FLUID MECHANICS

(DME/DMP/DAE)
 INTRODUCTION
(Chapter 1)
Lesson Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

i. define terminologies used in Fluid Mechanics.

ii. describe properties of fluid.

iii. explain methods used to describe fluid motions.

iv. classify types of fluid flow.

What is fluid?

Fluids are substance that flow and deform continuously when subjected to external forces.
They include liquids and gases. Example of fluids in engineering: pneumatic fluid, hydraulic
fluid, cutting fluid, lubricating fluid, brake fluid, transmission fluid, and refrigeration fluid.

Fluid Mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the behaviour fluids and forces acting on
them. It can be subdivided into two fields:

A. Fluid Statics: the study of fluids at rest. Key principles include pressure, Pascal’s Law,
and Law of Floatation, and Hydraulics.
B. Fluid Dynamics: the study of fluids in motion. Key concepts: Continuity Equation,
Bernoulli’s Principles, Aerodynamics, and the working principles of turbines and pumps.

Properties of Fluids

a) Density (ρ): The mass of a fluid per unit volume. It is a key parameter in fluid mechanics
and affects the buoyancy and stability of objects in the fluid. It is measured in kg/m3.
b) Viscosity (μ): Fluid’s resistance to flow. It is temperature-dependant quantity and defines
the flow characteristics of a fluid. Are of two types: A) Dynamic Viscosity measured in
Pascal-Seconds (Pa.S), and B) Static Viscosity measured in Suare Meters per Second
(m2/S).

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 c) Pressure (P): Force exerted by fluid per unit area. Fluids exert pressure uniformly in all
directions, which increases with height. It is measured in Pascals (Pa)
d) Surface Tension: Elastic tendency of liquids to acquire the least possible surface area.
Explains why water droplets form spherical shapes and why small objects float on liquids
despite being denser than the liquid.

FLUID FLOW

(Chapter 5)

Continuous deformation and displacement of fluid particles between different places. It can be
described by two methods:

A. The Lagrangian method:

Involves identifying a single fluid particle in the flow field and following it throughout.
The characteristics of the fluid flow is then defined from its flow patterns.
B. The Eularian method:
Fixed coordinate points are identified, and the flow characteristics are measured with
reference to these points. Popularly used as it provides an easier visualisation of the flow
field.

Types of Fluid Flow

Fluid flow can be classified as:

i. Internal and External Flows

Internal flow is that which takes place in a region enclosed by a solid surface. Examples: pipe
flow, duct flow, and flow in closed conduits. On the other hand, external flow occurs when the
fluid flows over solid objects. Examples: air flowing over an aircraft wings and vehicles and
water flowing past ship and submarine bodies.

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 ii. One- and Multidimensional Flows

One-dimensional (1D) flow takes place in one particular direction. The variation in fluid
properties is only appreciable in this direction. The flow domain in such a case is a line and
boundaries are the points. A multidimensional flow has appreciable variation in fluid properties
in many directions. Example: 2D flow is one that takes place in many directions. The domain
is plane and boundaries are represented by lines. In three-dimensional (3D) flows, the variation
is observed in all the three mutually perpendicular directions. The flow domain is volume and
the boundaries are planes.

iii. Laminar and Turbulent flow

Laminar flow occurs when fluid particles move along well-defined paths (streamlines). All
streamlines are straight and parallel. The fluid flow in thin ordered layers called laminae,
gliding over each other at very low velocity with small Reynold’s Number. The layers do not
mix and viscous forces are majorly predominant. Turbulent flow, on the other hand, is a
chaotic, random, and unpredictable. Reynol’s Number is large and the inertia force dominates.

VD
R=
ϑ
Laminar flow

R < 2000

Transitional Flow:

2000 < R < 4000

Turbulent Flow:

𝑅 > 4000

iv. Viscous and Non-viscous (Inviscid) Flows

Ideal fluid is assumed as non-viscous and incompressible. The shear force between the
boundary layers is considered insignificant. However, real fluid are viscous and experiences

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shear force at the boundary of flow. In the contrary, only pressure and body forces control the
fluid motion in non-viscous flow.

v. Compressible and Incompressible Flows

compressible fluid flow is a type of flow where the fluid density changes with pressure and
temperature. It commonly observed in gases flowing speeds above Mach 0.3. Incompressible
flow is one in which the fluid density does not change with pressure and temperature.
Commonly observed in liquids.

Fluid Velocity
Mach number =
Sound Velocity in Vacuum

vi. Subsonic and Supersonic Flows

Subsonic flow occurs when fluids move with a velocity below the speed of sound in vacuum
(M<1). When the fluid moves at the same speed as sound, the flow is called sonic flow (M=1).
It is called supper sonic flow if the speed exceeds that of sound in a vacuum (M>1), and
hypersonic if the Mach number exceeds 10 (M>10).

vii. Steady and Unsteady Flow

In steady flow, fluid properties (such as velocity, pressure, and rate of flow) at specified point
within the flow field remain constant and do not vary with time. Such parameters can be
described as functions of space only:

For Velocity:

𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝜕𝑣
( ) =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0 ,𝑦0,𝑧0

For pressure:

𝑃 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝜕𝑃
( ) =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0,𝑦0,𝑧0
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For Rate of Flow:

𝑄 = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝜕𝑄
( ) =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0,𝑦0,𝑧0

In unsteady flow, the properties constantly change with both space and time. Velocity:

𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

𝜕𝑣
( ) ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0 ,𝑦0,𝑧0

Pressure:

𝑃 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

𝜕𝑃
( ) ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0,𝑦0,𝑧0

𝑄 = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

𝜕𝑄
( ) ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0,𝑦0,𝑧0

viii. Uniform and Non-uniform Flows

Uniform flow is where the flow characteristics do not change with space. The flow rate,
velocity, and pressure remain constant at all points within the flow field:

For velocity:

𝜕𝑣
( )=0
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑃
( )=0
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑄
( )=0
𝜕𝑠
Where they vary at different points, the flow is referred to non-uniform:
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 𝜕𝑣
( )≠0
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑃
( )≠0
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑄
( )≠0
𝜕𝑠

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 DYNAMIC OF FLUID FLOW
(Chapter 5)

Lesson Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

i. Explain the derivation of continuity equation in fluid flow.

ii. Explain the derivation of Euler’s Equation of Motion.

iii. Explain the derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s equation.

iv. Apply Bernoulli’s Equation to solve practical problems.

A. Continuity Equations
The quantity of fluid flowing through a pipe section per unit time is known as Rate of Flow or
Discharge (Q). It is expressed in mass per unit time (Kg/s) for compressible fluids, and volume
per unit time (m3/s) for incompressible fluids:
V 3
Q = V̇ = m ⁄s (for incompressible fluids)
t
m
Q = ṁ = kg⁄s (for compressible fluids)
t
By the law of conservation of mass, the rate of fluid flow remains constant through the entire
flow field. Consider a compressible fluid (gas) flowing in a pipe of varying diameter.

The rate of flow at any section in the pipe is given by:

m
Q=
t
For two cross-sectional points: Point1 and Point 2:
Q1 = Q 2
m1 m2
=
t t

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But mass can also be expressed as:
m = ρv
Then;
ρ1 V1 ρ2 V2
=
t t
Also, volume is calculated as:
V = AL
ρ1 A1 L1 ρ2 A2 L2
=
t t
L1 L2
Ρ1 A1 ( ) = ρ2 A2 ( )
t t
ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2
For incompressible flow:
ρ1 = ρ2
Hence:
A1 v1 = A2 v2
Examples 1
1. Water flow through pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s at point A. Calculate the velocity
at the next section (Point B) 1.5 m diameter.
2. A 30 cm pipe conveying water branches into two distributaries: 20 and 15 cm in
diameter. If the average flow velocity in the main pipe and one of the branches (20 cm
diameter) are 2.5 and 2 m/s respectively, calculate:
a) The discharge from the main pipe
b) The discharge in from first branch (20 cm diameter)
c) The discharge from the second branch (15 cm in diameter)
d) The velocity in the second branch (15 cm diameter)

B. Euler’s Equation of Fluid Flow

The study of fluid motion and forces involved. By Newton’s Second Law of motion, the net
force acting (Fx) on a fluid particle in motion is defined as:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚. 𝑎𝑥

