American History:

During the 1700’s American was ruled by the British Crown & government.

Colonies:

 Proprietor colonies were MARYLAND, PENNSLYVANIA, DELAWARE. Proprietor ran the colony was appointed the
governor. Proprietor owned the land to start with.
 Corporate colonies were CONNETICUT, RHODE ISLAND had govnors who were popularly elected & responsible to
legislatures.
 Royal Colonies were default & governors were appointed by the King.

New Hampshire – farming, ships, timber – royal colony

Massachusetts - farming, timber, live stock – Royal Colony

Rhode Island – Fish, timber, ships – corporate

Connecticut - Fish, timber, ships – corporate

New Jersey – Grain, flour, iron, wheat – royal

New York - Grain, flour, iron, wheat – royal

Pennsylvania - Grain, flour, iron, wheat – proprietor

Delaware - Grain, flour, iron, wheat – proprietor

Maryland - Grain, flour, iron, wheat – proprietor

Virginia – Tabaco, rice, indigo, farming – royal

North Carolina – Tabaco, rice, indigo, farming - royal

South Carolina – Tabaco, rice, indigo, farming - royal

Georgia – Tabaco, rice, indigo, farming - royal

Why did people go to these colonies: Chance of a new life, freedom, America was the land of opportunity, there
was valuable resource of land (trees, gems, silvers, largest amount of gold), chance to relax, create money by
tobacco seeds & expensive to sell. Plenty of fertile land. James town was America’s first boom town.

Freedom to practice religion, land of opportunity to take risk. April 1661, European leaders brought plague to Native
America. The natives wanted peace so they taught British how to fertilize land, Pilgrams traded this for British to
attack rivals.

Pilgrams & pokanoka became allies (leading to thanks giving) Creating prosperity & expansion, people wanted a
better life, agriculture was passed on, children 20% more likely to reach adult hood & taxes were cheaper.

To escape political rulers.

Mercantilist System: suggests that America’s self-sufficiency should benefit Britain (Mother land) buy it’s
manufactures & provide employment by shipping. America could buy products from Europe but they were delivered
to UK first then transported to America.

Britain held absolute control of American trade.

Mercantalist measures: shipping – all goods going to & from American had to be carried in ships build/owned by UK
or colonies – to stimulate new England ship building industry.

 Crew of ships – manned by mainly English crew, trusted crew, have English men employment.
 Enumerated commodities – sugar, cotton, indigo, ginger & Tabaco could only be exported from colonies to the
UK. Goods outside England going to America must land on Uk soil before re-shipped. Stimulate UK ship industry
(choose what to keep & what to send)
 Woolen act 1699 – forbade export of woollen yard & cloth outside colony produced – limited impact as wool
rarely exceeded local demand.
 Hat act 1732 – prohibited export of colonial beaver hats, minor impact to industry.
 Molasses act – royal attempt to restrict colonial trade.
 Iron act 1750 – Banned exports of Colonial iron outside the empire – disregarded act, wasn’t restrictive and
allowed colonial pig iron to enter Uk duty free

Smuggling: The way colonists disobeyed Mercantilism

Prior to 1763, Uk followed Salutary neglect (loosened control of trade & supervision of colonies, giving them great
autonomy) Ships arriving at colonies were loaded with illegal imports. Uk custom officials were badly paid, they
accepted bribes from colonial shippers. If caught, smugglers were tried in admiralty courts & released by American
judges.

Important as it encouraged rebellion against UK. Colonial shippers became skilled, Uk started to charge smugglers in
courts with no jury’s pushing colonies to rebel.

1750 – British trade in NA was the fastest growing sector of her entire international trade because of Uk demand for
American agricultural goods like wheat (UK pop rapid growing & outgrew Uk’s ability to increase food production &
lack of space)

Growing American demand for Uk manufactured goods which could not be made in the colonies, American colonial
population was growing even more rapidly.

Those who left Uk for American were religious fugatives (extreme protestants, Anglicans, some Catholics) difference
variety’s of ex-prisoners; masters & servants also ppl seeking adventure.

Also non-english people; scots, irish, dutch, Swedish, French, German. Too socially excluded, were black Africans
slaves & native Americans. Social norms emerged in colonies: No titled nobility – wealthy American elite existed but
not similar to idle parasites from Uk.

Larger % of pop were land owners rather than tenants, more land available. Greater land holding brought more ppl
to political life as voting on property owning.

Distinctions between social classes existed in America but much weaker than in UK & easier to cross social
boundaries.

American society: Elites – hard working capitalists, absorbed in land speculation, business of marketing, commercial
crops. Liquid assets not impressive due to capital tied to land.

Professionals – minors, lawyers, doctors & school ministers. Respected & held responsibility of public. 80% of free
males were farmers. Most owned & worked on farm land. 2/3 were shop keepers & self-employed craftsmen.

Labours – laboured for others, diverse group ranging from famers to slaves. 1/3 land farmed was rented. Only 1.5 of
white males were landless labourers. Apprentices, sailors, servants, labourers.

Slaves – at the bottom of society, subjected to will of owners, could be bought & sold, worked on plantations
producing tobacco & rice, domestic’s servants.

Families: Head of families were white male. Children were subordinate to elders, females to males, servants to
family, black to white. More men among early American settlers helped raise women’s status. Despite wealth or
condition women were denied political & civil rights men had
Middle class world – Differences between rich & poor were unclearly represented. There was availability of land;
most colonial farmers had own soil.

Education: Strongly encouraged. By 1763 75% of white male Americans were literate compared to 60% in England. 9
colleges & Uni’s. More than 30 newspapers in circulation by 1763.

Colonial intellectual elite influenced by enlighten, idea which permeated every branch of thought from science to
politics. By mid-1700’s America could boast of intellectual achievements.

Religion: Most Americans were protestants & used this to shape their culture, social & political issues. Most
European states had no dominant religion in the colonies.

Religious divisions happened with immigration from different countries& many demonstrations of religion.
Established churches in 9 colonies except RI, Pen, Del, NJ. Congressional church set up in New England colonies,
Anglicans set up in Virginian & south.

Established churches had privileges like support & benefit from tax. Catholic – southern Europe (france, spain, Italy)
Protestant – Nothern Europe (Germany, Holland, UK)

In colonial times many fled to the new world seeking religious freedom. Uk colonists attitude for Catholics went from
tolerant to exclusive. As colonial attitudes towards individuality & liberty emerged, colonists turned to protestant
with views Catholicism enslaved it’s believers. Anti-catholic believed landed in Massachusetts bay with early settlers.

74% church members by 1775.

Great Awakening: Jonathan Edwards led the great awakening, ppl came to re-birth religion as ppl lost connection
with god. God called to colonies to announce & fix their faith & personal relations with jesus. Going to church
effected families, business & pulled colonies together. Thinking of self government under god. Creating principles of
equality for everyone, males, females, slaves & free. Debated releasing slaves.

Called children the ‘twice-born’. Thomas Paine said twice born those who religious lives were born again. Their
children made the American Revolution (Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Ben Franklin) not men moved
by religious passions but all marked by moral disposition of passionate Protestantism. Indulged with an American
moralism that coloured their perceptions of politics.

War of Austria Succession (1740-48): France, Prussia, Spain against the UK.

North American had strong hate for France & sided with Britiain. Hatred of French stronghold Lousinburg. Native
Americans sided with France.

Britain & France in conflict over American’s boundaries & ohio valley. Outbreak of attack in Europe & death of holy
roman emperor caused outbreak of war. Warfare is American started 1744 when France heard declaration of war &
attacked British forts sending prisoners to lousinburg. New England Americans hated French catholics. 1745, 4000
men raised under Pepperell assigned tasking Louisburg. Britain helped end siege & king rewarded Pepperell.

Outcomes: peace achieved in 1748, Britian returned Louisbourg to France in exchange for Madras in India. Nullifying
great victory for American troops until boarders restored to pre-war state. Anger was so great London gave the
colonies £180,000 in compensation. Tensions between Americans, Europe & natives.

Seven years war (1756-63):

Uk, Prussia, Portugal, Uk colonies VS France, Austria, Spain, French Colonies, Natives

French and British colonies taking interest in Ohio country south of lake Erie. In 1949, UK gave land of ohio to
Virginia but French refused to move.

Most conflict happened in NA, Washington took a message to French fort to give up ohi land & French declined.
Washington led men to Jumonville glen in 1754 where war officially started due to surprise attack on French, Uk
ordered its own colonies to form defence.

Uk was an Ireland & had no European land boundaries, she financed other countries (Prussia) to do European
fighting & used the navy to defend themselves.
After Jumonville Glen, Washington stablished fort south which was capture by French troops & Washington
surrendered. When news reached Europe both Britain & France sent troops to NA escalating conflict. Conflict in
America ended in 1960.

Treaty of Paris (1763) Uk offered France to give up NA colonies or West Indies, they gave up NA as they were
costly to maintain & poor source of income. France handed Canada & all land east to Mississippi to UK, while all
land west to Spain.

Pontiacs Rebellion (April 1763): Ottowa Pontimac unities Natives in effect to drive British from their land as
Brits had more numbers & were greedy for land.. Feared British would take it now France allies left. Brit took
control of frontiers & colonel Bouquet leads Brit army to defeat Natives at Bush Run.

Restricted amount of gunpowder & ammunition sold to Natives, hoping to prevent an uprising, but ammunition
used for hunting to feed families & skin for trade. Pontimac attacked fort Detroit, leaving it under siege till end of
October. Attacks on forts followed by gruesome massacres.

British retaliation was barbaric; effect Natives with blankets with smallpox, massacres by vigilante groups & paid
bounties for every Native over age 10 killed.

End of the war came in 1764, Pontimac made peace. Relations between Settlers & Natives at a new low
because of awful, genocidal violence from both sides.

Britain came to conclusion Natives & Settlers had to be kept apart. A Royal proclamation was made down the
right of Appalachian Mountains where settlers couldn’t trespass. Settlers felt that the proclamation denied them
fruit of their victory over France which was owed to them.

Relations with Britain in 1763: The colonies were under British control. Colonial governments appointed
agents to London to promote their interests. Sometimes several colonies would share one agent. Most famous
agent at the time was Benjamin Franklin for Pennsylvania.

Royal Proclamation (Oct 1763):

Protect Natives from American settlers land grabs, stopping white expansion west crescent of Appalachian
mountains. No buying or selling of reserved land, anyone in possession of native land should move back.

Was a temporary measure, not to stop expansion but to control it. Put strains on American, Natives & British
relations.

Greeted with dismay by colonists with long standing claim to western lands, many colonists already possessed
land illegally or legally on wrong side of proclamation. Hard to enforce line because of the strength of western
expansion. It broke down due to 30,000 Americans moving west.
 The Tax crisis (1763-1776)

Why did America vote for independence on 4 th July 1776

By 1763, 70,000 French settlers in Canada. UK was afraid of a rebellion among settlers provoke France to
return to America. UK respected their religion, language, laws & customs.

Potimac’s rebellion made UK realise they must impose peace & installed 10,000 soldiers to maintain peace &
order in acquired territories costing £300,000 / year. The previous wars cost UK a lot, national debt was at £130
mill, peace time gov got £8 mill income tax, they needed to find more money.

