t ralog Communic a ' analog, systems i! which the carrier aMpyg ee mo gs 208 TS ye sgl HENNE . ze essage SIE ngle modulation, ty oe eT rier anaes ty : eed in accordance with the i a in. : . her method of modu ard i a tafation cit freueney or phi or amplitude 18 constant ie est tion systems can be classified as fol Thus angle meulati cuts Modulation (PM) Frequency Mo FM) Phai xy Modulation (FM) Frequency of the camer is varied aso angl ofthe carrior I varied a i 4 the cari is vai ancl 4 acoarding tothe message sgl + Classification of angle modulation 3.2 Frequency Modulation Principle : + In sinusoidal frequency modulation F.M. the modulating signal x(t) = E,, cos (2 mf, t) is a pure (1) is also a sinewave at much higher frequency. «+ FM is a system of modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of the carricr is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the modulating signal. ‘The amplitude of the carrier signal remain constant. Thus the information is conveyed via frequency changes. + PM was first practically tied in 1936 as an alternative s transmission is more resistant to noise than A.M, The time aaa! ae Pee the Fig wave is as shown in ‘The carrer signal ¢ sinusoidal signa Modulating signal No F gece y A hequency"* Maxim toquen change even Minimum frequency ime domain display of FM wave e a The observations from the Fig. 3.2.1 are as follows . OWS: 1. The amount by wh by which the c y the carrier frequency varies from its unmodulated s fated Value roporti¢ ¢ insta t z ‘onal (0 the instantaneous value of modula, ‘The deviation (8) is maderralog COMMUNICAON (MSS 1t anaes 2 aa Frequency Moowe ‘The rate at which this freque : 2. his Irequeney_ variation or oscillations takes place is equal to the modulaling frequency’ ( fy) 3, The amplitude of the FM wave alw, ntage of FM YS remains constant. This is the biggest ad 3.2.1 Principle of Phase Modulation (PM) : ce: modulation is: ve ire + Phase modulation is very similar to the frequency modulation. ‘The only difference is that the phase : ie carrier is: varie ad of vi a the carrier i E . instead of varying the lrequency. ‘The amplitude of the carrier remains constan- s shown in Fig, 3.2.2, as ; «As shown in Fig, 3.2.2, as the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase Tag inerease® ~ ue! the amplitude of the modulating signal, ‘The effect is that the carrier signal is stretched oF Hts Tea is lowered. + When the modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This causes the carrier wave (0 be effectively compressed. The effect is as if the carrier frequency is increased. Thus phase modulation produces frequency modulation. + Note that the P.M. wave of Fig. 3.22 is the same as the FM. wave produced by dx (1)/At be ba derivative of x(t) with respect to time Modulating voltage »() Phase & frequency of the carrier change in proportion with the modulating signal cartier sy Cost ‘compression stretching (phase lag) {phase lead) Fig. 3.2.2 : Time domain display of PM wave So in Fig, 3.2.2 we have plotted the derivative of x(t) which is original x (t) shifted by 90°. From the discussion it is clear that the difference between FIM. and P.M, waves can be made only b: comparing with the original modulating wave. y 3.3 Important Definitions in Frequency Modulation : © For the EM. wave the modulating signal x(t) be a sinusoidal signal of amplitude E, and fret ‘m quency f, x(t) = Ey 008 (278, t) B.3.1) © The unmodulated carrier is represented by the express c, = Asin(al+o) +(3.3.1(a))sion (MSBTE) of a Instantaneous frequency f of In FM, the frequency Sree es in FM wave vanes dis given by i denoted by f,(t) an instantancous frequency 0 frequency Where 6 = ky Ep, and it is called as Volts. : 3.3.1. Frequency Deviation (6) : cous frequency, £ we instantancous frequency f (¢) ., + Frequency deviation 8 represents the maximum departure of th FM wave from the carrier frequency f,. Since 8 = krE,,, the frequency devi and its independent of the modulating frequency f, Maximum and minimum frequency of FM wave + ‘The maximum frequency of FM wave is, fay = +8 The minimum frequency of a FM wave i8 