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The net force is the algebraic sum of all dominant forces in pipe flow:
Fx = Fg + FP + F v + FT + FC
i. Gravitation force (Fg)
ii. Force due to pressure in fluid (FP)
iii. Force due to viscosity (Fv)
iv. Force due to turbulence (FT)
v. Force due to compressibility (FC)
The equation is referred to as Newton’s Equation of Motion. For liquids, the fluid is
incompressible. Meaning:
FC = 0
Fx = Fg + FP + Fv + FT
The equation is referred to as Reynold’s Equation of Motion. For laminar flow, the fluid does
not experience turbulent drag. Meaning that:
FT = 0
Fx = Fg + F P + Fv
The equation is referred to as Navier Stock Equation of Motion. For ideal flow, viscous drag
is assumed to be insignificant and negligible:
Fv = 0
Fx = Fg + FP
The equation of fluid flow is known as Euler’s Equation of Motion. The fluid is considered
to move under the action of gravity and pressure only.
FP + Fg = m. as

Force due to gravity is equal to the weight of the fluid:

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 Fg = mg = (ρV)g = {ρ(dA. dS)}g = ρgdA. dS
Since gravitational force acts in vertical direction:
dZ
Fg,S = ρgdA. dS cos θ = ρgdA. dS
dS
Force due to pressure is defined in two scenarios. Pressure in the direction of flow:
FP = P. dA
Pressure in the opposite direction:
∂P
FP = (P + dS) . dA
∂S
Acceleration is change in velocity with respect to time or a double differential of displacement
function:
v ∂v
as =
∂S
Substituting all the terms back in the equation of motion:
∂P dZ v ∂v
P. dA − (P + dS) . dA − ρgdA. dS = ρdA. dS.
∂S dS ∂S
∂P dZ v ∂v
P. dA − P. dA − dA. dS − ρgdA. dS = ρdA. dS.
∂S dS ∂S
∂P dZ v ∂v
− dA. dS − ρgdA. dS = ρdA. dS.
∂S dS ∂S
Dividing through by ρdA. dS and rearranging:
∂P dZ v ∂v
− −g =
ρ ∂S dS ∂S
∂P dZ v ∂v
+g + =0
ρ ∂S dS ∂S
Taking full differentials:
dP dZ vdv
+g + =0
ρdS dS dS
Multiplying through by dS:
𝐝𝐏
+ 𝐠𝐝𝐙 + 𝐯𝐝𝐯 = 𝟎
𝛒

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Net force acting on fluid in motion is equal to zero (Conservation of Momentum). The
equation is referred to as Euler Equation of Motion.

C. Bernoulli’s Equation of Fluid Flow

Integrating the Euler’s Equation of Motion:
dP
∫( + gdZ + vdv) = C
ρ
dP
∫ + ∫ gdZ + ∫ vdv = C
ρ
P v2
+ gZ + = C
ρ 2
Diving through by gravity and rewriting:
P v2
+Z+ =C
ρg 2g
𝐏 𝐯𝟐
+ +𝐙=𝐂
𝛒𝐠 𝟐𝐠
The total energy (pressure, kinetic, and potential) at any point in the fluid flow is constant:
Energy Conservation Equation. The equation is referred to as Bernoulli’s Equation of Motion.
For this equation to be true, four assumptions are made:
i. The flow is ideal (zero viscosity)
ii. The flow is steady (meaning characteristics do not change with time)
iii. The flow is incompressible (liquid)
iv. The flow is irrotational (streamline motion).
Class Example
Question 1
Water flows through a 5 cm diameter tube with a gauge pressure of 294300 Pa and a mean
velocity of 2.5 m/s. Find the total head of the fluid at a cross-section of the flow, 5 m above
the datum line.
Question 2
Oil flows through a pipe with diameters of 0.35 m and 0.21 m at Section 1 and 2 respectively.
The rate of flow through the pipe is 0.08 m3 per second. The sections (1 and 2) are 5 m and 3

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m above the datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 3.924 x 105 Pa, calculate the value of pressure
at Section 2.
Question 3
Sugar syrup in a milling factory is pumped through an inclined tapper pipe over a distance of
300 meters. The pipe has diameters of 600 and 750 mm at the lower and upper end respectively.
If the rate of flow is 150 lit/s and pressure is 19.625 N/cm2, calculate:
a) Flow velocity at the two ends of the pipe.
b) The total head at head at the upper end of the pipe.
c) The pressure at the upper end (taking the density of the syrup as 1320 kg/m3).

Homework
Task 1
State the Bernoulli’s theorem for steady flow of an incompressible fluid. Derive the Bernoulli’s
Equation of Fluid flow from first principle and state the assumptions made.
Task 2
Water flows through an inclined pipe with diameters of 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom
and upper ends respectively. The intensity of pressure at the two ends (bottom and top) are
24.525 and 9.81 N/cm2 respectively. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow
through the pipe is 40 lit/s.

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 VISCUS FLOW

In the Bernoulli’s Equation of Motion, the fluid is assumed to be ideal and does not experience
viscous drag. In practice, viscosity offers resistance to fluid flow, which results into head loss.
If considered, the Bernoulli’s Equation for two sections in a flow field becomes:

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + h𝑓
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Hf is the head loss due to viscosity, and the Equation is known as the Bernoulli’s Equation for
Real Fluid.

Class Example

Water flow in a 400 mm pipe with a constant velocity of 25 m/s. The pressure measured at the
two ends of the pipe (A and B) are 29.43 N/m 2 and 22.563 N/m2 respectively. If section A is
28 m and B is 30 above the datum, calculate:

a) The total head at point A

b) The total head at point B
c) The head loss between the two sections.

A. Viscosity

The property of fluid to resist relative motion between adjacent layers of fluid. It is a frictional
force between the adjacent fluid layers moving with different velocity. It causes shear stress
between the layers that is proportional to the velocity gradient.

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 dv
τ∝
dy

Introducing the constant of proportionality:

dv
τ=μ
dy

In which μ (mu) is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or simply viscosity), and the velocity
𝑑𝑣
gradient ( ) is the rate of shear strain (also rate of shear deformation). Viscosity can therefore
𝑑𝑦

be defined as shear stress per unit shear strain:

τ
μ=
dv
( )
dy

It is measured in Ns/m2 or Pa.s.

B. Kinematic Viscosity

The ration between dynamic viscosity and fluid density:

𝜇 τ
𝜗= =
𝜌 𝜌 dv
( )
dy

It is measured in m2/s. Then the shear stress can be expressed as:

dv
τ = ρ𝜗 ( )
dy

C. Types of Fluids

Base of the viscous properties, fluids can be classified as:

i. Ideal Fluid: incompressible fluid with no viscosity. Is imaginary and does not exist in
real life.
ii. Real Fluid: fluid that experiences viscous drag. Practical and exist in real life.

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 iii. Newtonian Fluid: a real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to rate of
shear strain.
iv. Non-Newtonian Fluid: a real fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional to rate
of shear strain.
v. Ideal Plastic Fluid: Newtonian fluid in which shear stress exceeds the yield value of the
fluid.

D. Viscous Flow Between Two Parallel Fixed Plates

Consider two parallel plates fixed at a distance of ‘t’ apart with viscous fluid flowing from left
to right between them (Fig. 1).

Define a fluid element of length ‘dx’, width ‘dy’, and a unit thickness located at a distance of
y from the lower plate. Taking the intensity of pressure at the leading face of the fluid element
(AB) as P, then that at the other face (CD) would be:

∂P
PCD = P + dx
∂x

Again, if the shear stress acting on the lower surface of the fluid element (BC) is ‘τ’, then that
at the upper surface would be:

∂τ
τBC = τ + dy
∂y

The forces acting on the fluid elements is then defined by four forces:

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 1. Pressure force on the leading face:
F AB = P × AAB
F AB = P × dy × 1 = Pdy
2. Pressure force on the trailing face:
F CD = P × ACD
∂P ∂P
F CD = (P + dx) × dy × 1 = (P + dx) dy
∂x ∂x
3. Shear force on the lower surface:
FBC = τ × ABC
FBC = τ × dx × 1 = τdx
4. Shear stress:
FAD = τ × AAD
∂τ ∂τ
FAD = (τ + dy) × dx × 1 = (τ + dy) dx
∂y ∂y

For steady uniform flow, the acceleration of fluid and the resultant force in the direction of
flow are zero:

∂P ∂τ
Pdy − (P + dx) dy − τdx + (τ + dy) dx = 0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ
Pdy − Pdy − dxdy − τdx + τdx + dydx = 0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ
− dxdy + dydx = 0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ
dxdy = dydx
∂x ∂y

Dividing both sides by dxdy:

𝛛𝐏 𝛛𝛕
= (𝐞𝐪 𝟏)
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲

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 a) Velocity Distribution (Profile)

The velocity distribution equation can be determined by substituting for shear stress in Eq. 1:

∂P ∂τ
=
∂x ∂y

Recall:

dv
τ=μ
dy

Then

∂P ∂ dv ∂ dv ∂2 v
= (μ ) = μ ( ) = μ 2
∂x ∂y dy ∂y dy ∂y

Rearranging:

∂2 v 1 ∂P
=
∂y 2 μ ∂x

Integrating w.r.t. y:

∂v 1 ∂P
= y + C1
∂y μ ∂x

Integrating again:

1 ∂P 2
v= y + C1 y + C2
2μ ∂x

C1 and C2 are constant of integration, and their values can be obtained from two boundary
conditions; at the two surfaces the velocity is zero:

v=0@y=0

v=0@y=t

Substituting for first BC:

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 1 ∂P
0= × 02 + C1 × 0 + C2
2μ ∂x

C2 = 0

For the second BC:

1 ∂P 2
o= t + C1 t + 0
2μ ∂x

1 ∂P 2 1 1 ∂P
C1 = t × = t
2μ ∂x t 2μ ∂x

Substituting the constants back to the equation:

1 ∂P 2 1 ∂P
v= y + ty + 0
2μ ∂x 2μ ∂x

1 ∂P 2 1 ∂P
v= y + ty
2μ ∂x 2μ ∂x

𝟏 𝛛𝐏 𝟐
𝐯= [𝐲 − 𝐭𝐲]
𝟐𝛍 𝛛𝐱

The velocity varies with the square of vertical displacement, hence parabolic curve.

b) Shear Stress Distribution Equation (Profile)

From the equation of shear stress:

dv
τ=μ
dy

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But

1 ∂P 2
v= [y − ty]
2μ ∂x

And

dv d 1 ∂P 2
= [ (y − ty)]
dy dy 2μ ∂x

dv 1 ∂P
= (2y − t)
dy 2μ ∂x

Then;

dv 1 ∂P
τ=μ =μ× (2y − t)
dy 2μ ∂x

𝟏 𝛛𝐏
𝛕= (𝟐𝐲 − 𝐭)
𝟐 𝛛𝐱

Shear varies linearly with vertical displacement. The velocity profile is shown.

c) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity

The ratio of maximum to average velocity can be expressed as:

Vmax
R=
v̅

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 t
Where the maximum velocity is velocity measured at the centre of the flow field (y = ). From
2

the velocity distribution equation:

1 ∂P 2
v= [y − ty]
2μ ∂x

t
At (y = ):
2

1 ∂P t 2 t
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [( ) − t × ]
2μ ∂x 2 2

1 ∂P t 2 t 2
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ − ]
2μ ∂x 4 2

1 ∂P t 2
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 =− [ ]
2μ ∂x 4

1 ∂P 2
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − t
8μ ∂x

But mean velocity can be obtained from continuity equation:

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣̅

Meaning:

Q
v̅ =
A

Q is the discharge obtained by integrating the rate of flow through the cross-section of the
elemental fluid:

dQ = vy × A

1 ∂P 2
dQ = [y − ty] × dy × 1
2μ ∂x

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 1 ∂P 2
dQ = [y − ty]dy
2μ ∂x

Taking the integral of both sides:

t t
1 ∂P 2
∫ dQ = ∫ [y − ty]dy
2μ ∂x
0 0

t t
1 ∂P
∫ dQ = ∫[y 2 − ty]dy
2μ ∂x
0 0

t
1 ∂P y 3 ty 2
Q= [ − ]
2μ ∂x 3 2 0

Applying the range:

1 ∂P t 3 t 3
Q= [ − ]
2μ ∂x 3 2

1 ∂P t 3 1 ∂P 3
Q= =− t
2μ ∂x 6 12μ ∂x

Then mean velocity:

Q 1 ∂P 3 1 1 ∂P 2
v̅ = =− t × =− t
A 12μ ∂x 𝑡×1 12μ ∂x

Velocity ratio:

Vmax 1 ∂P 2 1 1 1
R= =− t ×− = ÷
v̅ 8μ ∂x 1 ∂P 2 8μ 12μ
t
12μ ∂x

1 12μ
R= ×
8μ 1

𝟑
𝐑=
𝟐

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 d) Pressure Head Drop

Mean velocity:

1 ∂P 2
v̅ = − t
12μ ∂x

Meaning

∂P 12μv̅
= 2
∂x t

Integrating:
1 1
12μv̅
∫ ∂P = ∫ ∂x
t2
2 2

12μv̅ 1
[P]12 = [ 2 x]
t 2

12μv̅
P1 − P2 = [x1 − x2 ]
t2
12μv̅L
P1 − P2 =
t2

This gives the change in pressure. Therefore, the pressure head:

P1 − P2 12μv̅L
=
ρg ρgt 2

𝟏𝟐𝛍𝐯̅𝐋
𝐇𝐟 =
𝛒𝐠𝐭 𝟐

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E. Viscous Flow Between Parallel Moving Plates

Think of two parallel plates, the lower one still fixed but the upper one now moving with a
uniform velocity V1. Like the previous setup, the plates are t distance apart with viscous fluid
flowing from left to right in between them (Fig. 1).

Taking a fluid element ‘dx’ in length, ‘dy’ in width, and a unit thickness located at a distance
of y from the lower plate, the forces acting on the fluid would be:

Pressure force

∂P
FP = P. dy − (p + dx) dy
∂x

Force due to shear stress:

∂τ
𝐹𝜏 = −τ. dx + (τ + dy) dx
∂y

For steady and uniform flow, the acceleration of the fluid and the resultant force in the direction
of flow are zero:

∂P ∂τ
Pdy − (P + dx) dy − τdx + (τ + dy) dx = 0
∂x ∂y

Simplifying:

∂P ∂τ
Pdy − Pdy − dxdy − τdx + τdx + dydx = 0
∂x ∂y

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 ∂P ∂τ
− dxdy + dydx = 0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ
dxdy = dydx
∂x ∂y

Dividing both sides by dxdy:

𝛛𝐏 𝛛𝛕
= (𝐞𝐪 𝟏)
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲

a) Velocity Distribution Equation (Profile)

Substituting for shear stress in Eq. 1,

∂P ∂ dv ∂ dv ∂2 v
= (μ ) = μ ( ) = μ 2
∂x ∂y dy ∂y dy ∂y

∂P ∂2 v
=μ 2
∂x ∂y

Rearranging:

∂2 v 1 ∂P
=
∂y 2 μ ∂x

Integrating w.r.t. y:

∂v 1 ∂P
= y + C1
∂y μ ∂x

Integrating again:

1 ∂P 2
v= y + C1 y + C2
2μ ∂x

C1 and C2 are constant of integration, which can be obtained from boundary conditions. At
the surfaces of the lower plate the fluid velocity is zero:

24 | P a g e
 v=0@y=0

On the surface of the upper surface, the fluid moves with at the same speed as the plate.

v = v1 @ y = t

Substituting for first boundary condition:

1 ∂P
0= × 02 + C1 × 0 + C2
2μ ∂x

C2 = 0

For the second boundary condition:

1 ∂P 2
v1 = t + C1 t + 0
2μ ∂x

1 ∂P 2 1
C1 = v1 − t ×
2μ ∂x t

v1 1 ∂P
C1 = − t
𝑡 2μ ∂x

Substituting the constants back to the equation:

1 ∂P 2
v= y + C1 y + C2
2μ ∂x

1 ∂P 2 v1 1 ∂P
v= y +( − t) y + 0
2μ ∂x 𝑡 2μ ∂x

1 ∂P 2 v1 1 ∂P
v= y + 𝑦− ty
2μ ∂x 𝑡 2μ ∂x

𝟏 𝛛𝐏 𝟐 𝒚
𝐯= (𝐲 − 𝐭𝐲) + 𝐯𝟏
𝟐𝛍 𝛛𝐱 𝒕

The velocity varies with the square of vertical displacement, hence parabolic curve.

25 | P a g e
 b) Shear Stress Distribution Equation (Profile)

From the equation of shear stress:

dv
τ=μ
dy

But

1 ∂P 2 𝑦
v= (y − ty) + v1
2μ ∂x 𝑡

And

dv d 1 ∂P 2 𝑦
= [ (y − ty) + v1 ]
dy dy 2μ ∂x 𝑡

dv 1 ∂P 1
= (2y − t) + v1
dy 2μ ∂x 𝑡

Then;

dv 1 ∂P 1
τ=μ =μ×[ (2y − t) + v1 ]
dy 2μ ∂x 𝑡

𝟏 𝛛𝐏 𝛍
𝛕= (𝟐𝐲 − 𝐭) + 𝐯𝟏
𝟐 𝛛𝐱 𝒕

Still, shear varies linearly with vertical displacement. The velocity profile is shown.