Sugar act (April 1764):

 Better enforced trading system & Americans contribute their upkeep & reduce smuggling epidemic.
 Duties on imported foreign goods: cloth, sugar, coffee and wine. Duties on Mollasses reduced to 3d.
(smugglers bribes for 1d)
 Any custom official taking bribes will be fined & fired. Violation of new laws to be tried in Vice admiralty
courts (In Nova Scota) with no jury as colonial courts don’t convict smugglers.
 Impact fell on those depending on foreign trade from West Indies. Impact not general, effected Boston &
New York. Raised internal tax rather than regulate external tax on trade.

Quartering act (1765):

 Reduced cost of British forces in America. Passed as Gage plagued with problems in disciplining, quartering
& transporting growing number of troops.
 Colonial assemblies required to provide funds to pay for inexpensive goods for soldiers at their boarders.
Later expanded to cover billeting soldiers in taverns & unoccupied houses.
 Applied to all coloines, but effected NY as headquarters of British forces.

Stamp act (1765)

 Grenville introduced Stamp bill, fixed to anything formally written or printed in colonies: Newspapers, legal
documents, insurance policy, tavern & marriage licences. Estimated £60,000 sum for the colonial defence.
 Caused an intense reaction in America, seen as dangerous, unjust & raised issues. Many thought if law
allowed, there would be nothing stopping gov causing more damaging laws.

Colonial reactions:

Stamp act effected everyone universal unlike the sugar act, Newspapers were first to criticise the act, protesting
for it’s repeal. During 1763-4 states set up committees of correspondence keeping states & towns informed of
UK actions. By the end of 1964, 6 states submitted protests to UK (MAS, RI, VIR, CON, NY, NJ)

1965, Virginia resolves in house of burgess passed 5 revolutions, it was rejected but published the next day
regardless: Colonies had the same rights as englishment, colonies only taxed if properly represented, colonies
had to consent to laws & only state legislature had the right to tax.( printed in newspaper denouncing stamp act)

Stampact congress Oct 1765, Massachusetts suggested inter-continental meetings & drafted resolutions
expressing colonials position of denouncing stamp act – subverted rights & liberties of the colonists. 27
delegates from 9 colonies.

Many ppl & pamphlets expressed idea of no taxation without representation. Some feared MPS in parliament
give Uk the right to tax

Popular resistance: Groups of artisan & shop keepers formed loyal 9 by Sam Adams, united unskilled workers
to unite against the act. Attacked property of stamp distributors appointed by parliament. At night crowd tore
down Andrew Oliver’s office & house forcing him to resign. Similar action in 12/13 colonies meaning duties
couldn’t be collected. Mass gov (Bernard) called militia to keep order, Stamp action mollified mob action.

Property attacks on colonial governors, (Thomas Hutchingson) & attacks on wealth & power of hated local
figures. Rich feared stamp act turned attack on preprty. Only Uk army could force authority but no colony called
on troops.
Son’s of Liberty emerged from Feb 1766 as organised group in Mass & spread through other colonies.
Leadership from middle/upperclass society. Large public demonstrations to pressure gov. Called mobs to life,
even so SOL found hard to control. Organisation far from united as fear it would spark a Brit military response.
Limited influence in South.

SOL appealed to public not to buy UK goods in October 1765, leading to merchants in NY to boycott UK goods
which spread across colonies until Stamp Act was repealed.

Stamp Act Repeal: (march 1766) British parliament repealed stamp act as it was unforcable. In July (1765) the
king lost confidence in Grenville & appointed Lord Rockingham taking conciliatory line with colonists. Franklin
was interviewed & stated Americans recognised duties to regulate empire trade (external) but rejected duties for
parliament (internal). Need for military to enforce act ensured it repeal. MP’s shocked at America’s rebellion.

Declaratory act (1766):

Accompanied repeal stamp act. Most Mp’s only voted to repeal Stamp act of fears of Colonies damaging the
economy or encourage rebellion.

Act made colonies subordinate to ‘king, crown & parliament’ & used it to bind the colonies to parliament so they
had full authority.

Most Americans disliked notion of Parliament supremacy, for Uk to make new trade laws. Colonies refused to be
subjects of UK. America realised they had to be violent in the defence of their liberties.

Crisis suggested that Colonial unity could deny British Authoirty, & UK knew they had to assert their authority or
the Colonies would seek independence.

Effects of the Crisis:

News of stamp act repeal was rapturously received. Non-importation was abandoned. SOL disbanded. Most
assemblies sent gratitude to the King. Stamp-act marked curcial turning point in UK-colonial relations. Uk
realised more at stake then revenue, parliaments sovereignty.

The issue was the stamp act & not Uk rule, denying parliament right to tax them, they were denying parliaments
right to govern them.

New York (1766-7): Crisis over quartering act, Gages army kept growing & colonists not happy of paying bills for
maintenance of army in peacetime, quartering troops & army intended to protect all colonies but only NY paid.

When NY assembly refused to contribute to costs of billeting, violence between colonists & soldiers occurred. In
response UK threatened to suspend power of NY assembly if not complied. June 1767, NY submitted & paid.

Townshend Act (1767):

 Britain was back, still needing to raise money from America. Townshend wanted to extract as much as
possible by saying they were external.
 New duties on paint, paper, glass, lead & tea. All enumerated items & had to be imported from UK.
(navigations act) Would only make £40,000 a year.
 Would pay salaries of governors, judges and other colonial officials. A method to control all gov officials in
America.
 Commissioners of custom act – collection of American customs was corrupt, many officers were absentee or
bribed due to low wages. To raise money they needed to tighten the system. Boards of commissioners set
up in Boston, supervised collection of customs.

Passed New York Restraining act (1767): prevented NY legislative assembly action until complied with
quartering act. By suspending the assembly, parliament posed issue of constitutional colony standing. Most
colonies hated notion that UK could change or suspend them at will. NY lacked other colonial support so agreed
to quartering act.
Secretary of State for America (68): All responsibility of governing America was to be managed.

Lord Hillsborough, a hardliner, determined to compel obedience of the colonist, lacking tact & political wisdom. A
decision by him was to remove troops protecting colonies from Indians, western forts abandoned. Troops billeted
in costal towns (met by quatering act) If troops not to protect against Indians then seen as there to destroy
colonist liberties.

Vice Admiralty courts (1768): Prosecution for smuggling unsuccessful. Juries in local court sympathetic to
guilty ppl or unpopular laws. 3 new vice-admiralty courts set up in Philadelphia, Boston, Charlestown. Tightening
of oversea customs collection. Offending ships were sold, preceeded divided between treasury, gov of colony,
custom officer who seized ship.

Townshend act response:

To collect duties correctly a commissioners of customs board set up in Boston and commissioners appointed by
Britain to supervise collection of customs. They were determined to extract as much money from Americans as
possible.

Intellectual response – John Dickinson published letter in Boston newspaper in Feb 1768 encouraging colonist to
unite in their resistance against Britain. – Rare view as colonies saw each other as rivals, also stated Parliament could
regulate trade but couldn’t tax without coloines consent. Many feared they would strengthen executive powers and
make colonial assemblies less accountable.

Resistance developing more slowly as merchants enjoyed period of economic boom but resentment for British laws
were widespread.

Political response: Feb 1768, Massachusetts sent out circular letter denouncing Toweshend duties for violating no
taxation without representation and appealed to other colonies to do the same. Stated only local assemblies had the
right to tax. Britain was furious by the letters and ordered governors to dissolve any assembly supporting the letters.
7 colonies approved of the letter. April NJ assembly dissolved, followed by Virginia. Massachusetts refused to
remove the letter and Gov Bernard dissolved the assembly leading to protest.

1767 -The board of commissioners were targets of violence from Bostonians. Many of the commissioners resigned or
others called in the royal navy because they couldn’t do their job. In 1768, gun warship sailed into Boston and
commissioners tried to seize John Hancocks boat but led to a mob forming leading to a brawl and commissioners
retreated. Boston was declared in state of insurgence. Bernard called for 600 troops which arrived late 1768.

Economic – 1767 – Boston led non consumption agreement which spread across colonies, and many boycotted
British goods. Merchants opposed boycott, by 1769 committees of inspection set up to make sure the boycott was
enforced. Merchants who didn’t comply had warehouses broke into and good damaged. British sales reduced by
2/3.

1769 – Bostinians harassed British troops which were quartered there, off duty soldiers took jobs which increased
tension. Boston newspapers made up brutal stories and the public started to hate on the troops more leading to
frequent brawls between soldiers and Bostonians.

Boston Massacre: 1770, as more troops arrived in Boston, orders to increase action on Massachusetts. Feb 1770, an
11 year old was killed by British Customs official in riot, his funeral turned into political demonstration.

6th March 1770, a detached group of soldiers defending custom officers houses were attacked by a mob hurling snow
balls at troops, under extreme provocation, they opened fire killing 5 Bostonians, Sam Adams gave the impression a
deliberate massacre occurred which most Americans believed. American cause now had fuel.

Repeal of Towshend duties was late March after Boston Masacre, all duties repealed expect for Tea which reminded
Americans, Britain still had right to levy taxes. Quartering act was allowed to lapse too. Followed by a three year
calm period.
Committees Correspondence set up in 1771 by Boston town meeting to communicate grievances throughout the
colony. By 1773 most Massachusetts town had their own and other colonies followed in 1774. They were ready to
set up radical responses in their colonies.
American situation (1770-73): The colonies were far from united as they quarrelled among themselves than
with Britain (this was good for UK) Disputes over land (NY & New Hampshire), tensions over rich & poor. 1768,
movement in NC & SC backwatered farmers protested against corrupt tidewater officials leading to civil war.

Gradually non-importation was abandoned & duties were paid on tax, normal life continued. Many colonists
thought had strong bonds between them & Britain.

1772- Hillsbourough replaced by Dartmouth & parliament announced no intensions of levying taxes. In colonies
agitation against radicals like Sam Adams who lost votes in 1770’s election.

On the other hand, colonies on look out of abuses to their liberties but remained angry at the past. Boston
massacre proof standing arm designed to destroy life & liberties.

Sam Adams held dominance over Massachusetts & in Boston. He revived the Son’s of Liberty, active & powerful
in all colonies but Georgia & New Hampshire

Tea Act (1773): East Indian company was on point of bankruptcy, Uk introduced Tea act so East Indian
Company could sell directly to colonists through it’s own agents, on top Tea duty from Townshend act (collected
when Tea arrived) Tea was so cheap it undermined tea sold legitabmetly in America & those who smuggled it
forcing them out of business.

Seen as another attempt to tax & destruction of independences of their colonial assemblies. Giving East Indian
company monopoly of Tea merchants. Feared prices would rise along with taxes. Act was attacked in newspapers,
NY sent east company tea back to UK, tea agents intimidated into resigning.

Boston Tea Party

In November 1773 the first cargo ship carrying Tea crates entered Boston Harbour, followed by two more boats
arriving on the 2nd and 15th December. On the 16th December 60 Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk Native
Americans boarded the ships and threw 342 tea chest worth £10,000 into the harbour. Huge crowds watched in
silence. The Royal navy commanders in Boston could of ordered war ships to open fire but they didn’t want to
escalate the situation further.