fain = (f, 5), 3.3.2 Mathematical Expression for FM, We know that the FM wave is a sinowave having constant amplitude Frequeney. As the instamtancous frequ ey ts changing continuously, the "ave Is the function of o, and, Fig, 3.3.1: Frequency modulated sectoy Therefore the FM wave is represented by, Sr = $(1) = Bsin{ Fo, 0,9) = E,sin8(1) whee 0(t) = F(o. a.) As shown in Fig, 3.3 then we could have changing continuously 1 AsinO(t) is a rotating vector. If “a” Naiten that (1) = ot But in FM this ‘The angular velocity of FM is rotating ‘ave is given as, © = 10, +h, cos0, t] can be proved that (1) is given by; : Ssino,t (y= eo constant deviation, Where ky is a constant with nis proportional to the amplitude of modulating volt 3a cons, Velocity is op SOMstane a accordance with the modulatin Uni and a variable instantancoy angular velocity “a” of an FYpnalog Commu abate tis vate oF OC) in Equation (3.3.5) to get the equation for the FM wave as, snfoa sin oat | G39) pur = my te the moduation index of FM wave. Hence the equation for FM wave is given as, info + m,sin ot] 3.3.10) pis is the expression for a FM wave, Where m represents the modulation index. fearing of mathematical representation : ‘the mathematical expression for a FM wave is as follows : erm = Ee sin [at +mysin om) + Frequency of FM wave a varies according to the ‘modulating signal FM wave is a sine wave Peak amplitude of FM wave is ‘constant and equal to the peak amplitude of the cartier . The amplitude of FM wave is constant and equal to the amplitude of the arrier Le. Eo. «FM wave is sinusoidal i.c. it has a shape of sine or cosine wave. «The frequency of FM wave is not constant. It varies continuously, above and below the carrier frequency {,. 3.3.3 Modulation Index : \ + The modulation index of an FM wave is defined as : m, = Frequency deviation. B31) m, = (3.3.12) + ‘The modulation index (m,) is very important in FM because it decides the bandwidth of the FM wave (discussed later on). ©The modulation index also decides the number of sidebands having significant amplitudes. + In AM the maximum value of the modulation index m is 1. But for FM the modulation index can be greater than 1 3.3.4 Deviation Ratio : Asked in Exam : S-04, W-04, S-05, S-07 In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75 kHz. The maximum modulating frequency ig also limited to 15 KHz. The modulation index corresponding to the maximum deviation and maximum modulating frequency is called as the “deviation ratio”. Maximum deviation Deviation ratio = YAaxImum modulating frequency (3.3.13) 33.5 Percentage Modulation of FM Wave : ‘The percent modulation is defined as the ratio ‘of the actual frequency deviation produced by the Modulating signal to the maximum allowable frequency deviation,Actual frequency deviation (3.3.14) % Modulation = Actual frequency deviation, Modulation = Fasimum allowed deviation 3.3.6 FM in Time Domain : * Time domain representation is a graph or plot of amplitude (y axis) versus time (x axis). + It shows the variation in the amplitude of FM wave with respect to time * Fig. 3.3.1(@) shows the time domain representation of FM wave. Modulating signal Frequency varies in proportion ir with the modulating voltage frequency: Maxirnum frequency Minimum frequency change Fig, 3.3.1(a) : Time domain representation of FM wave 3.3.7 Frequency Spectrum of FM Wave (Frequency Domain Representation) : * Frequency domain representation of FM wave is a graph of amplitude plotted on y axis versus the frequency plotted on the x axis. + To represent the FM wave in the frequency domain, consider the equation of FM wave again + The expression for the FM wave is not simple, It is complex since it is sine of sine function. The only way to solve this equation is by using the Bessel functions. * By using the Bessel functions the equation for FM wave can be expanded as follows : ep = 8(t)=B,{ Jy (m,)sino,t + J, (mp) [sin(@,+o,)t-sin(o =o )t \f TO oO, ) t] +4, (m) [sin(o, +2.0,,)t+sin(o,-20,,)t] +4, (mp) [sin (0, +3 0,,)t=sin(o,~3.0,,)t] +44 (mp) [sin (0, +40,,) t+ sin (0, 4o,)th. } (3.3.15) = Carrier + Infinite number of sidebands