FLOW

MEASUREMENT
EE 27 Instrumentation and Control
Engr. Rewil Tornalejo
Introduction

In the physical world, engineers are frequently required

to monitor or control the flow of various fluids through
pipes, ducts and assorted vessels. This fluid can range
from thick oils to light gasses. While some techniques
work better with some groups of fluids, and less well
with others, some are not at all suitable for some
applications. In this primer on fluid flow instrumentation
we will look at a wide variety of flow transducers and
their application in the physical world.
Fluid flow measurement

 Fluid flow measurement can encompass a wide

variety of fluids and applications. To meet this wide
variety of applications the instrumentation industry
has, over many years, developed a wide variety of
instruments. The earliest known uses for flow come
as early as the first recorded history. The ancient
Sumerian cities of UR and Kish, near the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers (around 5000 B.C.) used water flow
measurement to manage the flow of water through the
aqueducts feeding their cities.
Fluid flow measurement

In this age the a simple obstruction was placed in the

water flow, and by measuring the height of the water
flowing over the top of the obstruction, these early
engineers could determine how much water was
flowing. In 1450 the Italian art architect Battista Alberti
invented the first mechanical anemometer. It consisted
of a disk placed perpendicular to the wind, and the
force of the wind caused it to rotate. The angle of
inclination of the disk would then indicate the wind
velocity.
Fluid Flow Measurement

This was the first recorded instrument to measure wind

speed. An English inventor, Robert Hooke reinvented this
device in 1709, along with the Mayan Indians around that
same period of time. Today we would look down our noses
at these crude methods of flow measurement, but as you
will see, these crude methods are still in use today.
Type of Flow
There are in general three types of fluid flow in pipes
• Laminar
• Turbulent
• Transient

• Laminar flow
Laminar flow generally happens when dealing with small
pipes and low flow velocities.
Type of Flow
Laminar flow can be regarded as a series of liquid cylinders
in the pipe, where the innermost parts flow the fastest, and
the cylinder touching the pipe isn't moving at all. Shear
stress in a laminar flow depends almost only on viscosity - μ
- and is independent of density - ρ.
• Turbulent flow
• In turbulent flow vortices, eddies and wakes make the flow
unpredictable. Turbulent flow happens in general at high
flow rates and with larger pipes.
• Shear stress in a turbulent flow is a function of density - ρ.
Type of Flow

Transitional flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with
turbulence in the center of the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges.
Each of these flows behave in different manners in terms of their
frictional energy loss while flowing and have different equations that
predict their behavior.
Turbulent or laminar flow is determined by the dimensionless Reynolds
Number.
Type of Flow

Reynolds Number
• The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is
substantial velocity gradient (i.e. shear.) It indicates the relative significance of
the viscous effect compared to the inertia effect. The Reynolds number is
proportional to inertial force divided by viscous force.
• The flow is
• laminar when Re < 2300
• transient when 2300 < Re < 4000
• turbulent when 4000 < Re
Type of Flow

Uniform Flow, Steady Flow

• It is possible - and useful - to classify the type of flow which is
being examined into small number of groups. If we look at a
fluid flowing under normal circumstances - a river for example
- the conditions at one point will vary from those at another
point (e.g. different velocity) we have non-uniform flow. If the
conditions at one point vary as time passes then we have
unsteady flow.
Type of Flow

Uniform Flow, Steady Flow

Under some circumstances the flow will not be as changeable as
this. He following terms describe the states which are used to
classify fluid flow:
uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and
direction at every point in the fluid it is said to be uniform.
non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at
every point the flow is non-uniform.
Type of Flow

Uniform Flow, Steady Flow

In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary
will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed of
the boundary, usually zero. However if the size and shape of the of the
cross-section of the stream of fluid is constant the flow is considered
uniform.)
Steady:
A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-
section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.
Type of Flow

Uniform Flow, Steady Flow

Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change
with time, the flow is described as unsteady. (In practice there
is always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if the
average values are constant, the flow is considered steady.
Type of Flow

Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four

type:
1. Steady uniform flow.
Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with
time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant
diameter at constant velocity. Fluid Mechanics Fluid Dynamics:
The Momentum and Bernoulli Equations.
Type of Flow

Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four

type:
2. Steady non-uniform flow.
Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with
constant velocity at the inlet - velocity will change as you move
along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
Type of Flow

3. Unsteady uniform flow.

At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the
same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of
constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a constant
rate which is then switched off.
4. Unsteady non-uniform flow.
Every condition of the flow may change from point to point
and with time at every point. For example waves in a channel.
Type of Flow

Compressible or Incompressible All fluids are compressible - even water -

their density will change as pressure changes. Under steady conditions,
and provided that the changes in pressure are small, it is usually possible
to simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is incompressible and has
constant density. As you will appreciate, liquids are quite difficult to
compress - so under most steady conditions they are treated as
incompressible. In some unsteady conditions very high pressure
differences can occur and it is necessary to take these into account - even
for liquids. Gasses, on the contrary, are very easily compressed, it is
essential in most cases to treat these as compressible, taking changes in
pressure into account.
.
Type of Flow

Three-dimensional flow Although in general all fluids flow

three- dimensionally, with pressures and velocities and other
flow properties varying in all directions, in many cases the
greatest changes only occur in two directions or even only in
one. In these cases changes in the other direction can be
effectively ignored making analysis much more simple. Flow is
one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity,
pressure, depth etc.) at a given instant in time only vary in the
direction of flow and not across the cross-section.
Type of Flow

The flow may be unsteady, in this case the parameter vary in

time but still not across the cross- section. An example of one-
dimensional flow is the flow in a pipe. Note that since flow
must be zero at the pipe wall - yet non-zero in the Centre -
there is a difference of parameters across the cross-section.
Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow? Possibly - but
it is only necessary if very high accuracy is required. A
correction factor is then usually applied.
Type of Flow

Flow is two-dimensional if it can be assumed that the flow

parameters vary in the direction of flow and in one direction at
right angles to this direction. Streamlines in two-dimensional
flow are curved lines on a plane and are the same on all parallel
planes. An example is flow over a weir foe which typical
streamlines can be seen in the figure below. Over the majority
of the length of the weir the flow is the same - only at the two
ends does it change slightly. Here correction factors may be
applied.
Flow rate

Mass flow rate: If we want to measure the rate at which water

is flowing along a pipe. A very simple way of doing this is to
catch all the water coming out of the pipe in a bucket over a
fixed time period. Measuring the weight of the water in the
bucket and dividing this by the time taken to collect this water
gives a rate of accumulation of mass.
This is know as the mass flow rate.
Flow rate

Volume flow rate - Discharge.

More commonly we need to know the volume flow rate - this is
more commonly know as discharge. (It is also commonly, but
inaccurately, simply called flow rate).
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q. The discharge is
the volume of fluid flowing per unit time. Multiplying this by
the density of the fluid gives us the mass flow rate.
Type of Flow Measurement

The most common principals for fluid flow metering are:

•Differential Pressure Flow meters
•Velocity Flow meters
•Positive Displacement Flow meters
•Mass Flow meters
•Open Channel Flow meters
Type of Flow Measurement

Differential Pressure Flow Meters

In a differential pressure drop device the flow is calculated by
measuring the pressure drop over an obstructions inserted in
the flow. The differential pressure flow meter is based on the
Bernoulli's Equation, where the pressure drop and the further
measured signal is a function of the square flow speed.
Type of Flow Measurement

Common type of Differential Pressure Flow Meters are:

• Orifice Plates
• Flow Nozzles
• Venturi Tubes
• Variable Area - Rota meters
Type of Flow Measurement

Orifice Plate - An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow

rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting flow (in the latter two
cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a volumetric or
mass flow rate may be determined, depending on the calculation
associated with the orifice plate. With an orifice plate, the fluid flow
is measured through the difference in pressure from the upstream
side to the downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The
plate obstructing the flow offers a precisely measured obstruction
that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing fluid to constrict.
Type of Flow Measurement

Orifice Plate is the heart of the Orifice Meter. It restricts the flow
and develops the Differential Pressure which is proportional to the
square of the flow rate. The flow measuring accuracy entirely
depends upon the quality of Orifice plate, its installation and
maintains. • When measuring wet gas or saturated steam a weep
hole is drilled in a concentrically bored orifice plate. This is a small
hole drilled on the orifice plate such that its location is exactly on
ID of the main pipe.
Type of Flow Measurement