Reaction: UK was outraged by Tea party, confronted with colonial defiance. Lord North took Hard Line approach.

Coercive Act (Intolerable acts: 1774)

Boston Port Act – closed all Boston ports to trade until destroyed Tea had been paid for (just to punish Boston)

Massachusetts Gov act – Governors council appointed by King or Royal Gov – had right to appoint & remove civil
officials & control town meets, no meeting to take place without his consent. Act removed executive powers from
ppl & threatened their freedom.

Quartering act – governor Bernard could quarter troops when he saw fit, raising old issues.

Quebec act – attempt to settle future status of France inhabitants in Canada. Quebec had appointed council to make
laws, boundaries extended to illnoise & Ohio preventing American expansion. Colonies saw this as UK master plan
for colonies, dictatorship.

Gov Hutchingson was replaced by General Gage, supporter of harsh policies who boasted of restoring order in
Massachusetts with military power.

American Reaction:

Coercive acts to isolate & make example of Massachusetts warning other colonies & making them obedient. Most
Americans saw measures a threat to all coloines creating rage as all colonies could be delt like this, a threat to 1 was
a threat to all. (view Uk reducing colonies to state of slavery)
Colonies supported Boston by sending food & money to the towns poor. In 1744 NY followed Boston’s example
finding East Indians companies boat & crowds boarded to the ship & disposing of the Tea.

Economic Response: May 1774 Boston towns meeting asked all colonies to Boycott UK goods until Boston Port act
repealed. Boston Committee corro drafted Solemn league & covenant committing to Brit boycott which colonies
indorsed. Merchants believed do more damage to America.

Within Massachusetts weapons & munitions stockpiled, Militia training became more serious ready to prepare for
military assault.

Political Response: Colonial assemblies, town & country meeting, newpapers denounced actions of UK. Propoganda
by committee of Corrospondence persuaded colonists need for common action to defend American liberties. Royal
governors dissolved assemblies who denounced Coercive acts

May – Virginia house of Burgesses passes resolution denouncing coervice act & appealing support for Boston. 2 days
later Lord Dunmore dissolved the assembly. Later on Virginia assembly members met at Raleigh Tavern in
Williamsburg, this extra-legal body adopted non-importation, non-consumption of Tea. Moto of an attack on sister
colony to submission of tax is an attack on all America.

Summer – 7 other colonies of royal governors who forbid assemblies followed Virginia’s example & set up extra legal
bodies, meeting in open defiance to UK authority & assumed role of government. In some colonies the assemblies
had broader membership than the old.

Royal government collapsing as governors were ignored & committees of self appointed citizens arranged own
government. In Massachusetts gov Gages authority remained in Boston where his troops stationed.

NewsPapers & Pamphlets: 1775 there were 42 colonial newspapers in New England. 40 were radical papers
defending colonial rights. 1774 Thomas Jefferson published summary of British Americans, Uk parliament had no
authority over America. No reason why 150,000 brits had right over millions of Americans. ‘every individual equal’

Newspapers & pamphlets discussed colonial independence. John Adams published essays in Boston Gazette
declaring ‘America is not any part of the UK realm or dominions’

Continental Congress (Sep 1774) : 56 delegates from mostly extra-legal conventions from all colonies but Georgia
sent to Philadelphia to consult upon unhappiness of the colonies. Most important roles in opposition in UK. Divided
between Radicals & Moderates. Radicals dominated.

Suffolk resolves endorsed – declaring Coercive acts null & void calling upon Massachusetts to arm themselves for
defence.

Congress called resolves for non-import, non-export & Non-consumption of all Uk goods starting 1 st Dec (allowing
farmers to sell grown crops) Called to set up continental associations to enforce resolutions until coercive repealed.

October – declaration of rights & grievances set up acknowledging allegiance to crown but denied colonies subject to
Parliament authority, couldn’t enforce tax without colonist consent & proclaimed right of colonial assemblies
determine need for toops & laws from 1763 broke colonial rights.

Had no coercive or legislative authority but was useful unifying purpose. Second congress for May 1775

Trade Boycotts: boosted radical cause encouraging local production & pride in frugality. Most Americans gave up
luxury items returning to simple life - aristocrats changed to be in tune with ordinary Americans

Committees of safety: Late 1774 committee of safety set up across colonies with committees if association ran by
old elite & new, poorer men. Enforced trade boycott, some acted in place of local government. Had considerable
powers, investigated & punished those who broke committee’s rules. 1775, 7000 colonists involved in politics for
first time.

Royal governments broke down & committees of safety took over.

Situation in Massachusetts: Late 1774 Uk authority broke completely. Loyalists were terrorised by mob action &
forced from office. Outside Boston power in hands of Provincial congress diverting money to military resources.
Militia units began for war.

Gage, besieged in Boston, called for extra troops from UK, Lord Dartmouth ordered him to challenge insurgence.

Situation in other colonies: early 1775 most colonies expelled traditional authority & set up extra legal conventions
to arm malitias. Rhode Island & New Hampshire seized canons from UK forces. NY was loyal to UK. Many looked for
reconciliation, only a few wanted independence.

Brit Response: 1774 Gage wrote to Lord North recommending temporary suspension of Coercive act, neither North
or King had intentions of backing down. Norths military measures were lax as they only sent 4000 extra troops to
Boston.

1775, HOC passed resolution declaring Massachusetts in state of rebellion against UK cutting most of New England
off from UK & west Indies By April this was extended to all colonies.

Lexington & Concord April 1775:

General Gage prepared secret expenditure to go to concord & seize stockpiled military stores. Radicals like Paul
Revere found out about the plan and rode ahead. At Lexington 700 Brits soldiers ran into collection of 70 Militia
informed by Paul Revere. 8 colonist died and Britain pushed through to Concord where they met a larger Malitia
force, Britain failed to arrest rebels and capture the ammunition and weapons as they were moved. On the way back
British were harassed by colonial fire on way back to Boston.

Events turned political disputes into military struggle

2nd Continental Congress May 1775:

Met 10th May in Philadelphia & started to prepare for war as fighting started in early 1775. 65 delegates attended
from all 13 colonies. Took responsibility for army around Boston and raised Continental army and put quota on each
colony to raise 20,000 men. George Washington was appointed leader of Continental army. They needed a south
commander to keep south involved in war which was predominately North.

Reconciliation effort:

Many reluctant for Congress to take national gov role. July 1775 Olive Branch petition adopted by Congress which
begged King George not to take hostile measures so reconciliation could be worked out. The King declined to hear an
appeal of an illegal body which was waging war against him. The King ordered a proclamation that America was in a
state of rebellion which should be supressed. A blockade began on America making trade with her illegal.

Bunkers Hill June 1775

May 1775 British generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne arrived in Boston with thousands of reinforcements. Gage
had 6500 men. In June Americans wanted to occupy Bunkers Hill which commanded Boston. A rebel force of 1500
men marched to Breed’s Hill by mistake. Howe launched an attack on rebels managing to dislodge them but lost over
1000 of his men. American casualties were less.

Washington: Washington took command of continental army in July 1775, with only 1500 poorly trained, equipped,
disciplined troops for duty. Army had fewer than 50 canons, hardly any powers, few gunners and lacked milliatry
order. Officers failed to inspect troops, provide food or check quarters. Washington trained the militia forced into a
professional army against Britian. He set up imperative and distinctive ranks, curbing democratic incompetent
officers. Washington imposed discipline.

Washington was eager to take Boston but discouraged by fear of the towns destruction. Along with Britain
fortification and their own shortages. By winter troops suffered from typhoid fever and their ranks fell in numbers
that Britian could overpower them. Howe in October did nothing giving Americans time to gain numbers consolidate
elsewhere while Howe kept locked up in Boston.
Invasion of Candida. Sep-Dec 1775

In 1775, Congress wanted to invade Canada hoping French would join rebels and weaken Britian. In Sep 1775, 2
expeditions set out to Montreal & Quebec.

Montgomery with 1200 men advanced through waterway, while Benedict Arnold marched through Maine to meet
with Montgomery to attack Quebec. Althought wasting time capturing other forts, Montgomery captured Montreal
with 150 men in November. In December he joined Arnold who reached Qubec with 700 hungry and sick men. Since
enlistments expired at the end of the year. The assault on 31st December ended badly, in a snowstorm facing 1800
French Canadian men. Montgomery was killed, Americans suffered from lack of supplies and from Smallpox and
deserted.

War of the South;

Dunmore with 500 Loyalists & assistance of warships launched raids on Virginia costal town in Nov 1775, he issued
proclamation promosing freedom to any slave who flees rebel master and supports British war effort. This was hated
by white southerners solidifying rebel support in Virginia.

By late 1775 Gov Dunmore suggested operation by minimal British forces & loyalist could end rebellion in Carolinas
and Georgia. NC starting point, backwater settlers hated Tidewater elites and were ready to support the British, but
the Carolina loyalists acted too quickly and were fired upon at Moores creek in 1776. General Clinton sailed south
from Boston in Feb 1776 and found little support along North Carolina coast, sailed north to south Carolina
attempting to take Charlestown but failed.

Evacuation of Boston. Early 1776

Washington could finally besiege Boston with help from Henry Knox with artillery from Ticonderoga which was
transported by sledges, boats and wagons to Boston. On March, 1700 strong rebels captured Dorchester heights
overlooking Boston exploiting British Weakness. On 17th March Howes army and 1000 loyalists evacuated Boston and
sailing to Halifax.

Declaration of Independence: 2nd July 1776

Only a few radical Americans talked of independence until early 1776. Still saw themselves as Britons over sea.
Cutting political, economic and emotional ties with Britain was not easy. Not all Americans think independence was
their best interest. A large minority remained loyal to Britain. Others fought for colonial rights but insisted that they
remained loyal to the crown hoping for royal reconciliation.

By early 1776 it was clear reconciliation would not happen; King George was bent on American subjection, Several
months of fighting (Lexington&Concord, Bunkers Hill, Invasion of Canada and Evacuation of Boston) weakened
American-Britain ties.

Southern support for the radicals increased when Governor Dunmore offered slaves their freedom. Political tide
moved towards independence and now Americans were sure Parliament and the crown were trying to destroy
American Liberties.

Royal governments started to break down in America and Congress called for any colony without a government to
set an appropriate (Radical) one as quickly as possible. If war was to be won then order had to be maintained.

Common Sense – Thomas Paine

The pamphlet Common Sense developed the mood for independence. It was an best seller, selling 1200 copies and
had greatest influence in 1770’s. Protestant ministers read it aloud in New England, calling the King and ‘Royal
Brute’. The pamphlet argued against monarchy as a form of government and set up the mood for colonial
independence and their own government. Putting issue of independence on Congress’ agenda. Paine also argued to
win a war without Britain they needed help from France and Spain and they weren’t willing to help if the breach
between Britain and America weren’t locked with independence.
Congress & Independence in 1776

Congress already acted like an independent government. 1775 created the continental army and a continental
currency, followed by a colonial post office. 1776, an privateering resolution allowed individuals to arm vessels to
cruise on the enemies of ‘These United Colonies’. Following in April Congress declared American ports open defying
Britain who declared a royal proclamation to shut American ports.