26 | P a g e
 c) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity

The ratio of maximum to average velocity can be expressed as:

Vmax
R=
v̅
t
Where the maximum velocity is velocity measured at the centre of the flow field (y = ). From
2

the velocity distribution equation:

1 ∂P 2 y
v= (y − ty) + v1
2μ ∂x t

t
At (y = ):
2

1 ∂P t 2 t t 1
vmax = (( ) − t × ) + ( × ) v1
2μ ∂x 2 2 2 t

Simplifying and rearranging:

1 ∂P t 2 t 2 v1
vmax = ( − )+
2μ ∂x 4 2 2

v1 1 ∂P t 2
vmax = − [ ]
2 2μ ∂x 4

v1 1 ∂P 2
vmax = − t
2 8μ ∂x

27 | P a g e
 ∂P 2
4μv1 + t
vmax = ∂x
8μ

But mean velocity can be obtained from continuity equation:

Q = Av̅

Meaning:

Q
v̅ =
A

Q is the discharge obtained by integrating the rate of flow through the cross-section of the
elemental fluid:

dQ = vy × A

1 ∂P 2 y
dQ = [ (y − ty) + v1 ] × dy × 1
2μ ∂x t

1 ∂P 2 y
dQ = [ (y − ty) + v1 ] dy
2μ ∂x t

Taking the integral of both sides:

t t
1 ∂P 2 y
∫ dQ = ∫ [ (y − ty) + v1 ] dy
2μ ∂x t
0 0

t
1 ∂P y 3 ty 2 y2
Q=[ ( − ) + v1 ]
2μ ∂x 3 2 2t 0

Applying the range:

t
1 ∂P y 3 ty 2 y2
Q=[ ( − ) + v1 ]
2μ ∂x 3 2 2t 0

1 ∂P t 3 t × t 2 t2
Q= ( − ) + v1
2μ ∂x 3 2 2t
28 | P a g e
 1 ∂P t 3 t 3 t
Q= ( − ) + v1
2μ ∂x 3 2 2

1 ∂P t 3 t 3 t
Q= ( − ) + v1
2μ ∂x 3 2 2

t 1 ∂P t 3
Q = v1 −
2 2μ ∂x 6

t 1 ∂P 3
Q = v1 − t
2 12μ ∂x

Then mean velocity:

Q
v̅ =
A
t 1 ∂P 3 1
v̅ = ( v1 − t )×
2 12μ ∂x t×1

t 1 ∂P 3 1
v̅ = ( v1 − t )×
2 12μ ∂x t

v1 1 ∂P 2
v̅ = − t
2 12μ ∂x

∂P 2
6μv1 + t
v̅ = ∂x
12μ

Velocity ratio:

∂P
Vmax 4μv1 + t 2 12μ
R= = ∂x ×
v̅ 8μ ∂P
6μv1 + t 2
∂x
𝛛𝐏 𝟐
𝟒𝛍𝐯𝟏 + 𝐭 𝟑
𝐑= 𝛛𝐱 ×
𝟐 𝛛𝐏 𝟐
𝟔𝛍𝐯𝟏 + 𝐭
𝛛𝐱

29 | P a g e
 d) Pressure Head Drop

From mean velocity:

v1 1 ∂P 2
v̅ = − t
2 12μ ∂x

Rate of change of pressure:

∂P 12μv1 12μv̅
= − 2
∂x 2t 2 t

Integrating:
1 1
12μv1 12μv̅
∫ ∂P = ∫ ( − 2 ) ∂x
2t 2 t
2 2

1
12μ 1
[P]12 = 2 [ v1 x − v̅x]
t 2 2

12μ 1
P1 − P2 = [ v (x − x2 ) − v̅(x1 − x2 )]
t2 2 1 1

But since;

L = x1 − x2

12μ 1 12μL 1
P1 − P2 = 2
[ v1 L − v̅L] = 2 [ v1 − v̅]
t 2 t 2

This gives the change in pressure. Therefore, the pressure head:

P1 − P2 12μL 1
= [ v − v̅]
ρg ρgt 2 2 1

𝟏𝟐𝛍𝐯̅𝐋 𝟏
𝐇𝐟 = [ 𝐯 − 𝐯̅]
𝛒𝐠𝐭 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏

30 | P a g e
F. Viscous Flow Through Circular Pipe

Consider viscous fluid flowing from left to right in a horizontal pipe of radius R. Pick a ring
fluid element of radius r, thickness dr, and length dx. Three forces act on the elemental fluid:

1. Force due to pressure on the leading face:

FP,AB = P × πr 2
2. Force due to pressure on the trailing face:
∂p
FP,DC = (P + dx) × πr 2
∂x
3. Force due to shear stress on the outer surface of the elemental surface;
Fτ = τ × 2πr × dx

Net force:

∂p
Pπr 2 − (P + dx) πr 2 − τdx2πr = 0
∂x

∂p
Pπr 2 − Pπr 2 − dxπr 2 − τdx2πr = 0
∂x

∂p
− dxπr 2 − τdx2πr = 0
∂x

𝛛𝐩
− 𝐫 − 𝟐𝛕 = 𝟎
𝛛𝐱

a) Shear Stress Distribution Equation (Profile)

From the equation of net force

∂p
− r − 2τ = 0
∂x

Making τ the subject of the equation;

𝛛𝐩 𝐫
𝛕=−
𝛛𝐱 𝟐

31 | P a g e
Implication: shear stress varies linearly with radius of the pipe across the section.

b) Velocity Distribution Equation (Profile)

Recall:

dv
τ=μ
dy

For pipe flow, y is measured radially from the pipe wall. Hence;

y = R − r & dy = −dr

Then

dv dv
τ=μ = −μ
−dr dr

Substituting in the equation of shear stress in circular pipe:

∂p r
τ=−
∂x 2
dv ∂p r
−μ =−
dr ∂x 2

dv 1 ∂p
= r
dr 2μ ∂x

Integrating w.r.t ‘r’:

1 ∂p
∫ dv = ∫ rdr
2μ ∂x

32 | P a g e
 1 ∂p r 2
v= +C
2μ ∂x 2

1 ∂p 2
v= r +C
4μ ∂x

At the pipe wall, the velocity is zero (r=R, v=0);

1 ∂p 2
0= R +C
4μ ∂x

1 ∂p 2
C=− R
4μ ∂x

Substituting:

1 ∂p 2
v= r +C
4μ ∂x

1 ∂p 2 1 ∂p 2
v= r − R
4μ ∂x 4μ ∂x

Factorizing:

1 ∂p 2
v= (r − R2 )
4μ ∂x

Or;

1 ∂p 2
v=− (R − r 2 )
4μ ∂x

Implication: the velocity varies with the square or r and the velocity profile is a parabola.

33 | P a g e
 c) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity

From velocity distribution equation:

1 ∂p 2
v=− (R − r 2 )
4μ ∂x

But the velocity is maximum at the centre of the pipe (r=0):

1 ∂p 2
vmax = − R
4μ ∂x

Equally, mean velocity can be obtained by dividing discharge across the pipe section by the
area of the pipe:

Q
v̅ =
A

Where:

A = πR2

And;

Q = ∫ dQ

In which:

dQ = v. dA

1 ∂p 2
dQ = − (R − r 2 ) × 2πrdr
4μ ∂x

π ∂p 2
dQ = − (R r − r 3 )dr
2μ ∂x
R
π ∂p 2
Q = ∫− (R r − r 3 )dr
2μ ∂x
0

34 | P a g e
 R
π ∂p
Q=− ∫(R2 r − r 3 )dr
2μ ∂x
0

R
π ∂p 2 r 2 r 4
Q=− [R − ]
2μ ∂x 2 4 0

π ∂p R4 R4
Q=− ( − )
2μ ∂x 2 4

π ∂p R4 π ∂p 4
Q=− ( )=− R
2μ ∂x 4 8μ ∂x

Then mean velocity:

Q
v̅ =
A
π ∂p 4 1
v̅ = − R × 2
8μ ∂x πR

1 ∂p 2
v̅ = − R
8μ ∂x

And the ration:

Vmax
R=
v̅
1 ∂p 2 8μ
R=− R ×
4μ ∂x ∂p
R2
∂x
1 8 8
R=− × = =2
4 1 4

35 | P a g e
Drop in Pressure Head

From the equation of mean velocity;

1 ∂p 2
v̅ = − R
8μ ∂x

The rate of change in pressure along the length of pipe;

∂p 8μv̅
=− 2
∂x R
8μv̅
∂p = − ∂x
R2

Integrating w.r.t x:
1 1
8μv̅
∫ dp = ∫ − dx
R2
2 2

8μv̅ 2
[P]12 = − [x]1
R2
8μv̅ 8μv̅
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = − (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
R2 R2 2
8μv̅𝐿
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 =
R2

But pressure head is given by:

ΔP 8μv̅𝐿
ℎ𝑓 = =
ρg ρgR2

But;

36 | P a g e
 2
R2
D =
4
𝟑𝟐𝛍𝐯̅𝐋
𝐡𝐟 =
𝛒𝐠𝐃𝟐

37 | P a g e
 ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
(CHAPTER 11)

Refer to energy lost due to frictional resistance between the flowing fluid and pipe surfaces or
changes in flow momenta caused by fittings, such as bends, valves, and elbows. As such,
energy losses in pipes are classified into two categories: major losses and minor losses.