The Orifice plates are manufactured as per ISA / AGA/ API /

ANSI standards and in various materials such as SS304
/SS316 / SS316L /Hestoly C / Monel / PTFE coated.
• Various bores are used for various applications.
• Orifice Plate is categories in two types :- Paddle Type &
Universal Palate.
Type of Flow Measurement

• Paddle Type Orifice Plate

This plate is sandwiched between two Orifice Flanges. Tag
Plate of orifice plate projects out from Orifice flanges and it
indicates the existence of Orifice plate. Details such as Tag NO
/Orifice ID / Pipe ID / Plate Material are stamped on one side
of the tag plate which faces upstream side of the pipe line.
Outside diameter of the orifice plate equals to PCD-1 Bolt Dia.
Type of Flow Measurement

This ensures the concentricity with the main pipe line. The
other method to maintain the concentricity is by using sleeves
on the bolts or by providing dowel pins on the Orifice Flanges.
• Universal Orifice Plate
• This is a circular plate designed to fit in the Orifice fittings /
Plate holders / carrier rings / Ring Type Joints(RTJ).
Type of Flow Measurement

Technical Specification
1.Size for Integral Design : 15, 20, 25, 40 mm
2.Size for Flanged Design : 25, 40, 50, 65, 80, 100, 150 ...250 mm
3.Material- Flanges & Carrier Ring : A105 / SS304/ SS316 /
SS316L / CS & Other materials on request.
4.Orifice Plate : SS304, SS316, SS316L, Hast C, Monel, PP,
PVC,PTFE, Coated or Clad with PP / HDPE / PTFE.
Type of Flow Measurement

5.Gasket : CAF / SS Spiral Wound + CAF / PTFE / PVC / Rubber,

Other materials as per special request.
6.Stud / Nut : ASTM A193 Gr B/ASTM A194 CI 2H A193
B16/A194 C14
7.Standards Applicable : Design - ISA RP 3.2 / DN 1952 / BS 1042
- 1981-84
8.Bore Calculation : ISO 5167 / BS 1042 / RW Miller / L. K. SPIN /
AGE - 3.7
Type of Flow Measurement

9.Flanges : ANSI B-16-36 / or Equivalent

10.Types : Square edge concentric, Quadrant edges, Conical
entrance, Eccentric.
11.Pressure Toppings : For 1" to 16" - Flange Taps / Corner
Taps. Above 16" - D x D/2
Type of Flow Measurement
Paddle Type Orifice Plate
• Concentric Beveled Bore Application : This
Most Common Bore Used In The Industries.
This Is The Only Type Generally Accepted
For Use In Custody Transfer Measurement,
Since Adequate Data Is Not Available For
Other Bores. Used Primarily For Clean
Homogeneous Liquids, Gases, Non Viscous
Fluids. The Bevel Is Matched At 45° Angle
To The Desired Throat Thickness.
Type of Flow Measurement
Restriction Bore
Application: This Type Is Not Used For
Flow Measurement But For Dropping
The Pressure Considerably And Reducing
The Flow Accordingly. The Bore Is Not
Beveled But Kept Straight. The Beta
Ratio Has No Limit As Accuracy Is Not
The Goal
Type of Flow Measurement
Eccentric Bore
• Application : Used For Measurement
Of Flow For Fluids Containing Solids
And Slurries. It Is Also Used For Vapors
And Gases Where Condensation Is
Present. The Eccentric Bore Is Offset To
Where The Bore Edge Is Inscribed In A
Circle That Is 98% The Line Id.
Type of Flow Measurement
4. Segmenta Bore
Application : • The Segmental Bore Is
Located In The Same Way That The
Eccentric Bore Is. This Type Is Used
Primarily For Slurries Or Extremely
Dirty Gases Where The Flow May
Contain Impurities Heavier Than The
Fluid.
Type of Flow Measurement
Quadrant Bore
• Application : Used For High Viscous
Fluids Such As Heavy Crude, Syrups
And Slurries. It Is Always Recommended
For Flow Where Reynolds Number Is
Less Than 10,000.The Inlet Is Quarter
Of A Circle And The Plate Thickness
Must Be At Least Radius Of The Inlet.