Congress had no legal authority as they hadn’t declared independence they acted like an independent government
even if Congress was only set up to co-ordinate radical protests.

Problems with independence; had to be unanimous. The delegates of Continental congress didn’t have the
authority of their colonies to vote independence. A major push for independence was foreign assistance, in Nov
1775 committee of secret correspondence sent a diplomate to France to gain military support. America alone had no
chance against Britain, France were unlikely to help just mere rebels.

In April more local authorities urged Congress to declare independence. Rhode Island went independent before
Congress by removing mentions of the King from their charter.

In May, Virginia ordered their delegate to support independence but Pensylvania, Delaware, NJ, NY & Maryland
refused. Richard Lee introduced to congress resolutions stating that united colonies had the right to be free &
independent. Even though moderates gave up on reconciliation Congress was not ready for independence. A
committee of 5 set up drafting the declaration which was presented in June by Thomas Jefferson.

In June Delaware ordered their delegate to support independence, NJ the Governor was ousted and a new delegate
was sent to congress to support independence, Pennsylvania and Maryland’s local authority was overturned by
radical committee’s of safety issuing their delgates to vote independence.

On 2nd July 12/13 colonies voted independence, all except NewYork who abstained due to Britain military force in
New York. The declaration of Independence was proclaimed on 4th of July.

What extent was Uk to blame for USA Independence?

 After 1763 Uk ministers attempted to squeeze money from the colonies.

 1764, 65, 67 & 73 Uk tried to force power over colonies first declaration act, other three were responses from
confrontation & Britain backed down twice, repealing stamp act & Townshend giving into USA pressure, Uk
undermined it’s exercise of power over colonies
 After Boston Tea Party, North stood firm expecting that a show of force would put Massachusetts in line. Uk
however had little forces to suppress the rebels.

Defence of UK:

 UK didn’t know colonists would rebel against the nation which nurtured their liberties.
 UK demonised by colonies without a good cause. Notion parliament reducing colonies to state of slavery was
nonsense with exception of Townshend duties, UK not want to diminish American liberties.
 Parliament was empires supreme governing body, if it was sovereign it had to tax, giving in that power was to
give up its supremacy.
 UK determination to hold onto colonies understandable due to their market & valued resources.

British Strengths American Strengths

8 million ppl, American 2.5 ppl 500,000 slaves. Committed to glorious cause.
Most Brits favoured war Continental army really small, Militia turned out in large
Support of 500,000 loyalists & native Americans numbers in areas of conflict & served as political police
Britain had 50,000 strong army hired 18,000 hessian intimidating loyalists.
troops Over 100,000 Americans served in Malitia.
Royal navy od over 300 ships ruled waves, naval Congress & states commissioned about 200 privateers
supremacy allowed Brit to reinforce & supply forces, which inflicted heavy damage on Brit merchant ships.
move men along America, Blockade & attack ports
(most Americans lived by seaboards)
 Had financial & manufacturing strength
New secetary of stats Germaine organised effective war
effort
Bases close to America; Canada, India, Nova Scota

British Weakness American Weakness

Fighting war 3000 miles from home, took troops, Lack of unity, most states remained separate to guard
supplies 2-3 months to cross atlantic, by the time they their own interests.
arrived situation of war could of changed. Had to build an army from scratch, some states slow to
Wage war in huge, unfriendly territory was tricky, co- fill their quota of troops, army only enlisted for short
ordinating land & sea operation difficult. time. Never exceeded 20,000 men. Hardly had 5,000.
Terrain & supply problem made it hard for UK troops to State militia was less impressive fighting force, enrolled
go more than 15 miles from navigable rivers. for only few weeks & went home before term expired.
Presence of Hessian troops, gaining reputation of America had no navy, eventually 50 vessels
rapacy, turning neutral colonists against UK. commissioned into continental army, most merchant
Natives pushed Americans to patriots. ships, not war ships. (no threat).
Uk martial law to seize supplies, accommodation for Lacked effective gov, adopted articles of confederation
troops alienated friendly Americans. in 78, but had limited powers as central gov, could
make war but not wage it.
Economy disrupted; demands of army & blockade left
shortage of goods, troops short of munition, arms &
uniform.
Congress couldn’t levy taxes or finance war, only
printed war leading to inflation.

British Strategy: Troops faced generally hostile population, relying on UK for it’s supplies, army put in garrison to
protect American ports, limited troops for field operations. No political or economic centre for armies to capture as
Congress just moved.

Occupation of territory brought no advantage, when Brits moved rebels flared up their rear. Seaboard strategy
favoured; gaining American ports & blockading rest of the coast, minimise problems of fighting inland but would
betray loyalist support, pressing for speedy UK victory.

Destruction of congress important task, military success to restore UK rule, but reconciliation with Americans. Taking
control of colonies & restoring them to royal would take army to maintain order. Larger tax burdens which would
cause more problems.

American Strategy: Could fight guerrilla war, war of posts by serial of tactical engagements & withdrawal to were
enemy down or adopt offensive by confronting Brit army with entire CA.

Washington rejected Guerrilla warfare as it alone would not defeat UK, sticking to European warfare. War of Posts
showed Uk supremacy & sacrifice land which would damage American morale & encourage loyalists.

Loyalists: War put Americans against Americans. John Adams estimated 1.3 population rebels, another 1/3 loyalist &
last were neutral. Majority of Americans not support rebellion, by 1783, 19,000 Americans enlisted in Brit Army.

Loyalists from all ranks of society, strong links to Uk. Minority groups with little in common with majority patriots.
Mostly in Southern & middle colonies, majority in NY. Many African Americans supported UK in promises of
freedom. Uk made more military use of black ppl but leaders not aware recruitment of slaves jeopardising white
support.

Loyalist Problems: Varied background & motivation of loyalists meant not coherent opposition to patriots. Patriots
fighting for independence & republican government while loyalists didn’t have cause. Not organised on national lvl.
Relied on Uk to give leadership & protection.

Loyalists actions required British troops presence, when troops departed loyalists exposed to wrath of Patriots,
during war tens of thousands imprisoned, lost land, property & lives
Impact of General Howe

Howe was sympathetic to the Americans, and fond of them and didn’t fight with as much determination as he could
which would have won Britain the war. By 1776 he commanded 32,000 men, the largest oversea expedition of the
time. After withdrawing from Halifax in 1776, he planned an assault on New York. His army landed on Satan Ireland
in July, wanting to lure Washington out defeat his army and negotiate peace.

Battle of New York August 1776

Washington with 20,000 men should have abandon New York as Britain had control of the sea and it was
indefensible (being Britain’s military fortress.) Washington had to fight, Congress insisted he did so. At the Battle of
Long Island Howe defeated the Americans with 2000 casualties, six times the amount of the British. Due to Howes
not reacting, Washington managed to withdraw his men under a dense layer of fog to the mainland.

Howe seeked to negotiate peace with Congress representatives, however Howe wasn’t authorised to discuss a treaty
between America and Britain.

In mid-sep, Howe’s troops landed at Kips Bay in Manhattan, between two halves of Washington’s army. Howes
caution again gave Washington time to withdraw his troops leading to several weeks of stalemate. Washington
withdrew across New Jersey and Howe’s forces capture Fort Washington taking 3000 American prisoners and a large
quantity of weapons. Many Militia headed home and Washington’s numbers dropped to 3000 men.

Trenton and Princeton:

Instead of marching on Philadelphia for his taking, Howe went into winter quarters throwing away an opportunity to
destroy American morale. This gave Washington time to regroup. Reinforced by Militia units Washington crossed the
Delaware river with 1600 men on 25th December. He led an unsuspected attack on a group of troops at Trenton on
26th capturing over 1000 prisoners following it up with similar attack on Princeton on 3 rd January in 1777, due to
these attack Howe lost gains in New Jersey.

Washington changes strategy:

Over winter of 1777 Washington accepted that he must adopt a more defensive strategy and that he couldn’t win a
war by risking his entire army against Britain as they weren’t on equal footing. He turned to more guerrilla warfare
by harassing British troops whenever possible. Howe had more men than Washington but Washington was ready to
preserve his army.

Valley Forge:

Army of 14,000 forced into huts through terrible winter. Soldiers hardly had clothes & provisions. Army grew sick
with fatigue.

1/5 soldiers had no shoes, no clean water. Washingtons leadership put unruly soldiers into line, army then faced
small pox which spread through British prison ships. 4/10 victims died.

Small Pox went through Valley Forge, Washington ordered puss from small pox victim to be rubbed into blood
stream of healthy soldier & the immune system would fight the weak virus off. 1/50 from inoculation died.

Ate fire cake (water & flour)

Saratoga – Sep 1777

Burgoyne determined to press on Albany, but the American were ready for him. General Gates became leader of the
Northern forced replacing an unpopular general. Aided by Benedict Arnold, Gates prepared defensive strategy’s
North of Albany. Success in Trenton and Princeton encouraged New England Militia to join gates. By mid September
he had 7000 men along with Burgoyne.

The two forces clashed on Freemans farm, failing to defeat the rebels Burgoyne realised his vulnerability, 200 miles
from Canada and short of supplies facing a growing continental army. News Clinton was pushing north from New
York gave him hope. Clinton left late and capture forts in NewYork high land.

In October Burgoyne attacked Americans at Bemis heights, failed losing 400 men, Americans only 150. Burgoyne
retreated to Saratoga where he was surrounded by twice as many troops, his troops were ordered to surrender.
Congress rejected Gates terms to march to Boston and leave and the British were held as prisoners of war.

Results: A morale boosters as it was Americans first great campaign defeating Britian. Howe resigned hearing
Burgoyne’s surrender. In 1778, London sent representatives to Paris to seek peace negotiation and repealed coercive
acts however the stumbling block was American Independence. The result was Spain and France joining the war.

French Intervention:

Waiting Joining
 France was Catholic & absolutist system of Gov  Gov saw an opportunity to avenge the humiliating 7
 French King Louis XVI had no love for rebellions yrs war & weaken British power.
 Kind withheld formal recognition of US  Ready to supply USA with gun power, arms &
independence when war in doubt. encourage army officials
 Treasury stated to avoid war at all costs  Congress sent Benjamin Franklin to Paris in 1776 &
 Waiting for naval preparations won French admiration
 Purely for political reasons.  Saratoga ended French fear of USA collapse
 Waiting to join war for all navy preparations but
Saratoga wiped out last fears
 Signed 2 treaties – commercial agreement &
defencive alliance (waging war against UK until USA
independence

Consequences of other nations joining the War of Independence:

Political Practical Military

 Spain only joined as an ally of  USA became a sideshow for Uk  French intervention aroused
France as they focused on France war effort in UK which US
 To regain the lands they lost to (population of 25 million) 2X rebellion did not. 1782 Uk had
UK; Florida, Minorca, Jamacia amount of UK. 150,000 troops, 600 ships.
 1780- UK declared war on  France had 150,000 strong army  After France joining Uk couldn’t
Netherlands for aiding France & & constructed fleet which put all military resources in
Spain attempted to challenge the UK America
 1780 – Russia, Sweden & naval supremacy  1778 65% Uk army, 41% ships in
Denmark formed Leauge of  Fear of French invasion along USA. 1780 only 29% troops, 13%
armed neutrality – protection of with defending other colonies ships.
neutral rights due to UK  UK financial & military strength
blockade of USA. Prussia, ensured it had edge over
Portugal, Austria joined in 81 Europe & continue war in USA
bolstering USA status.  USA benefitted from additional
 UK had to defend Minorca assistance in arms, material &
possession in Africa, India & money.
west Indies.
Capture of Philadelphia: (1777)

Howe moved 15,000 strong army by sea towards Philadelphia in July. September, Howe defeated Washington at
Brandy wine creek where he lost 1200 men & British 600. Howe allowed Washington to retreat missing another
chance to destroy him

Howe captured Philadelphia on 26th September, seen as a major triumph, but Philadelphia’s fall did not lead to
rebellions collapse. It had no strategic value, Congress simply moved to Lancaster, as long as Washington
commanded army, the rebellion was alive.