Major losses: losses caused by frictional resistance between the fluid and the pipe surface.
They are calculated by Chezy’s Formula or Darcy-Weisbach Formula.

Minor losses: losses that occur due to changes in the velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude
or direction. This can occur in the following cases:

i. Sudden expansion
ii. Sudden contraction
iii. Pipe bend
iv. Pipe fittings
v. Obstructions in pipes

1. Chezy’s Formula

From a control volume flowing in a horizontal pipe with a uniform cross-section between
Sections 1 and 2 (Fig. 1).

By Bernoulli’s principle;

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + h𝑓
ρg 2g ρg 2g
38 | P a g e
Since the flow is steady and horizontal, the velocity and inclination gradient remain constant:

V1 = V2 & Z1 = Z2

Meaning;

P1 v12 P2 v12
+ + Z1 = + + Z1 + h𝑓
ρg 2g ρg 2g

P1 P2
= + h𝑓
ρg ρg

P1 P2 P1 − P2
hf = − =
ρg ρg ρg

𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏𝟐 = 𝛒𝐠𝐡𝐟 (𝟏)

Also, net forces acting on the controlled volume can be obtained by adding:

1. Force due to pressure in the direction of flow:

F1 = P1 A
2. Force due to pressure in the opposite direction of flow:
F2 = P2 A
3. Force due to frictional resistance,
FR = 𝑓 ′ πDLV 2
Frictional resistance is proportional to the length of the pipe L, the perimeter of the pipe’s
cross-section (πD), and flow velocity Vn.
FR ∝ πDLV n
And n depends on the nature of the flow varying between 1.5 and 2. For turbulent flow
n=2. F’ is the constant of the proportionality.

Net force in the direction of fluid flow:

P1 A − P2 A − 𝑓 ′ πDLV 2 = 0

A(P1 − P2 ) = 𝑓 ′ πDLV 2

39 | P a g e
 𝑓 ′ πDLV 2
P1 − P2 =
A
𝟒𝒇′ 𝛑𝐃𝐋𝐕 𝟐
𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏𝟐 = (𝟐)
𝛑𝐃𝟐

Comparing Eqn 1 and 2, the head drop would be:

4f ′ πDLV 2
ρghf =
πD2

4f ′ πDLV 2
ρghf =
πD2

4f ′ πDLV 2
hf =
ρgπD2

𝟒𝛑𝐃 𝐟′ 𝐋𝐕 𝟐
𝐡𝐟 = 𝟐
× × (𝟑)
𝛑𝐃 𝛒 𝐠

The first term is the ratio of the pipe’s cross-sectional area to its perimeter, known as the inverse
of hydraulic radius (or inverse of hydraulic mean depth). It can be solved as follows:

1 4πD 4
= =
m πD2 D

Substituting and solving for velocity:

1 f ′ LV 2
hf = × ×
m ρ g

ρg hf
V2 = × m ×
f′ L

ρg hf
V=√ × m ×
f′ L

ρg h
V=√ × √m × f
f′ L

40 | P a g e
 ρg hf
The first term √ is a constant known as Chezy’s constant and the term is the energy loss
f′ L

per unit length conventionally represented by 𝑖:

ρg hf
C=√ & i =
f′ L

Substituting:

𝐕 = 𝐂√𝐦𝐢 (𝟒)

This is Chezy’s Formula for head loss due to friction in pipes.

2. Darcy Weisbach Equation

From the equation for pressure drop (Eqn. 3):

4πD f ′ LV 2
hf = × ×
πD2 ρ g

Recall:

1 4πD 4
= =
m πD2 D

Also, the second term is the coefficient of friction (f) defined as:

2f ′
f=
ρ

f′ f
=
ρ 2

Rewriting the head drop:

𝟒𝐟𝐋𝐕 𝟐
𝐡𝐟 = (𝟓)
𝟐𝐠𝐃

41 | P a g e
This is the Darcy Weisbach Formula for head loss due to friction in pipe, and f is the Darcy’s
coefficient of friction defined by the shear stress. From the net force acting on the fluid:

P1 A − P2 A − FR = 0

A(P1 − P2 ) = FR

FR is the force due to shear stress and can also be expressed as the product of shear stress and
contact area:

FR = τ0 πDL

Substituting in the net force:

D2
π (P1 − P2 ) = τ0 πDL
4
D
(P − P2 ) = τ0 L
4 1
4τ0 L
P1 − P2 =
D

Recall,

4fLV 2
P1 − P2 = ρghf & hf =
2gD

Then

4fLV 2 4τ0 L
P1 − P2 = ρg =
2gD D

4fLV 2 4τ0 L
ρg =
2gD D

𝟐𝛕𝟎
𝐟=
𝛒𝐕 𝟐

42 | P a g e
A. Head Loss Due to Sudden Expansion

For a pipe with a sudden enlargement, neither the cross-sectional area nor fluid flow velocity
remain constant. Consider the fluid flowing through the controlled volume between the two
sections (1 and 2):

From Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid;

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + h𝑓
ρg 2g ρg 2g

In this case, although the pipe is horizontal and the inclination gradient is constant, the velocity
varies with the cross-sectional area:

Z1 = Z2

Meaning;

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + Z1 = + + Z1 + h𝑒
ρg 2g ρg 2g

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ = + + h𝑒
ρg 2g ρg 2g

P1 v12 P2 v22
h𝑒 = + − −
ρg 2g ρg 2g

𝐏𝟏 −𝐏𝟐 𝐯𝟏𝟐 −𝐯𝟐𝟐

𝐡𝐞 = ( )+( ) (𝟏)
𝛒𝐠 𝟐𝐠

43 | P a g e
Also, forces acting on the control volume are equal to the rate of change in momentum. These
forces include:

1. Force pressure in the direction of flow:

Fp1 = P1 A1
2. Force due to pressure in the opposite direction of flow:
Fp2 = P2 A2
3. Force due to eddy current at the region of expansion:
FpE = P ′ (A2 − A1 )
But P’ has been shown to be equal to P1 from experiments:
FpE = P1 (A2 − A1 )

And the rate of change in momentum:

m2 v2 − m1 v1
Fnet =
t

For a unit time:

Fnet = m2 v2 − m1 v1

But mass is given by:

m = ρVol = ρAv

Fnet = ρA2 v2 v2 − ρA1 v1 v1

Fnet = ρA2 v22 − ρA1 v12

From the continuity equation:

A1 v1 = A2 v2

Or;

A 2 v2
A1 =
v1

44 | P a g e
Substituting back:

A 2 v2 2
Fnet = ρA2 v22 − ρ ( ) v1
v1

Fnet = ρA2 v22 − ρA2 v2 v1

Fnet = ρA2 (v22 − v2 v1 )

Therefore, net force:

P1 A1 − P2 A2 + P1 (A2 − A1 ) = ρA2 (v22 − v2 v1 )

P1 A1 − P2 A2 + P1 A2 − P1 A1 = ρA2 (v22 − v2 v1 )

P1 − P2
= v22 − v2 v1
ρ

Dividing through by gravity:

P1 − P2 v22 − v2 v1
=
ρg g

Substituting in equation one:

P1 − P2 v12 − v22
he = ( )+( )
ρg 2g

v22 − v2 v1 v12 − v22 v22 − v2 v1 v12 − v22

he = ( )+( )= +
g 2g g 2g

2v22 − 2v2 v1 + v12 − v22 v22 − 2v2 v1 + v12

he = =
2g 2g

(𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 )𝟐
𝐡𝐞 =
𝟐𝐠

45 | P a g e
B. Head Loss Due to Sudden Contraction

As fluids flow from large pipes into small pipes, cross-sectional areas of flow fields decrease
consistently into the smaller pipes (Fig. 1). This contraction continues until section C-C (Vena-
contracta), where the cross-section becomes minimum and begins expanding onwards. It is this
secondary expansion that causes energy loss in this setup.