Expanding Equation (3.3.15) we get, rus dol) Eesin og + Jy (mEq sin(o, tani Cartier Pair of first sidebandsCommunication (MES 1t:) _ 37 Frequency Modulation nal opservations jing at Equation (3.3.15) we ean draw the following conchusions veo ghe FM wave contists of carrict The fitet term in Equation (3.3.15) represents the ¢ 2 The FM wave ideally consists of infinite mmmber of sidcbands All the terms except the first one are eadebands, The amplitudes of the carriers and sidcbands are dependent on the J coefficients. For example, * amplitude of carrier component depends on Jy, that of the first pair of sidehands depends on yi The values of these } coefficients can be obtained from Table 332 For example Jy cq) dena valve of J) for the parbcular value of m, written inside the bracket FM spectrum From Equation (3.3.15) we get the carrier and infinite number of sidebands Table 33.1 enlists all these terms, their amplitudes and frequencies and Fig. 33.2 is the frequency domain representation or spectrum of the FM wave Table 3.3.1 Term in Equation (3.3.15) Ampli Frequency sin ot Jo (my) J, (mp) Eesin(o.+0,,)t 3, Camp) Ee 4, (m,) Eg sin (a, 3, (mp) Bo Jy (my) Ee J (mp) Be Infinite terms — [Lower sidebands} Tame fetiy fel, fe 2m (LSB) (USB,) fe-Styy BW = Fig. 3.3.2 + Ideal frequency spectrum of FM wave 'n FM sum and difference sideband frequencies ate producedBW = 156 kHz onal. 3.5 Comparison of FM and AM Systems : FM | Amplitude of FM wave is constant, It is ‘Amplitude of AM wave will change with the independent of the modulation index. modulating voltage. 2. | Hence wansmitted power remains constant It is_| Transmitted power is dependent on the independent of mp modulation indexAnalog Com munication (MSBTE) FM AM All the Uansmitted power is useful LEM reccivers are immune to noise 'is possible to decrease noise further by {creasing deviation, Cartier power and one sideband power are useless. c ¢ to noise. AM receivers are not immuni dae This feature is absent in AM 2184, 1 The bandwidth depends on modul BW is large. Hence wide channel is required, | Bandwidth lation index. BW =2f,,, It is not dependent on the modulation index, Space w Ve 1s used for propagation, So radius of t Ansmission is limited to line of sight. Hence it is Possible to operate several transmitters on same frequency: BW is much less than FM. Ground wave and sky wave propagation is used Therefore larger area is covered than FM Not possible to operate more channels on the same frequency. FM transmission and reception equipment are more complex AM equipments are less complex. I. | The number of sidebands having significant Number of sidebands in AM will be constant amplitudes depends on modulation index mn, and equal to 2 12. | The information is contained in the frequency | The information is contained in the amplitude variation of the carrier. variation of the carrier, 13, | FM wave AM wave ; Applications : 14 | Applications : Radio, TV bre Radio and TV broadcasting | to point communicationspang communication (SETE) 315 requency Modulation Due to noise the amplitude of the FM or Pi oe or PM wave gets distorted, But FM or PM waves do not contain the formation in their amplitude once the noise cannot distort the inform: Pili oe ro oe ee ion contained in the FM or PM wave. FM and PM waves are m or PM wave, So FM and PM waves are more immune to noise or more noise resistant. Satellite communication Police wireless. Point to point communication. 36.1 Effect of Modulating Frequency on Noise Performance of FM : It has been observed that in FM the effect of noise is more prominent at higher modulating frequencic® Or we can say that in FM for a constant deviation (5), the effect of noise increases with decrease 1m the modulation index mp ‘At lower modulating frequencies, m; is large and FM systems are less affected by the noise In AM receiver the noise output will remain constant irrespective of the frequency. In order to reduce the effect of noiso at higher modulating frequencies the te pre-emphasis and de-omphasis are used, schniques called 3.7 Generation of FM Waves : There are two basic methods of