Washington’s Problems

Congress started to fear Washington’s lack of abilities compared to general Gates and many started to question his
Military abilities. In 1778 Washington’s fortunes began to mend, his army increased to 12,000 men and was re-
equipped. A Germany soldier helped ensure that his soldiers were better trained and by 1778 he was surrounded by
Military experts who had much experience and trained his soldiers to become those blooded in combat.

American Problems 1779-81

Troops started to desert or refused to re-enlist which stopped Washington from taking the offensive position.
Popular enthusiasm for the war diminished, Washington’s winter encampment was worse than Valley Forge. Death
and desertion left his army from 12,000 to 8000 who weren’t even fit for duty. In 1780 Benedict Arnold turned to
fight for the British side symbolising the crumbling of American morale.

In 1780, a French Army of 6000 troops landed in Rhode Island but achieved little while the French fleet remained in
the Caribbean.

War in the West

Radical conflict between white settlers and Native Americans. Most of the Natives fought alongside Britain wanting
to drive back American settlers. Britain hoped that Native forced would sent American reinforcements west however
Native Americans were unreliable and the savage attacks turned loyalists and neutrals against Britain making them
more patriotic.

Southern phase 1778-81

Britain turned to South colonies where they thought were large numbers of loyalists capturing Georgia and fighting
northwards. In late 1778 Clinton with 3000 men captured Savanah taking 500 American prisoners. Commander
prohibited ill-treatment of Georigans, who flocked to loyalist militia. However Georgians population remained
divided.

Cornwallis with 7600 men besieged Charlestown forcing American troops to surrender and taking 5000 British
Prisoners, over 300 artillery pieces and 6000 muskets. Worst American loss in the whole war. British forces moves
into South Carolina, the warfare in SouthCarolina was more savage as 350 troops died. Most of South Carolina took
an oath to the King, as Clinton proclaimed those males who didn’t support Britain would be treated as rebels making
neutrality impossible. Clinton headed back to New York.

Cornwallis had support from coastal towns of South Carolina for North Carolina was won by Patriorts. Gates led an
army of over 3000 troops into South Carolina but was defeated. Cornwallis began to invade North Carolina in 1780
and was harassed by militia forces and South Carolina rose against him. October 1000 loyalist militia was wiped out
by Patriots at Kings Moutain and Cornwallis returned south. Over 1780-81 Loyalist and Patriot Militia turned the
backcountry to wasteland of slaughter. Cornwallis had to protect British gain in the south relying on loyalists but
they were useless as they depended on British military support.
York Town – April 1780- May 1781

Cornwallis headed North to Virginian arriving May. Cornwallis arrived with an army of 8000 men leading to many
men proclaiming support for Britain. Many Virginians wanted to drive out the British. Cornwallis moved towards the
Sea wanting to construct a naval base in Yorktown, could be supplied by the Royal navy causing some serious
damage to Virginia. However French fleet arrived in American waters led by Admiral Grasse and British didn’t send
enough ships to deal with the threat.

In May 1881 Washington learned Grasse’s fleet was on it’s way, he wanted to use French and American forced to
attack Newyork however Roachambea (French Officer) suggested Cornwallis as a target. In a well-timed operation,
led by Washington, the combined French American army of 16,000 reached Virginia in Sep 1881 confronting
Corwallis who had 8000 men. The late British fleet gave French control of Chesapeake bay. Delay from sending a
relief army from Clinton sealed his fate. By Oct Cornwallis and his army were surrounded and short of supplies, after
a 3 week siege his 8000 strong army surrendered.

The Result of Yorktown.

Cornwallis’ surrender was ashock to Britain but it didn’t mean an end of the war as Britain still held New York and
Savannah and had 30,000 troops in America. Washington wanted to co-ordinate an attack on Charlestown but
French fleet sailed for the West Indies. Yorktown ended British operations in America and the public and parliament
were thinking of ending the war.

Peacemaking:

A new Pm took over Lord North who wanted peace, John Jay and John Adams entered talks with Britain, the Pm
wanting to be generous to them. They were suspicious of British motives but also sceptical of French supporting
Spanish claims to the Trans-Appalachian regions America wanted. America and Britain signed a negotiated peace
treaty late 1782 and the treaty of Paris signed by Spain, France, America, Britain and Netherlands in Sep 1783.

Treaty of Paris:

Britain recognised American independence and agreed to extend their boundaries west to the Mississippi river. USA
agreed that British Merchants should meet with no confrontation when seeking to recover their pre-war debts and
that Congress recommend states to restore loyalist property. America saw this as a massive victory especially the
extension to Mississippi river. British Pm thought the sacrifice was worthwhile hoping that a generous peace would
lay a foundation for anglo-American commercial alliance

British Failure American Success

 British Leadership – Norths government made  USA endeavour – 200,000 men fought at various
miscalculations & overestimated loyalist support times in CA
 Lack of UK diplomacy to stop foreign intervention.  USA lost 0.29% of their population, when UK
 Have good generals (Lord Sandwich & Germain) captured towns & left they reverted patriot cause
 Howe too cautious, missing opportunities to  Washington leadership – difficult role as CA short of
destroy USA in 76-77 supplies, 1/3 deserted but Wash kept up quality &
 Lack of communication in UK navy & military improved army.
 Employing Hessian troops alienated USA & were  Dealing with Host & state officials plus congress
not committed to the war took skill & tact
 5000 hessians deserted & produced a 1/3 of UK  Attack on Trenton & Yorktown showed efficiency &
strength in 78. daring
 Lack of loyalist support, UK mainly offended  Kept army going through dark days.
neutrals or let down loyalists  CA withstood defeat & privations becoming
reasonable fighting force.
 Militia served useful purpose as occupied most
country, not occupied by UK
 USA diplomat Franklin helped bring European aid.
New national Government: Articles of Confederation (1776 -1789)

Americans were sceptic of a national authority after the collapse of Royal governors & the outbreak of war.

Formation of a national congress (1776) directed the war effort & announced independence on 4 th July & drafted
the articles of a new national government.

 Congress would act as a central body (legislator) each state would have 1 vote regardless of size/population.
 State delegations consisted of 2-7 ppl. Congressmen elected annually & limited to 3 terms in 6 yrs.
 Crucially Congress had no power to levy taxes, regulate trade or enforce financial requisitions.
 No provision for National executive or National judiciary.
 Congress could declare war, raise an army or navy. Borrow & issue money, conclude treaties & alliances. Deal
with issues among states, settle boundary disputes, regulate Natives affairs, and make requisitions on states for
money. Set standards for weight & height.
 Important treaties needed approval of at least 9 states.
 Articles couldn’t be amended without consent of 13 states.
 All powers not in the confederation were reserved to the states

Colonies to states:

States favoured republicanism (popular sovereignty) ‘the public good or the good of the whole’ form of gov by the
consent of the governed. States became more democratic as policies were passed against UK tyrants.

Congress called on all states without a ‘popular sovereignty’ assembly to form a new constitution to regain law &
order fearing spread of civil disobedience. 11 states created new constitution (except RI & Connecticut who removed
mention of King) protecting their liberties & state interests.

States had separation of powers (separating executive, judiciary & legislator)

Was the Confederacy a national government?

YES NO
 Raise an army & Navy  Heavily rely on state help for treaties (9/13 to
 Elections & voting for state, which has annual ratify)
elections  Can’t Tax states to afford army or anything else
 Joint parliament, including financial office, foreign  Congress is debarred from taking any powers than
policy & military officials those set out in the agreement
 Guarantee free movement between states  Congress had no means of enforcing its decisions;
 Perpetual union between states it’s funds & army supplied by state legislatures
 Provide for extradition fugatives  Printed money to afford the war leading to inflation

National Gov Problems:

 No powers to impose tax. Had to pay for war by issuing money (inflation), leaning on states to provide money;
states had their own financial issues & couldn’t provide enough.
 Congress bankrupt, required states to agree to a new federal currency. The plan failed & by 1781 no effective
national currency
 Confederation established by the state & not the ppl; no element of direct popular election. War was a powerful
unifier; peace diminished the unifier of the union
 Congress was a gathering; only barely had enough people to sign the treaty of Paris. Some would not turn up to
congress sessions if had something better to do.
 Nature of America:
Were more politically conscious after war, idea of Republicism gave the gov authority & legitimacy

Elitists VS Democrates:
Elitists: Often men who led assemblies, thought Gov should maintain liberties & preserve order. Feared too
much democracy might generate unstable GOV. Led to republics where ppl used power to elect best man to
govern & standing aside to let them do so.

Gov should be along the lines:

 Franchise limited to property
 High qualifications for office holdings
 Right to vote would be held infrequently
 Two-housed legislature, one representing the people, the other the elite.
 Governors would have wide powers

Democrats: Often men from humble backgrounds.

They tended to favour:

 Broad Franchise (although not suggested giving to women or slaves)

 No – or low property qualification for office holding
 Frequent elections
 One housed legislature; no need for second chamber of aristocrats
 Weak executive

Elite Vs New Men:

In most states the new arrangements hardly models of democracy. Constitution reflected 18 th century belief of
political rights confided to property owners. A man without property not sufficiently independent to be trusted with
political power. Property qualifications restricted electorate but in some states so high exclude all but very wealthy.
IN SC & Virginia elite retained their power.

Suffrage was widened further nearly all states reduced property qualifications for voting. Because more state
governors become more responsive to popular opinion. New office holdings created vacancies for new men of
modest means. With enlargement of legislators & better representation in districts

State legislators changed significantly after 1775, previously would vote representative from the rich. By 1783
proportion of men from old elite families in legislatures dropped to 22%. Farmers & artisans consisted of majority in
some Northern legislatures & sizable minority in South Use to only make up 1/5. Wealthy dominated politics but
ordinary folk had greater voice.

Cosmopolitans Vs Localists:

Assumption main divide in American politics between rich & the many. Main claimed primary division between
agrarian-localist interests & commercial Cosmopolitan interests on the other.

In North Cosmopolitan came from commercial areas. In south they were large property owners. Most lived along
navigable rivers, connections in towns with large-scale commerce were wealthy & had wide interests, experiences &
broader outlook. Welcomed activities of Gov & supported conservative monetary policies.