Recall;

(v2 − v1 )2
he =
2g

For expansion from the Vena-contracta:

(vc − v2 )2
hc =
2g

v22 vc 2
hc = ( − 1)
2g v2

By continuity equation:

A c vc = A 2 v2

v2 A c
= = Cc
vc A 2

CC is the coefficient of contraction calculated from the ratio of the cross-sectional area at the
Vena-contracta to that of the smaller pipe. Substituting this into the equation of head loss due
to pipe contraction:
46 | P a g e
 2
v22 1
hc = × ( − 1)
2g CC

The second term is a constant:

2
1
k = ( − 1)
CC

And;

v22
hc = k
2g

Where the coefficient of contraction is not given, 0.5 can be used as the value of k:

v22
hc = 0.5
2g

SUMMARY OF LOSSES IN PIPE

TYPE OF LOSS HEAD LOSS FORMULA

1. Frictional Loss (Major Loss) 1. hf =
P1 −P2
ρg

4πD f′ LV2
2. hf = 2
× ×
πD ρ g

4fLV2
3. hf =
2gD

2. Sudden Expansion (minor loss) 1. he = (

P1 −P2
)+(
v21 −v22
)
ρg 2g

(v2 −v1 )2
2. he =
2g

3. Sudden Contraction (minor loss) (vc −v2 )2

1. hc =
2g

v22
2. hc = k
2g

v22
3. hc = 0.5
2g

47 | P a g e
 4. Entrance or inlet (minor loss) V2
hi = 0.5
2g

5. Exit or outlet (minor loss) V2

ho =
2g
6. Obstruction in Pipe (minor loss) 2
V2 A
hob = ( − 1)
2g Cc (A − a)
A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and a
is the maximum area of the obstruction. Cc is
the coefficient of contraction given by:
𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑐 =
(𝐴 − 𝑎)
7. Pipe Bend (minor loss) V2
hb = k
2g
K is the coefficient of bend defined by angle
of bend, radius of the curvature, and the
diameter of the pipe.
8. Pipe fittings V2
hft = k
2g

48 | P a g e
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
(CHAPTER 12)

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method for analysing physical quantities by

expressing them into their basic dimensions. It’s use in:

❖ Verifying the consistency of equations

❖ Converting units of measurement
❖ Deriving formulas
❖ Scaling experimental results in prototyping

A. Types of Physical Quantities

Physical quantities are properties of systems that can be measured and are expressed as
algebraic multiplication of units. They are classified as Basic or Derived Quantities.

Basic quantities are quantities that are measured directly from the system and do not
depend on any other physical quantities. They are also called primary or fundamental
quantities. Examples include:

i. Mass (m) measured in kilograms (kg)

ii. Length (L) measured in meters (m)
iii. Time (t) measured in seconds (s)
iv. Temperature (T) measured in degrees Celsius (oC)
v. Electric Current (I) measured in amperes (A)
vi. Luminous intensity (Iv) measured in candela (cd)

Derived quantities are quantities that are obtained by multiplying or dividing other
physical quantities. They possess more than one fundamental dimension. Examples:

i. Area (L x W)
A = L2

49 | P a g e
 ii. Volume (L x W x H):
V = L3
iii. Density (mass/volume)
ρ = mL−3
iv. Velocity (displacement/time)
v = LT −1
v. Acceleration (velocity/ time)
a = LT −2
vi. Discharge (volume/ time)
Q = L3 T −1
vii. Dynamic viscosity (shear stress/ velocity gradient)
μ = ML−1 T −1
viii. Kinematic viscosity (dynamic viscosity/ density):
v = L2 T −1
ix. Force
F = MLT −2
x. Pressure (force/ area)
P = ML−1 T −2
xi. Stress (force/area)
σ = ML−1 T −2
xii. Work, Energy (Force x distance)
W, E = ML2 T −2
xiii. Power (energy/ time)
P = ML2 T −3
xiv. Torque (force x arm distance):
τ = ML2 T −2
xv. Momentum (mass x velocity)
⃗ = MLT −1
P
50 | P a g e
B. Dimensional Homogeneity

Occurs when an equation has the same dimensions on both sides. Dimensionally
homogeneous equations are independent of units.

Example 1

Show that the equation of the final velocity of a body on free fall (v = √2gH) is
dimensionally homogenous:

Velocity (displacement/time):

v = LT −1

Gravitational acceleration:

g = LT −2

Height:

H=L

Rewriting the equation:

LT −1 = √LT −2 × L

LT −1 = √L2 T −2

LT −1 = LT −1

51 | P a g e
C. Dimensional Analysis Methods

There are mainly two methods:

Rayleigh’s Method

The equation is written as a function of all variables raised to arbitrary constants. The
values of the powers are thereafter obtained by comparing the indices of fundamental
quantities. The method is recommended for the expressions that are functions of four or
less variables.

Example 2

The time period of a pendulum depends on the length (L) of the pendulum and the
acceleration due to gravity. Derive the expression of time.

From the statement, time is a function of two variables, length (L) and gravitational
acceleration (g):

t = K. La . g b

Expressing in fundamental:

T = K. La . (LT −2 )b

T = K. La . Lb . T −2b

T = K. La+b . T −2b

−2b = 1

1
b=
2

a+b=0

52 | P a g e
 1
a+ =0
2
1
a=−
2

Rewriting the equation:

T = K. La . g b
1 1
t = K. L−2 . g 2
1
g 2
t = K. ( )
L

g
t = K√
L

Example 2

The efficiency η of a fan depends on its diameter, angular velocity ω, density of air ρ, its
dynamic viscosity μ, and the discharge Q. Express η in terms of dimensionless
parameters.

Solution

Efficiency can be expressed as a function of the parameters:

η = K. ρa . μb . ωc . Dd . Qe

Where K is a dimensionless constant. Writing in its fundamental dimensions:

η = K. (mL−3 )a . (ML−1 T −1 )b . (T −1 )c . (L)d . (L3 T −1 )e

η = K. ma L−3a . M b L−b T −b . T −c . Ld . L3e T −e

η = K. ma+b . L−3a−b+d+3e . T −b−c−e

But the efficiency is a non-dimensional constant, the equation of indices become:

53 | P a g e
 a+b=0

−3a − b + d + 3e = 0

−b − c − e = 0

There are five unknown and three equations, it cannot be solved simultaneously. Less
important variables are expressed in terms of more important variables. In this case,
viscosity and discharge are more important; the equations of indices are expressed in
terms of b and e:

a+b=0

a = −b

−b − c − e = 0

c = −b − e

−3a − b + d + 3e = 0

−3(−b) − b + d + 3e = 0

3b − b + d + 3e = 0

2b + d + 3e = 0

d = −2b − 3e

Substituting back:

η = K. ρa . μb . ωc . Dd . Qe

η = K. ρ−b . μb . ω−b−e . D−(2b+3e) . Qe

η = K. ρ−b . μb . ω−b . ω−e . D−2b . D−3e . Qe

η = K. ρ−b . μb . ω−b . D−2b . ω−e . D−3e . Qe

54 | P a g e
 μb Qe
η = K. ( b b 2b ) . ( e 3e )
ρ ω D ω D

μ b Qe e
η = K. ( ) ( e 3e )
ρωD2 ω D

μ Qe
η = ϕ [( )( )]
ρωD2 ωe D3e

Buckingham’s π-Theorem

States that for a physical phenomenon with n variables and m fundamental quantities,
then the variables are arranged in (n-m) dimensionless terms called π-terms. They are
independent of the system and contain (m+1) variables. In fluid mechanics, the repeating
variable in π=terms are selected such that one contains geometric property, and others
flow properties, and fluid properties.

Example

Air resistance on a supersonic plane depends on the length of the aircraft L, its flight
velocity V, air viscosity μ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus K. Establish the functional
expression for the resistance.

