reinforcement is open to the elements.

PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of the pitot-static system consists of checking the lines for integrity, water,
and miscellaneous obstructions. A pressure check is of the utmost importance as any
6-79
slight leak will result in erroneous indications of the instruments during flight. You should
also check the pitot heater for proper operation. You can do this by monitoring a voltage
drop when the heat is turned on, or by checking the pitot tube for the presence of heat.

CAUTION
Do not touch the pitot tube with your bare hand with the
heat on. The extreme heat may cause your skin to stick to
the surface.

The following is an outline for water and debris removal from the pitot-static system. For
specific procedures, you should refer to the MIM.
1. Disconnect all altimeters, airspeed indicators, rate-of-climb indicators, and any
other systems receiving information from the pitot-static system. Disconnect the
lines from pitot or pitot-static tubes.
2. Remove all drain caps in the system.
3. Circulate a stream of clean, dry, filtered air at medium pressure through the
complete system. Be careful not to include the cabin pressurization system static
vent. Be certain that air is flowing from the exit end of each line.
4. Inspect all static vents and the pitot tube water removal drain holes for damage
and evidence of foreign matter and obstructions. Check all low points in the lines
for possible cracks due to icing in the lines.
5. Replace and secure all system drain caps.
6. Reconnect all instruments. Tighten connections properly; do not kink or bend the
lines.
7. Using a field test set or other approved tester, thoroughly check the system for
proper operation and leaks.
The maintenance of the pitot-static system is relatively simple when compared to more
complex systems. However, its maintenance is not a minor task.

INSTRUMENT TESTING
Operation of most aircraft instruments is entirely automatic. Once installed, the units
require no further maintenance or servicing other than routine and periodic inspections.
If a system or instrument malfunctions, you must first localize the source of trouble.
Develop a systematic troubleshooting procedure. The procedure should include the
possible service troubles and their remedies for each type of instrument. You will find
most of this information in applicable aeronautic publications, such as the MIM for
specific aircraft and the service instruction manual for specific instruments.
An instrument that does not function properly or that is suspected of being
unserviceable must first be checked to determine if the instrument or the installation is
at fault. Usually, instrument problems fall into three groups, trouble in the power supply,
trouble in the unit, or trouble in the connections to units, either electrical or mechanical.
If the installation is faulty, line maintenance can correct the problem. If the instrument is

6-80
the fault, you can remove and replace it with a serviceable unit. The defective unit goes
to a qualified instrument overhaul depot for detailed inspection, overhaul, and repair.
Only authorized instrument shops can open instrument cases and make repairs or
adjustments.
When making ground tests of electrical instruments, you should connect an external
power supply to the aircraft. Do not use the battery when conducting ground tests of
equipment.
When performing ground testing, you should use portable field test sets, such as the
ADTS405-8325 Air Data Test Set, the CA-11-FCS RPM Test Set, or appropriate
authorized Individual Material Readiness List (IMRL) asset. Test sets are discussed in
chapter 2 of this RTM.
Always use a precision voltmeter to check instrument power. You can check most
electrical instruments with a test indicator to determine where the trouble lies. For
example, you can check synchro indicators using a synchro test indicator.

6-81
 End of Chapter 6
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Review Questions
6-1. What are the two ways aircraft instruments are grouped?

A. Mechanical and electrical

B. Digital and manual
C. Operating principles and jobs they perform
D. Aircraft type and model

6-2. What determines the air pressure at any given altitude?

A. Temperature and moisture at that altitude

B. Weight of the air above that altitude
C. Density at that altitude
D. Gravity at that altitude

6-3. At 5,000 feet of altitude, what is the standard atmospheric pressure, in pounds
per square inch?

A. 12.23
B. 13.05
C. 15
D. 29

6-4. What are the three indicators that use the pitot-static system?

A. Line of flight, impact pressure, and airspeed

B. Barometer, static air vent, and pitot tube
C. Temperature, climbing, and descending
D. Airspeed, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator

6-5. Which of the following is a description of impact pressure?

A. The force of air against the aircraft

B. Various air pressure that causes different readings
C. Pressure of the air closest to the terrain
D. The normal outside atmospheric temperature

6-6. What instrument uses both pitot and static air pressure?

A. Airspeed indicator
B. Altimeter
C. Counter pointer pressure altimeter
D. Density altitude

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 6-7. What does the acronym “AGL” stand for?

A. Above Ground Level

B. Above Gain Latitude
C. Altitude Gain Level
D. Absolute Gravity Level

6-8. What is “absolute altitude”?

A. Altitude of the aircraft in flight

B. Altitude of the terrain the aircraft is flying over
C. Distance between the aircraft and the terrain it is flying over
D. Distance between the terrain and sea level

6-9. What altitude does gravity acting on the atmosphere produce a pressure of 14.70
psi and support a column of mercury to a height of 29.92 inches?

A. Pressure altitude
B. Mean sea level
C. Absolute altitude
D. Density altitude

6-10. What is the name for the aneroid mechanism used in most altimeters?