Localists were predominantly rural & owned small properties living in remote areas & had narrow intellectual,
economic & social horizons. Suspicious of Gov, banking & urban interests.

No party system in place by Mid 1780’s & very little orchestrated campaigning.
Economic impact of the war:

Negative Positive
Areas experienced military operations suffered. Freed from constraints of navigations act, could export
Property destroyed or stole by troops from both side directly to European Markets

Large numbers of American merchant ships seized by Privateering was risky but very profitable for some
Royal Navy. towns & individuals. Privateers captured British vessels
worth about £18 mill
American trade devastated by British Blockade and fact
American was no longer part of mercantilist system. Reduction in imports of manufactures goods from UK
Tabaco production reduced to 1/3 pre war lvls. stimulating effect on American iron, textile, paper,
property & shoe making.
New England fishing industry destroyed
Military boosted domestic production of Uniform,
Hyper-inflation resulted of shortage of goods & vast munitions & guns
printing of money
Farmers outside war zones profited from selling to
Military requisitions of wagons disrupted internal various armies.
transport.
British held areas experienced booms during war,
Plantation economies of Southern states disrupted by especially NY
flight of slaves seeking UK protection.
Some traders won contracts for military supplies which
made huge profits

Strength of Economy:

 Balance of payments (money going in & out of country via trade)

 Balance of payment surplus (more money going into country than going out – good)
 Balance of payment deficit – USA currently spending more money on buying good products abroad (largely UK)
than other countries spending on American goods (bad)
 High lvls of debt – most counties had debt, but became problems if excessive payments & interest payments
can’t be made.
 Excessive inflation: If no goods being produces to meet demand, the price will go up.
 If money is printed (becoming more common) it loses its value meaning investors don’t want to buy it.

Impact of War on slavery

Prior to 1775, most white colonists had taken slavery for granted as part of natural social order but the revolutionary
war challenged the belief of slavery mostly because the heart of revolution was the belief of Human liberty. In the
declaration of independence it declared all men were equal. 1/6 men in America were slaves.

Slavery during the war

Some slaves saw the war as an opportunity for freedom, black males willing to align with whichever side offered best
chance for freedom. Most fled to the British, when Washington banned all black men from the Continental army
endorsed by the Continental congress in 1775 and Lord Dunmore offered proclamation of freedom if slaves fled their
rebel owners and fought for Britain – they became loyalists.

Thousands, about 1/6 slaves in Virginia fled to the British who welcomed them and employed them as servants and
labourers. At the end of the War Britain transported 20,000 black loyalists out of America who were either resettled
in West Indies, absorbed into the British army and 3000 were given land and freedom.
Some slaves fought for the New England militia in times of crisis. By 1777 Washington and Congress allowed black
people into the continental army only due to chronic manpower shortages. They expected their freedom in
exchange for service.

Northern opposition to Slavery

Before war some white Americans, denounced slavery. In 1771, Massachusetts banned slave trade. Rhode Island and
Connecticut followed in 1774. As the revolutionary war heightened so did the principles of equality and anti-slave
movements began. Banning slavery in the North was easy as only 3% of population was slaves & 6% in middle
colonies. 1780 Pennsylvania gave gradual freedom to slaves when they became adults followed by Rhode Island and
Connecticut. By 1783 Massachusetts banned slave trade, as their constitution said all men were free and slaves sort
their freedom.

In New York and New Jersey, opposition to slave banning was so strong nothing was done until 1799.

Situation in South

9% of slaves lived in the south, most Southerners wanted to maintain slavery, they were seen as an instrument to
increase productivity and keep them ‘in their place’. Anti-slavery movements had little impact in the south. The most
significant changed was 1783 manumission laws which allowed people to free slaves, some planters inspired by
revolutionary ideology took advantages of these laws to free their slaves.

In Virginia between 1782-1810 the number of free black people increased to 30,000.

Virginia and Maryland banned slave trade by 1783 for economic reasons more than revolutionary liberty so that the
prise of their slaves would rise due to less of them being imported.

Free Black people

In 1790, there were 60,000 free black people in USA. Most white notherns held similar racist attitudes to the
southerners. Black people in North and South suffered from discrimination and segregation. Black people set up
their own cultural life forming own volunteer groups and churches.

Impact of War on status of women:

Women of all races and classes endured hardship during the war. Some were homeless, some were raped and many
lost loved ones. The war presented opportunities to exercise greater control over their lives. Over 20,000 women
served as cooks, laundresses and prostitutes for the army. Women replaced absent husbands as heads of
households. Women started to read newspapers and discussed politics and ensured their daughters had the best
education. However the revolution didn’t effect women too much as after the war they were expected to return to
the domestic sphere; homemaking, childcaring, feeding and caring for families. Women remained in a subordinate
position.

Impact on War for Native Americans.

Relations between Native Americans and white settlers had most radical change from the war. In 1784 Americans
started to conclude treaties with Natives to take their land. The new Republic had no sympathy for the Natives, and
the Natives didn’t have the same rights and privileges as Americans.

How revolutionary was the war of Independence:

More egalitarian society Wasn’t as revolutionary as people thought

Two states forbade the creation of noble titles, many Virtually all American leaders accepted class
states prohibited hereditary office holding. distinctions as natural & inevitable. Made no attempt to
redistribute wealth or promote social equality
New men of lower class sat in state legislatures.
Challenged social & political supremacy of old elite. Social classes not change in sig ways. Except for loyalist
Believed entitled to their share in direction of the component, old colonial aristocracy survived war intact
 nation that they were helping to create & demand their Most states the general pattern of land holdings
interests to be considered even if conflicted with the remained unchanged, high property qualifications
rich. Sig realignment of relation between elite & New which would exclude all but wealthiest.
men with latter showing less deference to their betters
Indentured servants were declining before the war.
Many Americans officers in both Continental army &
militia units as result or merit not status. War had a limiting effect on slaves & women.

Outward marks of defence disappeared. Republicanism America had been & remained a land of self sufficient
meant less ceremony in law courts. Judges no longer farmers.
wore wigs & scarlet robes in English fashion.

Western expansion of Appalachians created

opportunity for landless Americans to acquire farms.

Some Northern states abolished slavery - In 1771,

Massachusetts banned slave trade. Rhode Island and
Connecticut followed in 1774. 1780 Pennsylvania gave
gradual freedom to slaves when they became adults
followed by Rhode Island and Connecticut

Servants almost disappeared as result of war. Many

gained freedom through military service while
immigration traffic as labour ceased due to war

Economic problems facing the Confederation 1781-1787

Economy suffered from destruction of war and separation with Britain and its mercantilist system. Economic
difficulties were due to large imports of British goods after 1783. Between 1784-86 Congress imported over £7
million British goods, selling less than 1/3 in return. American debt and flow of gold to meet trade deficit caused
slower reocvery. Prices were depressed, private and public indebt were heavy and trade was chaotic.

Control over trade were left to states. Massachusetts tried to prevent dumping of British goods in America, New
Hampshire supported. Many states wanted the articles amended so Congress could regulate international and
American trade. Rivalry as North & Middle states for mercantile and industrial interests wanted protective tariffs
while Agricultural south wanted free trade.

Population rose to 4 million by 1790, Prospect of Western expansion was a bonus, new markets available in Europe
and Far East, British trading restrictions were now longer there and could trade directly to West Indies, barriers to
international trade were dismantled.

Financial issues:

Congress was unable to pay for their soldiers, Army officers pressed for back pay and half pay pensions, by June 1783,
Soldiers surrounded Pennsylvania state house and forced a humiliated congress to abandon Philadelphia.

The Confederation inherited a worthless currency and huge debts. In 1783 national debt was $41 million; foreign
debt $8 million and domestic debt $33 million

1781, Bankruptcy averted by the wealth of Robert Morris who was appointed superintendent of finance, he was a
Philadelphia merchant who made huge profits in the war and used his money to meet expenses. Morris wanted a
strong national government with powers to; set up a national bank, secure control of public credit and levy
important duties.

Morris set up a bank of North America hoping it would become a national bank servicing outstanding loans of the
government and affording it credit. His hopes collapsed when the government severed connection with the bank in
1784.
Morris wanted the gov to take control of public debt so congress could they could tax to raise money. The states
refused and preferred to take responsibility for paying their own debt help by citizens instead of responding to
congress. By 1786 most states had inherited majority of national debt. This was a blow to congress meaning little
justification for seeking enlarged financial powers.

By 1786 Congress levied $15million but only been paid $2.5 from states. The states which failed to meet their quota
couldn’t be forced to do so. The only independent source of income for congress was the sale of western land which
collected $760,000 before 1788.

The state governments imposed heavy taxes to reduce their war debts. By 1783. The paper continental currency had
ceased to circulate and some states stopped issuing it. Lacking coin money to pay taxes or debt debtors demanded
increase of paper money. Most creditors opposed this as it would lead to inflation and economic unstabability. By
late 1780’s, debtors winning political control and seven states were still issuing paper money.

Rhode Island made paper money a legal tendency and compelled creditors to accept it. Value of Rhode Island
currency decreased and creditors fled the state avoiding accepting it. This showed Republicanism led to anarchy.

Social Tensions:

The financial tensions of 1780’s resulted in Social tensions. In September 1786 governor of New Hampshire called
out 2000 militia to disperse of several hundred farmers threatening legislative assemblies for breaking promise on
issuing paper money. Situations like this spread to many of the states.

Massachusetts state legislature rejected the demand for paper money and insisted that tax is paid by scarce species.
Many farmers who couldn’t pay their taxes lost their land and some imprisoned.

By summer 1786 rioting mobs preventing courts from hearing debt cases. By Autumn the riots found a leader, Daniel
Shay, a bankrupt farmer who was a captain in the war. In Jan 1787 Shay led rebels to the federal arsenal in
Springfield. The rebels were dispersed by 1000 militia and by feb the insurgence was put down. Shays rebellion
alerted conservatives throughout America that anarchy loomed and a stronger national government was needed.

Foreign Policy;

Britain clung to forts in the south west after promising to leave in treaty of Paris. Britain said they would occupy the
forts until America paid British Merchants pre-war debts and restored loyalist property. Congress urged states to pay
the pre-war debts and returned loyalist property but they turned a deaf ear to congress. A government so weak at
home couldn’t gain respect from abroad. When Adams went to London to negotiate Britain to evacuate the forts
they refused to talk to a federal government since congress couldn’t compel the states to implement treaties.

Spain opposed American west expansion. They strengthened their ties with the Natives to create a Spanish-Native
buffered to protect own possessions.

Spanish control of the Mississippi river, in 1784 Spain closed off the Mississippi from American navigation depriving
west settlers outlet for their goods. John Jay initiated a treaty with Spain in return for limited access to Spanish
markets USA agreed to give up the Mississippi for 25 years. The Southern states rejected this, furious at Jay’s
willingness to give up their interests and some talked about setting up a western republic under Spanish protection.

The call for a stronger National Government:

Confederation:

Critics:

 Many appalled by powerlessness of Gov in foreign affairs & commercial matters.

 Creditors wanted Gov that would stop states giving paper money.

Impact of war:
Struggle of independence increased sense of being American. War mixed men from different states & the
continental army produced national heroes & shrines e.g Bunkers hill.