Solution

Resistance is defined as a function of the five variables:

R = f(l, V, μ, ρ, K)

Which can be rewritten as:

f(R, l, V, μ, ρ, K) = 0

Respective fundamental dimensions:

R = MLT −2

l=L
55 | P a g e
 V = LT −2

μ = ML−1 T −1

ρ = ML−3

K = ML−1 T −2

We have six variables with three fundamental dimensions:

n = 6 and m = 3

Then the number of π-terms will be three (6-3), and the equation becomes:

f1 (π1 , π2 , π3 ) = 0

Each term should have four variables selected from the function; one changing variable
and three repeating variables, containing geometric property, flow property, and fluid
property and do not form dimensionless group (L, V, and π). Each π-term can then be
rewritten:

π1 = La1 . V b1 . ρc1 . R

π2 = La2 . V b2 . ρc2 . μ

π3 = La3 . V b3 . ρc3 . K

Applying dimension homogeneity:

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = La1 . (LT −1 )b1 . (ML−3 )c1 . MLT −2

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = La1 . Lb1 T −b1 . M c1 L−3c1 . MLT −2

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = M c1+1 . La1+b1 −3c1+1 . T −b1 −2

Equation of indices:

c1 + 1 = 0

𝑐1 = −1
56 | P a g e
 −b1 − 2 = 0

b1 = −2

a1 + b1 − 3c1 + 1 = 0

a1 + −2 − 3 × −1 + 1 = 0

a1 + −2 + 3 + 1 = 0

a1 = −2

π1 = La1 . V b1 . ρc1 . R

π1 = L−2 . V −2 . ρ−1 . R

𝑅
π1 =
ρL2 V 2

Second term:

π2 = La2 . V b2 . ρc2 . μ

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = La2 . (LT −1 )b2 . (ML−3 )c2 . ML−1 T −1

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = La2 . Lb2 T −b2 . M c2 L−3c2 . ML−1 T −1

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = M c2+1 . La2+b2 −3c2−1 . T −b2 −1

c2 + 1 = 0

c2 = −1

−b2 − 1 = 0

b2 = −1

a2 + b2 − 3c2 − 1 = 0

a2 − 1 + 3 − 1 = 0

57 | P a g e
 a2 = −1
μ
π2 = La2 . V b2 . ρc2 . μ = L−1 . V −1 . ρ−1 . μ =
ρLV

Third term:

π3 = La3 . V b3 . ρc3 . K

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = La3 . (LT −1 )b3 . (ML−3 )c3 . ML−1 T −2

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = La3 . Lb3 T −b3 . M c3 L−3c3 . ML−1 T −2

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = M c3+1 . La3+b3 −3c3−1 . T −b3 −2

c3 + 1 = 0

c3 = −1

−b3 − 2 = 0

b3 = −2

a3 + b3 − 3c3 − 1

a3 − 2 + 3 − 1 = 0

a3 = 0

K
π3 = La3 . V b3 . ρc3 . K = L0 . V −2 . ρ−1 . K =
ρV 2

Substituting the values of π-terms back to the original equations:

R μ K
f1 ( , , )=0
ρL2 V 2 ρLV ρV 2

R μ K
= ∅ [ , ]
ρL2 V 2 ρLV ρV 2

58 | P a g e
 μ K
R = ρL2 V 2 . ∅ [ , 2]
ρLV ρV

Example 2

Efficiency η of a fan depends on the density ρ of air, its dynamic viscosity μ, the angular velocity ω of the
rotor, its diameter D, and the discharge Q. Show that efficiency can be expressed as a function (ϕ) of
dimensionless parameters as follows:

μ Q
η = ϕ [( ) . ( )]
ρωD2 ωD3

Solution

Efficiency is defined as a function of the five variables (ρ, μ, ω, D, and Q):

η = f(ρ, μ, ω, D, Q)

Rewritten as:

0 = f(η, ρ, μ, ω, D, Q)

Fundamental dimensions:

0 0 0
η=M L T

ρ = ML−3

μ = ML−1 T −1
−1
ω=T

D=L

Q = L3 T −1

There are five variables with three fundamental dimensions:

n = 5 and m = 3

Then the number of π-terms will be two (5 – 3), and the equation becomes:

f1 (π1 , π2 ) = 0
59 | P a g e
Each with four variables selected from the function: one changing variable and three
repeating ones, having geometric property, flow property, and fluid property and do not
form dimensionless group (ρ, ω, and D). Rewriting:

π1 = ρa1 . ωb1 . Dc1 . μ

π2 = ρa2 . ωb2 . Dc2 . Q

Applying dimension homogeneity:

π1 = ρa1 . ωb1 . Dc1 . μ

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = (ML−3 )𝑎1 . T −b1 . Lc1 . ML−1 T −1 = M a1 L−3a1 . T −b1 . Lc1 . ML−1 T −1

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = M a1+1 . L−3a1+c1+1 . T −b1−1

a1 + 1 = 0

a1 = −1

−b1 − 1 = 0

b1 = −1

−3a1 + c1 − 1 = 0

3 + c1 − 1 = 0

c1 = −2

Substituting:
μ
π1 = ρa1 . ωb1 . Dc1 . μ = ρ−1 . ω−1 . D−2 . μ =
ρωD2

For the second term:

π2 = ρa2 . ωb2 . Dc2 . Q

M 0 . L0 . T 0 = (ML−3 )𝑎2 . T −b2 . Lc2 . L3 T −1 = M a2 L−3a2 . T −b2 . Lc2 . L3 T −1

60 | P a g e
 M 0 . L0 . T 0 = M a2 . L−3a2+c2+3 . T −b1−1

a2 = 0

−b1 − 1 = 0

b1 = −1

−3a2 + c2 + 3 = 0

0 + c2 + 3 = 0

c2 = −3

Substituting:

Q
π2 = ρa2 . ωb2 . Dc2 . Q = ρ0 . ω−1 . D−3 . Q =
ωD3

Substituting that π-terms back to the equation of efficiency:

μ Q
f1 ( , )=0
ρωD2 ωD3

But efficiency is a dimensionless number:

μ Q
η = ϕ[ , ]
ρωD2 ωD3

61 | P a g e
D. Model Analysis

A model is a replica of actual systems or structures produced in small or large scales to

be used in performance analysis. Dimensional analysis is vital in calculating the actual
system properties from the simulation. By law of similitude, three types of similarities
can be derived from such analyses:

i. Geometric similarity
ii. Kinematic similarity
iii. Dynamic similarity

For the dynamic similarity, the ration of corresponding forces acting at corresponding
points must be equal. These ratios are dimensionless numbers and include:

i. Reynold’s number (Re)

ρVL
Re =
μ
L is the diameter and v are velocity.

ii. Froude’s number (Fe)

v
Fe =
√gL
V is the velocity of fluid, g is gravity, and L is length.

iii. Euler’s number (Eu)

v
Eu =
√P⁄ρ
P is the pressure, ρ is the density of fluid, and v is its velocity.

iv. Weber’s number (We)

v
We =
√σ⁄ρL
62 | P a g e
 V is the flow velocity, σ is the surface tension of the fluid, and L is the length of the
fluid surface.

v. Mach number (M)

V
M=
√K⁄ρ
V is the velocity of the fluid, K is the elastic stress, and V is the fluid velocity.

Example

A tube (1.5 diameter) is to transport oil (900 kg/m3 density and 0.03 poise viscosity) at
a flow rate of 3000 litre/s. Modal tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using
water (0.01 poise viscosity). Calculate velocity and the rate of flow in the model.

Solution

Prototype:

Q = 3000 ls −1

μ = 0.03 poise

ρ = 900 kg⁄m3

𝐷 = 1.5

Model:

Q = 3000 ls −1

μ = 0.01 poise

ρ = 1000 kg⁄m3

D = 1.5

63 | P a g e
The dimensionless number comparing these parameters is Reynold’s number:

ρVL
Re =
μ

Meaning:

ρm Vm Lm ρp Vp Lp
=
μm μp

ρp Vp Lp μm
Vm = ×
μp ρm Lm

900 × Vp × 1.5 0.01

Vm = ×
0.03 1000 × 0.15

Vm = 3Vp

But;

Q 3
Vp = = 2 = 0.01698ms −1
A 1.5
π×
4

Vm = 3 × 0.01698ms −1 = 0.05093

Vm = 0.05093ms−1

64 | P a g e
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Pumps are hydraulic machines that convert mechanical to hydraulic energy. In centrifugal
pumps, mechanical energy exists as kinetic energy in the rotating impeller. This rotational
motion creates a centrifugal force that pushes the water outwards and create a low-pressure
region at the impeller’s centre. Upon hitting the casing, kinetic energy of the moving fluid is
converted into hydraulic energy. The pressurized fluid is discharged through the outlet.