generating the FM waves as follows 1. Direct methods and 2. Indirect methods ‘The classification of FM generation methods is shown in Fig. 3.7.1 Indirect methods Direct methods ‘Armstrong method Reactance Varactor diode modulators ‘modulators Fig, 3.7.1 : Classification of FM generation methods 37.1 Direct FM : + In direct FM ger with the message signal. + For this a device called vol + A-VCO can be implemented by Q. The frequency of this oscillat involved in the tuned circuit. + If Lor C of a tuned circuit of an oscill signal then FM ean be obtained across the tuned circuit as shown in Fig. 3.7.2. +A two or three terminal device is placed across the tuned circuit, The reactance of the device is varied proportional to modulating signal voltage. This will vary the frequency of the oscillator to produce FM. “The devices used are FET, transistor or varactor diode \ Sc = gaice eration, the instantaneous frequency of the carier is changed directly in proportion tage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used. using a sinusoidal oscillator with a tuned circuit having a high value of wor is changed by incremental variation in the reactive components ng llator is changed in accordance with the amplitude of modulace 7 t Mea, ‘Analog Communication (MSBTE) fatiable roactanco dovico Modulating } signal FM Fig, 3.7.2 : Principle of reactance modulator Ai le of direct FM is shown in Fig. 3.7.2 which uses a Hartley oscillator alongwith ay, © An example : ide. . ' 7 “ara dod ie revere biased. Is capacitance is dependent on the reverse voltage applied + Theva ‘is d it. This capacitance is shown by the capacitor C(t) in Fig, 3.7.3 by cy oO) Fig. 3.7.3 : Hartley oscillator Frequency of oscillations of the Hartley oscillator shown in Fig, 3.73 is piven by, 1 Sd f(t) InVee, Let 3.11) Where C(t) = Cysucior That means C(t) is the effective capacitance of the fixed tuned cits capacitance C and the varactor diode capacitance C. ‘varactor, 3.7.2 Varactor Diode Modulator : AF transformer orc Moding circuit Ly voltage Vy (Negative de bias) Fit 3.74: Varactor diode modulator tL aes Ww Wie o t=" ] pee EEUp - diode seunication (MSBTE) age’ a 2819 we anne Magus operat ne varnctor diode is reverse biased by the Th rased by the negative de source ~ Vj, The modulating AF voltage series with the negative appears 18 ith the negative supply voltage ance the voltage applied across the 4 Henee the volta ipphied across the varactor diode varies in proportion with the modulating voltage. his will vary the junction eapaeitance Se ia jmetion capacitance of the varactor diode, The. varactor diode appears in parallel swith the la eit, Hence the oscillator frequency will change with change in varactor iode capacitance and FM wave is produced. The Rl ee one de and modulating signal to the varactor diode but it offers a very high impedance at high oscillator frequency. Therefore the oscillator circuit is isolated from the de bias anc modulanng signal. 38 Reactance Modulator (Direct FM) : tn the reactance modulators, a transistor or FET is operated as a variable reactance (inductive 0” capacitive) This device is connected across the tuned circuit of an oscillator. Lae Fig, 3.8.1 : Principle of reactance modulator ‘As the instantaneous value of modulating voltage changes, the reactance offered by the transistor or FET will change proportionally. + This will change the frequency of oscillator to is illustrated in Fig. 3.8.1 produce FM wave. The principle of reactance modulator 3.8.1 Transistor Reactance Modulator : Asked in Exam : S-06 + Fig. 382 shows the transistor reactance modulator. It is an RC eapacitive reactance modulator. ‘The Hartley, Colpitt or clap oscillators are popularly used. +The RF chokes connected in the circuit are used as isolators. They isolate various points of circuit for ac voltages but provide a de path. i > 9. teeters Description : f aa GAG +The weactance modulator of Fig, 32 consists of two circuits, an oscillator and a transistor reactance modulator + The modulating AF signal is applied to the base of Qy. Depending on the instantaneous modulating signal, the reactance offered