American Nationalism:

 Growing signs of national consciousness; adopted stars & stripes on flag in 1777.
 Bald eagle took place on national seal in 1782
 Nationalism inspired political leaders who led movements for constitutional reform. Hamilton, GW, James
Madison wanted unified republic to command the result of the world – true national society in local & state
attachment subordinate to American loyalties.

Conservatives:

Most nationalists horrified by new men who occupied many seats in state legislature & more horrified by low
standard new legislation. Nationalist supported revolutionary ideology of popular sovereignty. Lacked faith in ability
of common ppl to exercise democracy, & saw too much democracy in state legislature. Wanted strong gov with
whose power in hands of wealthy & educated.

Supporters of Confederation:

 Gained independence under confederation

 State gov more responsive to people demands than before
 Stronger Gov might replicate UK GOV & Americans equated degree of local self gov with preservation of
personal liberties
 Most state gov’s were started to get along.

Interstate disharmony:
 State boundary disputes, jurisdictional rivalry & western issues were restored by 1783, however issues remained
a problem particularly in levying tariff duties

Tariffs:
 1782-85 all states but NJ placed duties on imports effecting inter-state & foreign commerce to raise revenue
 By 1786 NY & Pennsylvania increased their import duties to make them protected. States put their interests first;
some imposed higher duties against foreign good, especially British

Virginia & Maryland agreement:

 Dispute between Maryland & Virginia over navigation on Potmac River. Gov was powerless & couldn’t solve
inter-state disagreements
 1784, James Madison & commissioners from 2 states met to negotiate, meeting at Washington’s Vermont estate
& quickly reached an agreement.
 Went beyond their briefs suggested should co-operate on financial & customs policy & invitation to Pennsylvania
to join in common matters of interest.
 Madison saw opportunity of inter-state co-operation for constitutional reform & proposed resolution for
national convention to discuss commercial regulations.

Annapolis Meeting:
 Sep 1786, 12 men representing 5 states (NY, NJ, Pennsylvania, Delaware & Virginia) met to discuss commercial
problems.
 Had unrepresentative body to propose reforms, commercial or otherwise to nation with creditability.
 It brought men together to agree the constitution needed to change
 Articles could only be amended from all 13 states
 Meeting encouraged in Philadelphia for the next year for all states to redraft constitution.
 Shay’s rebellion shocked congress & they called on states in Feb 1787 to send delegates in May to redraft
Articles
 Constitutional Convention (Philadelphia convention):
 Met may 1787, Only Virginian (Washington & Madison) & Pennsylvania delegates arrived due to poor weather &
road delays slowed other delegates.
 Madison had greater impact than Washington as he wanted strong GOV & had clear idea how it was to be done.
 25th, 29 delegates arrived from 7 states. After the next few weeks 26 delegates arrived, every state represented
except RI. (45 overall)
 30 of them thought in the war, no black ppl, no natives, no women or poorest weren’t present. They did not
represent American society, the elitists.

Virginia Plan:
Drafted constitution introduced 29th, mostly the works of Madison.
National legislature of 2 houses, representation to be proportionate to population. (1st house elected by voters,
2nd elected by first house)
Legislature to have wide powers; elect both executive & judiciary.
States reduced to administrative units since Gov had power to veto state legislature.
First proposal which set the agenda, which was debated & amended.

New Jersey Plan:

 The Virginia Plan was liked by larger states but opposed by smaller ones who’s representation would be
outnumbered by larger states. Delegates also objected to amount of power concentrated in Congress.
 Patterson from NJ presented alternative on 15th June in interest of smaller states.
 Single legislature chamber, with states having 1 vote. (little amendment to the articles.
 Congress given enlarged powers including authority to tax & regulate commerce, state sovereignty preserved
 Rejected on 19th 7-3 states.

Issue of representation was unsolved, for next few weeks a debate occurred. A grand committee with 1 delegate
from each state was appointed to work a compromise.

The Great Compromise: (Connecticut compromise)

 Senate – have equal representation.

 House of representation – states representation on size of their population. Larger states would have more
representation.
 Representation & direct tax would be distributed according to results of regular censues.
 Achieved on 16th July.

Decision on Slavery:
 Southerners wanted slaves included in population total for allotting congress seats, but left out when deciding
direct taxation.
 Northern wanted slaves left out of allotting congress seats (not citizens or voters) but included as tax as they
were property.
 Convention accepted slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for tax & representation.

Federalist vs Anti-Federalist:

Federalist:

 Supported by men of power, property & position; planters, merchants, lawyers.

 Many poor men were federalist like labourers & artisans of the city
 Constitution supporters named themselves as federalist increase central gov & less state power
 Every major town had federalist majority
 More engaged in commercial trade
 Elect whoever they wanted – could kick out legislature for federalist.
 Mass majority of newspapers were owned

Anti-Federalist:
 Cast into a negative role
 Many of the anti-federalist were small farmers from isolated areas. Some rich men were anti-federalist
 Anti-federalist were aware of the problems facing 1780 & thought cure was worse than the disease
 Didn’t want much tax
 Fear national Gov; war, tax, aristocrat ideas.
 Lower lvls of commercial trade engagement.
 Thought convention exceeded it’s mandate by proposing new framework of Gov
 Feared powerful Gov would destroy sovereign of states.
 State legislature more representative that HOR
 Many wanted Bill of rights
 Suspicious of centralist power

Federalist Advantage:

 Had solution to pressing problems which faced the nation, the Anti-federalist had no alternative
 Federalist support strong in towns & most favoured.
 Support of Washington, Madison & Franklin
 Anti-federalist scattered across isolated areas.

Creation of the Federal Government after Philadelphia conference:

The Federal government was authorised to maintain army and navy, print and borrow money, make treaties with
foreign powers. Powers to levy taxes and regulate trade. They could make any laws which must be followed by the
states. The states were forbidden from waging war, engaging in diplomacy, coining money or laying duties on
imports. They couldn’t issue money or make treaties.

The slave issues were left to the states, each states could determine its own suffrage in elections to HOR. They could
regulate interstate or internal trade.

Federal Executive:

 To be commander and chief of the army and navy

 appointments like judges and diplomats (With congress approval)
 conclude treaties, his signature required to make acts congress law.
 He could veto acts of congress
 veto could be overturned by 2/3rd majority
 removed from office by impeachment for convictions of high crimes.
 They were elected every 4 years for a 4 year term by an electoral college.

Federal Legislature:

 Congress was made up of House of Representatives and the senate:

 The house was elected by voters for a 2 year term.
 The senate comprised 2 senators from each state and elected by state legislatures. Senators served for 6 years
and 1/3rd elected every 2 years.
 Congress had power to raise money, make laws, declare war, ratify treaties (2/3 of senate had to agree),
impeach and with 2/3 majority override presidents veto.

Federal Judiciary:

 It was left vague but agreed that there should be an independent judiciary and a supreme court, appointed by
the president with the approval of the senate.
Ratification of the States:
 Delaware – 7th dec 1787 – Unanimously

 NJ 18th Dec 1787 – Unanimously

 Pennsylvania – 12th dec 1787 – majority (46-23)

 Georgia – 2nd Jan 1787 – unanimously

 Connecticut – 9 Jan 1788 – majority (128 – 40)

 Massachusetts – Anti-federalist leaning. Federalist put pressure on Sam Adams & John Hancock when
convention met Jan. Pro-constitution persuaded Adams to support. Hancock changed his mind when suggesting
idea of him being vice-president. (Wanted bill of rights) - Majority (187 – 168 votes)

 Maryland – April 1788 – Majority (63-11)

 SC – May 1788 – majority (149 – 73)

 New Hampshire – June – mostly anti-federalist. When elected for constitution ppl not wanted to ratify. When
met over winter they delayed the vote until June giving Federalists opportunity to raise issue in meetings &
made delegates change their minds. Ratification session went on when Federalists got anti-federalists drunk so
they missed their chance to vote. – Majority (57-47)

 Virginia – 26th June 1788 – Anti-federalist forces balanced, Patrick Henry attacked condition. Wanted bill of
rights, but Washington & Madison’s support was crucial – Majority (89-79)

 NY – 26th June 1788 – Alex Hamilton, Madison & jay wrote articles for the federalist press urging for the
constitution. The opinion swayed when Virginia ratified constitution lifting fear from anti-federalists.

 NC – 21st Nov 1789 – Majority (195 – 77)

 RI – 29th May 1790 –Majoirty (34-32)

New Government:
Election of 1789 gave Federalist control of the New Gov. Large Federalist majorities in both the senate & HOR.
Washington chosen by Electoral College as president. John Adams Vice president.

Congress met 4th March 1789 in NY city, could only gather 8 senators & 13 HOR. 1 month passed before both
chambers had a quorum.

Problems facing Washington:

 The USA was far from united.
 RI & NC stilled not in union.
 Nation had untried consitution.
 New Gov burdened with colossal debt, had no revenue or machinery for collecting tax.
 No judiciary department yet
 USA had no navy & it’s army consisted of 672 officers & men
 USA western boarders were open to Native attack.
 UK & Spanish troops still occupied national territory

The Gov entered office with 2 advantages:

 The worst of the post-war depression was over & the economy was expanding
 Wide spread support for the Gov & the constitution. Ant-Federalists accepted popular verdict & agreed to
practice new political system in good faith.

1st Congress:
Congress set out to build on constitutional framework. It set a number of precedents which influenced US
constitution development. Madison working close with Washington in 1789-90 played a key role in HOR.

The Cabinet:
 When Washington entered the Senate to discuss Native treaties, they refused to discuss with him. (checks &
balances) Senate insisted on its independence & Washington needed to look elsewhere for advice.
 State treasury & war departments were set up in 1789 with offices of attorney general & postmaster general.
Washington wanted heads of executive department responsible to him alone. Congress agreed President should
have the right to appoint & dismiss without their consent.
 Washington selected department on merit, service & geography (balance between North & South).
 Sectary of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton (his wartime friend) who helped organise bank of NY & had
knowledge on public finance.
 Thomas Jefferson, became Secretary of state.
 General Henry Knox secretary of war

Bill of Rights:
During ratification, there was criticisms of lack of popular rights. Some state federalists promised push for Bill of
rights. Madison made adoption of Bill of rights as his first business. 10 got ratified (17 adopted by HOR, 12 by
Senate)

Bill of rights went towards conciliating anti-federalists to the constitution. 9 of the rights concerned with rights of
individuals.
Guaranteed freedom of:
 Speech
 Religion
 Press
 Petition
 Form assembly
 Bear arms
 Immunity against arbitrary search & arrest
 Prohibited excessive bail
 Cruel & unusual punishment
 Quartering troops in private homes.
10th amendment reserved powers to the state which weren’t specifically given to Federalist Government.

Amendments took effect when Virginia finally ratified Dec 1791. Bill of rights encouraged NC (1789) & RI (1790)
to enter union.