The main parts:

1. Impeller: the rotating part of the pump. It is mounted on the shaft connected with the
prime mover. Consists of series vanes curved backward. Primarily imparts centrifugal
force on the fluid.
2. Casing: an air-tight passage surrounding the impeller. Converts the kinetic energy in
fluids to pressure energy. Are mainly three types:
a) Volute casing: spiral in shape where flow cross-sectional area increases along the
stream. The increasing cross-sectional area decreases the fluid velocity and
increases the pressure as the fluid approaches the outlet. This casing is known for
low efficiency as considerable energy is lost due to the formation of eddy currents.
b) Vortex Casing: similar to volute casing, but has circular chamber between the
casing and the impeller. The configuration improves its efficiency by reducing
eddies.
c) Casing with Guide Blades: circular in shape with series of guide blades mounted
on the diffuser around the impeller. Designed to cushion moving fluid from shock
as it leaves the impeller. The flow section and pressure increase as the fluid moves
between the guides.
3. Suction Pipe: the pipe connected to the inlet of the pump. Has a non-return foot valve
and strainer fitted at the lower end. Is non-collapsible to withstand vacuuming force.
4. Delivery Pipe: the pipe connected to the pump’s outlet. Is strong to withstand high
pressure force.

65 | P a g e
66 | P a g e
Work Done by the Impeller

Centrifugal pumps act as a reverse of an inward radial flow reaction turbines. Consider a jet of
liquid from a turbine casing striking the vane at an angle α and leaves at a different angle β. If
the turbine rotes with an angular velocity ω, then relative velocity between the vane and the jet
at the inlet and outlet can be illustrated using velocity triangles as shown.

Work done be the jet per unit time on a vane is given by its rotational power:

𝑊̇ = τω

In which τ is the torque defined as the rate of change of angular momentum:

τ = Mωi − Mωo

Angular momentum is defined as the product of linear momentum and radius of the circular
path. And linear momentum is the product mass and tangential velocity of the fluid. But mass
of fluid from the jet:

𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉

From the velocity triangle, the component of fluid velocity in tangential direction is Vw. Then
angular momentum of the fluid jet at the inlet and outlet:

Mωi = ρAV1 × Vw1 × R1

67 | P a g e
 Mωo = −𝜌𝐴𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 × 𝑅2

And torque:

τ = Mωi − Mωo

τ = ρAV1 × Vw1 × R1 — ρAV1 × Vw2 × R 2 .

τ = ρAV1 Vw1 R1 + ρAV1 Vw2 R 2

τ = ρAV1 (Vw1 R1 + Vw2 R 2 )

Work done:

Ẇ = τω

Ẇ = ρAV1 (Vw1 R1 + Vw2 R 2 )ω = ρAV1 (Vw1 R1 ω + Vw2 R 2 ω)

Ẇ = ρAV1 (Vw1 u1 + Vw2 u2 )

But the value of the tangential velocity depends on the jet angle at the outlet:

Vw2 = V2 cos β

The value is, therefore, positive for acute angles, zero for right angle, and negative for obtuse
angles. The equation of work done on the turbine can then be rewritten:

Ẇ = ρAV1 (Vw1 u1 ± Vw2 u2 )

Per unit mass:

ρAV1 (Vw1 u1 ± Vw2 u2 ) ρAV1 (Vw1 u1 ± Vw2 u2 )

Ẇ = =
ṁ ρAV1

Ẇ = (Vw1 u1 ± Vw2 u2 )

And per unit weight:

1
Ẇ = (Vw1 u1 ± Vw2 u2 )
g

68 | P a g e
In centrifugal pump, work is done by the impeller on fluid, and the fluid flows in the opposite
direction (from the centre towards the casing). The equation then becomes:

1
Ẇ = (Vw2 u2 − Vw1 u1 )
g

Also, for ideal design, the fluid flows radially and fluid enters the vane at a right angle. Then:

Vw1 = V1 cos β = V1 cos 0 = 0

Then;

1
Ẇ = Vw2 u2
g

Efficiency

Performance of centrifugal pumps are affected by two factors:

i. Manometric efficiency: loss in head due to hydraulic losses.

gHm
ηman =
Vw2 × u2
ii. Mechanical efficiency: loss in head due to energy loses in mechanical components.
1
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 g Vw2 u2
ηm = =
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 S. P

Combined, the overall efficiency of the pump:

ηo = ηman × ηm

1
gHm V u
g w2 2 Hm 1 Hm
ηo = × = × =
Vw2 × u2 S. P 1 S. P S. P

69 | P a g e
 RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Hydraulic machines that convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by means of a piston
reciprocating in a cylinder.

A. Parts of Reciprocating Pump

The main parts of reciprocating pump include:

i. Cylinder: piston housing that also provides the main chamber where fluid is drawn.
ii. Piston: reciprocates in the cylinder to create suction and discharge.
iii. Crankshaft: converts the rotational motion of the shaft to reciprocating motion.
iv. Connecting Rod: links the crankshaft to the piston. It transmits the reciprocating motion.
v. Suction Valve: allows fluid to enter the cylinder during suction and prevents backflow
during the discharge stroke.
vi. Discharge Valve: allows fluid to exit the cylinder during discharge and prevents
backflow into the cylinder during suction.
vii. Stuffing Box and Gland: Prevents leakage along the piston rod where it exits the
cylinder.

70 | P a g e
viii. Crankcase: houses the crankshaft and provides structural support to other components.
ix. Suction Pipe: draws fluid from the source into the pump during the suction stroke.
x. Delivery Pipe: carries fluid from the pump to the delivery point after the discharge
stroke.
xi. Flywheel: maintains uniform rotation of the crankshaft, storing energy during the power
stroke and releasing it during other strokes for steady operation.

B. Working Principle

Reciprocating pumps are driven by propeller shafts, which connect the crank to the prime
mover (an electric motor or a heat engine). As the shaft rotates with the crank, the connecting
rod, together with the piston, moves back and forth, converting the rotational motion into a
reciprocating motion.

When the crank is at A, the piston will be at the extreme left position in the cylinder. When it
moves through 180o to C, the piston will move to the extreme right position, creating a partial
vacuum in the cylinder. The atmospheric pressure, now higher than the pressure in the cylinder
due to partial vacuum, will force the liquid from the reservoir into the cylinder through the
suction pipe. The force opens up the suction valve but closes the delivery valve allowing the
liquid to fill the cylinder.

When it rotates further from Position C to A, the connecting rod retracts and moves the piston
back with it to the extreme left position raising the pressure in the cylinder. High pressure in
the cylinder forces the delivery valve open and closes the suction valve. The liquid is forced
into the delivery pipe and raised to the delivery point.

C. Discharge

Consider a single acting reciprocating pump with a cylinder diameter (D), piston stroke (L),
radius of the crank (r), crank speed in r. p. m (N), and suction and delivery heads (h s and hd).
For a complete revolution, the pump makes a full suction and discharge stroke. The volume of
liquid delivered:
71 | P a g e
 Q = AL

In which A is the cross-sectional area of the pump given by:

πD2
A=
4

But the number of revolutions in a second is:

N
R. P. S =
60

Then volumetric flow rate:

ALN
V̇ =
60

Mass flow rate:

ρALN
ṁ = ρV̇ =
60

And weight of the fluid flowing per unit time:

𝛒𝐠𝐀𝐋𝐍 𝛒𝐠𝐋𝐍πD2
𝐖 = 𝛒𝐠𝐕̇ = =
𝟔𝟎 𝟒 × 𝟔𝟎

D. Work Done by Reciprocating Pump

Work done by the reciprocating pump is given by the gain in potential energy as the liquid is
lifted through the manometric height. Potential energy:

EP = mgH = WH

For reciprocating pump:

ρgALN
W= × (hs + hd )
60

72 | P a g e
 Suction and discharge take place simultaneously in double acting pumps. For a one stroke, the
volume discharged is two times that of single stroke pump. Hence, the volumetric flow rate
(v), mass flow rate (m), weight flow rate (w), and power generated by the pump (P) are given
by:

2ALN
V̇ =
60
2ρALN
ṁ = ρV̇ =
60

2ρgLNπD2
W=
4 × 60
ρgALN
P= × (hs + hd )
60

This analysis assumes that the cross-sectional area and the volume of the crank shaft is
insignificant. Where this is not the fact, the piston areas on both sides of the pumps are not
equal and their sum is used instead:

πD2 π 2 2
πD2 πD2 πd2 2πD2 πd2
2A ≡ + (D − d ) = + − = −
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
π
2A ≡ (2D2 − d2 )
4

E. Slip and Coefficient of Discharge

The difference between theoretical discharge and actual discharge:

Slip = Q th − Q act

In which the theoretical discharge is the volumetric rate of flow:

ALN
Q th = V̇ =
60

73 | P a g e
For double acting pump:

2ρALN
Q th =
60

Coefficient of discharge is the ration of actual discharge to theoretical discharge:

Q act
Cd =
Q th

74 | P a g e