A. Wafer
B. Linkage
C. Pinion
D. Bimetal yoke

6-11. If an aircraft is in level flight, what will the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) indicate?

A. -0.5
B. 0.0
C. +0.5
D. +1.0

6-12. What are the four inputs to the Air Data Computer (ADC) system?

A. Total static pressure, angle of attack (AOA), impact pressure, and altitude
B. Total pressure (pitot), indicated static pressure, indicated AOA, and total
temperature.
C. AOA, temperature, speed, and altitude
D. Indicated AOA , altitude, speed, and temperature

6-13. Which of the following is the meaning of the term angle of attack (AOA)?

A. The difference between the leading edge of the wing and nose of the
aircraft relative to the air through which it is passing
B. The angle at which the leading edge of the wing must pass to provide
adequate lift for sustained flight
C. The angle at which the leading edge of the wing encounters the air mass
D. The angle of the air passing over the elevators to provide more lift
6-83
6-14. Static pressure errors become a significant factor in the accuracy of pressure
indications at what relative speeds?

A. Supersonic only
B. Transonic only
C. Supersonic and transonic
D. Subsonic and transonic

6-15. Total temperature equals the ambient temperature plus the ________.

A. temperature of the engine intake air

B. temperature increase created by the motion of the aircraft
C. temperature decrease created by the surrounding air
D. temperatures of the ram air external to the aircraft and the engine intake
air

6-16. What system actuates the rudder pedal shaker to warn the pilot of an impending
stall?

A. AOA
B. Angle of sideslip compensator
C. Airstream detector
D. Approach index lights

6-17. If the red arrow on the pilot’s AOA indexer illuminates, which of the following
conditions exists?

A. The aircraft is nose low

B. The aircraft is nose high
C. The aircraft is at optimum AOA
D. There is a failure in the system

6-18. What determines the degrees of freedom for a gyro?

A. The size of the gimbals

B. The number of gimbals supporting the gyro
C. The material that is used for the gyro
D. The space where the gyro is mounted

6-19. What are the two basic properties of gyroscopic action?

A. Rigidity in space and precession

B. Angular value and degree of freedom
C. Restricted and semi rigid
D. Free and universal

6-20. What indicator shows the lateral attitude of an aircraft?

A. Roll and pitch

B. Ball and turn pointer
C. Accelerometer
D. Turn-and-bank
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6-21. An aircraft weighs 10,000 pounds and has a lift equal to 20,000 pounds. Which of
the following readings will the accelerometer show?

A. -2 g
B. 0g
C. +1 g
D. +2 g

6-22. What is the reading on the accelerometer of an aircraft weighing 40,000 pounds
and traveling in straight-and-level flight?

A. +2 g
B. +1 g
C. 0g
D. -1 g

6-23. What tachometer generator output is proportional to the engine speed?

A. Frequency
B. Temperature
C. Power
D. Torque

6-24. When there is an open in the voltage supply circuit, what will the galvanometer of
a Wheatstone bridge read, in ohms?

A. Zero
B. 10
C. 50
D. 100

6-25. In a radiometer-type temperature indicator, what component determines needle

position?

A. How the poles of the permanent magnet align to external magnetic source
B. How much current is measured by the contraction potentiometer
C. How much resistance is indicated by the center potentiometer
D. How the permanent magnet aligns to the flux of the two coils

6-26. What is a thermocouple?

A. Copper and strip of iron material

B. A junction of two unlike metals used to sense temperature
C. Hot junction and cold junction used to measure temperature differences
D. Pressed constantan used in aircraft instruments

6-85
6-27. In the fuel flow transmitter, what component senses vane movement and sends it
to the synchro motor?

A. Synchro transmitter
B. Relief valve
C. Chamber housing
D. Magnet (ring magnet and bar magnet)

6-28. What are the two ways of indicating oil pressure?

A. Bourdon tube and synchro system

B. Synchro system and stator
C. Synchro system and visual
D. Visual and manual

6-29. What is the reference shaft of the torque meter system?

A. Power transmitting
B. Outer
C. Torque load
D. Driving

6-30. What are two classes of tank units used in a typical capacitance fuel quantity
measuring system?

A. Ridged and parallel

B. Non-characterized and characterized
C. Immersed and shielded
D. Dielectric constant and compensation

6-31. What does the density of fuel depend on?

A. Temperature
B. Altitude
C. Humidity
D. Size of tank

6-32. What unit in the fuel quantity system depends on the dielectric content rather
than the quantity?

A. Reference capacitor
B. Pressure indicator
C. Probe leg
D. Compensator probe

6-33. When installing rigid tube markings, what is the minimum number per
compartment?

A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four
6-86
6-34. What is the color of the identification tape on electrical conduits?

A. Red and brown

B. Brown and orange
C. Black and white
D. Green and red

6-35. What are the four classes of hazards identified by hazard tape?

A. Corrosive, toxic, flammable, and gas

B. Flammable material, toxic, explosive, and inert
C. Flammable material, toxic and poisonous materials, anesthetics and
harmful materials, and physically dangerous materials
D. Poisonous, corrosive, explosive, and physically dangerous materials

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