The Judiciary Act (1789)

 The constitution created a Federal judiciary but left details on structure & relation with state courts to be
decided later on.
 1789 Judiciary act established hieratical system of Federal courts. At the top was Supreme Court – consisted of
chief justice & 5 justices.
 Beneath was district courts in each state & 3 circuit courts of appeal.
 It was an apparatus which upheld all federal laws & people’s rights throughout the nation.
 Supreme court should rule on constitutions of state. Court decisions & nullify state laws which violate federal
constitution.
 Washington selected 3 members from north & south to be part of judiciary. John Jay chief justice.

Hamilton’s financial programme:

Hamilton’s report on public credit. (1790)

 His first and most important report of public credit (January 1790)
 Recommended the funding of domestic and foreign debt ($56 million) should be taken in by the Federal
government. Along with the war debts of states totalling at $21 million.
 Thought a national debt would be a powerful cement of the Union, enabling it to create good finances and
ensuring credit in the future. Allowing congress to levy taxes and would instil respect for the federal
government.

Opposition to Hamilton:

 Barely any opposition to the repayment of foreign debt, essential step to the new government’s financial
standing. Domestic debt caused attack by southerners as mostly all the debt was held by northern speculators
who had bought bonds cheaply when hard times had forced original creditors to sell. Congress accepted
Hamilton’s proposal.
 State debt was opposed by many. Southern states (except SC) had provided payments of their debts and
objected to paying a share of debts owed by northern states. Also feared it would expand federal power to the
expense of the states.
 Hamilton thought Madison would support the measure through congress but it would be political suicide
(Madison was a Virginian) to support and persuading Congress to reject the state debt proposal

Compromise:

 Exchange for southern votes for a reverse of the verdict, Madison agreed to make a allowances to the states that
settled their debts and that the permanent national capital would be in the south at a site by the Potomac River
to be chosen by Washington.

The Second Report on Public Credit: (1790)

 National debt soaring over $80 million. 80% of the federal government’s annual expenditure was needed to
service the debt. More revenue had to be found if the government wanted to remain solvent.
 In Dec 1790, issued a second report on public credit and proposed tax on distilled spirits & on home
commodities was issued to help raise revenue for national debts.

Success:

 The value of government bonds rose sharply & The Federal government was now able to borrow money both at
home and abroad.
 had political repercussions as Madison, who echoed Virginian planters, opposed funding scheme which he
thought threatened the constitution and state power. In 1790 Virginian assembly protested that there was no
clause in the constitution which authorized Congress to claim state debts.

Report on the National Bank:

 proposed to create a national bank – modelled on the bank of England, the proposed Bank of USA wold have a
capital of $10 Million, one fifth by the government, fourth fifths by private investors.
 Act as a depository for government funds, a place for collection of taxes, provide a source of capital for loans to
stimulate development of business and commerce, issue paper money and curb excessive note issue by state
banks and ensure that the banks stockholders had a vested interest in supporting the Federal Government.

Opposition:
Madison said congress didn’t have the power to charter companies or banks. Congress passed the bill, but
Washington, consulted his cabinet. Jefferson supported Madison arguing that Congress shouldn’t use powers not
delegated to it.

In response Hamilton said the central bank not authorise in words, it was necessary to exercising powers as the
levying of taxes and the regulation of currency and trade.

Success:

The bank of USA, with a charter for 20 years, opened in Philadelphia in 1791.

Over the next 3 decades it contributed to the USA’s economic development. Banknotes maintained their value, it
had control over the state banks that rose in 1790’s. The bank, hated in the south and west, did little for Hamilton’s
popularity.

Report on Manufactures:

in Dec 1791, determined to encourage manufacturing. A plan for industrialisation through a protective tariffs and
government subsidies for new industries and new inventions. Congress passed a new tariff act in 1792 for revenue.

Result of Hamilton’s financial programme:

Successful as it restored public credit, ensuring foreign capital flowed in USA and increased productivity & restoring
prosperity. The union he wanted to strengthen was divided & gave it political form. Many southerners feared
programmed resulted in threatening of political power by the Federal Government at expenses of the states.

Rise of Political Parties:

The Founding Fathers wanted to avoid political parties as seen as corrupt & disruptive. National parties soon arose
due to the disputes from Hamilton’s financial measures. Appeal to Northern commercial elements annoyed & made
jealousy in the south. The Rise of Republicanism from Jefferson & Madison in fear of Tyranny in the Federal Gov

1) Impact of the French Revolution

Outbreak of French revolution in 1789 met with approval by most Americans, who thought that France was following
in their footsteps.

By 1793, when the Jacobin reign of terror began, the American opinion diverged sharply. Federalists interpreted
events as confirming fears that popular government could easily generate mob rule. Republicans by contrast
continued to sympathise with the French revolutionaries. Jefferson said “That the tree of liberty must be refreshed
from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants”. French revolution became the determining political
allegiance in American politics in 1790’s.

France declared war on Britain in 1793, which sharpened opinion more. The European war raised question of
American Obligations to France. By the treaty of 1778, the USA remained an ally of France, obligated to defend
French possessions in the West Indies. Hamilton argued the 1778 alliance treaty was void on the ground it was made
with a government that no longer existed.

Hamilton knew that British were source of Tariff revenues its financial programme depended on. 75% of American
trade was with Britain and 90% of it’s trade from Britain.

Jefferson supported France but did not want war. Believed the USA should proclaim neutrality but should delay
abandoning the treaty using it as a bargain tool with Britian. Washington, aware of USA week Military and economy,
knew it was best to avoid another war.

In April 1793 he issued a proclamation of neutrality. Declaring USA as “Friendly and impartial towards the super
powers.”

Citizen Genet
USa recognised new Jacobin government. USA received ambassador, Citizen Edmond-Charles Genet. Arriving at
Charleston in 1793, organising a Jacobin club. Received enthusiasm in his talks whilst moving up North showed
bonds uniting American with French Revaluation were more powerful then proclamation of neutrality.

Intrigued land speculators wanting to attack Spanish Florida and Louisiana (Issuing French Military in the process) he
became an embarrassment, even to his Republican friends. Genet had overstepped when capturing British ships as
French privateer. When Genet threatened to appeal directly to the American people over the head of their
president, Washington demanded his recall.

The French Revolution was popular with many Republics through 1793-1794. Mass Demonstration took place in
towns where people wanted war with Britain. Federalists, fearing the idea of mod rule, thought that French practises
might spread across the Atlantic with guillotines set up on broadway.

2) Problems with Britain

 Americans annoyed that Britain not removed military posts south of the Great Lakes which it agreed to in 1783.
Uk encouraged Native to attack American settlers. Britain held disregard to Americans right to neutrality.
 Us commerce deprived as Britain, unwilling to allow American break through blockades to trade with France
West Indies colonies maintained its blockade in November 1793 seizing 250 American ships carrying goods from
French West Indies
 1794 it seemed as though the USA and Britain were close to war. A bill supporting a boycott of British trade
passed the House of Representatives but defeated in the Senate by casting vote of Vice President Adams.

Jay’s Treaty

 Washington knowing USA was unprepared for war and fearful of consequences sent Jay to London to settle
negotiations. Uk in an uncompromising mood, as it had been informed that USA would not join League of
Armed Neutrality to uphold neutral rights on the sea.
 Jays treaty in November 1794 that Britain promised to evacuate northwest forts by 1796, Britain agreed to
submit American claims for compensation for taking ships and Britain to grant American limited access to the
British West Indies.
 Britain gained the most favoured nation treatment in American Trade and Jay promised French Privateers would
not be outfitted in American ports.
 Jay failed to secure a hoped for commercial treaty or compensation for the slaves carried off by the British in
1783. Forced to accept British position on neutral rights at sea. Jefferson declared Jay’s treaty was “nothing
more than a treaty of alliance between England and the anglomen of this country against the legislature and
people of USA “.
 Jays treaty resulted in uproar in USA. Republicans denounced the agreement as surrender and a pact with devils.
Jay was burned in effigy and there were demands for his impeachment. After a long debate Senate ratified this
document.
 Jay’s treaty was successful as Britain gave up their forts and an economic boom followed as American trade with
Britain and its empire increased.

Relations with Spain

 Spain had encouraged Native Americans to attack settlements. By creating the impression that Britain and the
USA were drawing closer and might be contemplating joint action against Louisiana. Jay’s treaty caused Spain to
soften attitude towards USA. Pinckney, sent to Madrid to conclude Treaty of San Lorenzo in October 1795
 Sprain granted the USA free use to the Mississippi and the right to deposit goods in New Orleans, accepted the
American claim to the 31st parallel of the Florida boundary and promised to restrain Native American attacks.
 The treated ended a decade of Spanish threat.

Western Development

 Washington concerned with western developments than with European foreign policy. Focus was to consolidate
USA control of land between Appalachians and Mississippi. Americans edged westward throughout 1790’s and
built up two new states. Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796)
Native American Policy 1789-93

 In 1789, Washington supported a policy designed to create Native American homelands, these were to help
Natives who occupied these areas to become fully fledged American Citizens.
 To make this policy reality was a lot of effort for Washington. In 1790 he negotiated the Treaty of New York with
creek leader, Alexander McGillivary, this restored to the Creeks some of the land given to Georgia and provided
payment for the rest of the land., Washington issues a proclamation forbidding private or state encroachments
on all Native American lands guaranteed by treaty with the USA.
 Washington soon found it was harder to sustain
 In the south, Georgia defined the proclamation by selling more than 15 million acres on its western boarder to
speculators. In the North, white settlers simply moved to Native American lands.
 Washington approved Military expeditions into the Ohio Valley to put down Native tribe uprisings. He realised
his vision of secure Native American sanctuaries could not be enforced; nothing could hold back the white
settlers.

The Treaty of Greenville

 In 1794, Northwest Native Americans suffered a crushing defeat at hands of 5000 troops at Battle of fallen
Timbers. 1795 Native Americans agreed to Treaty of Greenville, giving USA the right to the land which became
Ohio and Indiana.

Western Land Policy:

 After Jay settled matters with France & Spain west open for surge of settlers. Jefferson & Republicans diagreed
on land policy but Federalists & Hamilton agreed.
 High land prices to enrich treatury.
 Sale of large pieces of land to speculators, easier & more profitable to sale of small land to settlers.
 Jefferson & Madison accepted need for revenue to recover national debt. But he hoped land could be sold in
small chunks cheaply for settlers.
 Federalist prevailed. Land act 1976, Congress extended regular servings of land but doubled the price to $2 /
acer in only 1 yr to complete payment. Half township owned 640 acres making minimum cost $1280. Beyond
most settlers & too pricy for some speculators. By 1800 only sold 50,000 acres under the act.

Whiskey Insurrection (1791):

 Tax on liquor heavy on farmers. Lacking adequate transporting facilities, found difficult to dispose of their
surplus corn & rye unless distillation into whiskey.
 In western Pennsylvania discontent with the excise boiled into armed resistance in 1794. Movs terrorised federal
agents & prevented courts from functioning. 6000 men gathered near Pittsburgh setting up mock guillotines
registering with revolutionary France (saw American Jacobinism in action)
 Washington raised militia force 13,000 men to deal with the trouble. Hamilton led the arm supressing the
whiskey boys & granting pardon for those who took an oath to the Federal Gov.
 Gov showed it strength but alienated Frontiersmen. Hamilton’s role conjured fears in republican of a standing
army & military dictatorship.