by Q, will also change, oy) = 9 t= col 2 tt K oe 4 on Ce Te‘As there is no change in deviation due to mixing, the modulation index will remain same ic. mp = 15, 3.10 FM Transmitter (Armstrong Frequency Modulation System) : Asked in Exam : W-05, $-07 [> New Syll “Armstrong method”. It makes use of the phas 08] + The indirect method of generating FM is called as the modulation (P.M, to obtain frequency modulation, cog [coset modulator sae : antenna carer oda ——— FM Cartier [Combining] wave: | Group of Group of Class C [bute Seuiade | mutipliors| ee multipliers] "power amp. only L sidebands Multipliers, | [o0® phase Balanced ELL shitter moduiator| | i i ; i and amplifiers > Equalised eee 90° shied ‘modulating signal cartier ‘Audio equalizer Modulating signal Fig, 3.10.1 : Indive i iy, 3.10.1: Indirect method {Armstrong method} of FM generation This method can be understood by dividing it into three pars How to obtain FM from phase modulator ? Part I Part Implementation of phase modulator Part IM ; Combining pars | and Ml to obtain the indirect method, Part 1 : How to generate FM from PM ? In PM along with the phase Phase variation, some frequeney variation also tak 7 a es place. Higher modulatité voltages produce greater e p Breater phase shift which in tum produces greater fr frequency deviationog communication (MSBTE) ‘And hi + ‘yg0 produce greater ‘thus in PM. the car modulating frequen vr in FM the frequency deviation is only ee On is Only proportional to the modulating voltage regardless of its 3:20 Frequency Modulation eher modulating frequen 2 & Frequencies produce a faster rate of chs ne suede ro change of modulating, voltage hence they freques ey deviati n is proportional to modulating voltage as well as the frequency rect this problem the modulating. § To com cee "8.10.2. Due 10 this the high frequen ah passed through a low pass RC filter as shown in s ney modulating signals are attenuated but there is no change 1" the amplitudes of low frequency modulating signals, ignals are attenuated but there is no chang = filter output is then appli : ‘the filter output is then applicd (0 a phase modulator alongwith the carrier as shown in Fig. 3.10.2. Modulating ....R signal n Phase ; T oat FM signal | c I Carri oscillator iE low pass 7 fiter 0.2 : Generation of FM using phase modulation modulator, corresponding (© Duc to this arrangement the frequency deviation at the output of phi higher modulating frequencies is reduced. The resull is FM produced by a phase modulator. Part II: Implementation of the phase modulator = Xm t ‘The block diagram of phase modulator circuit is shown in Fig. 3.10.3. re joe shud 4o2 8! nso 5 mse mg carer at angle. PM wave (a zu? umcanee SEDI te? [only sidebands at 90 e| § modulating signal Fig. 3.10.3 : Phase modulator circuit Operation : ble unmodulated carrier which is applied to the 90" phase shifter through a buffer. phase shifted carrier. It is lation is 90" shifted with respect to the : lator produces a stal ombining network” * The 90" phase shifter produces @ 90" applied to the balanced modulator ‘hus the carrier used for modul: alongwith the modulating signal original carrier.Part unmodulated peel rir pate use (aaBe] suppressed Gatrier . T. $8 unmodulated — 69° shined cartier Lu carrier nt of sidebands Resultal output Combining networ Resultant of sideband use prsdated restart _} Une atta Steere weno ‘ ration of P.M. A.M. signal without carrier. This 90° shifted carrie! Fig. 3.104 : Phasors explaining the gene |At the output of the balanced modulator we get DSBSC signal i.e. signal consists of only awo sidebands with their resultant in phase with the in Fig. 3.10.4, ‘The two sidebands and the original cartier without any phase shift are applied to a combining network ‘At the output of the combining network we get the resultant of vector addition of the carrier and two shown sidebands as shown in Fig. 3.104 index on § Now as the modulation index is increased. the aunplitude of sidebands will alsy ; amplitude of their resultant increases. This will increase the angle “§” mage pease: Hence the unmodulated carrier. The angle "decreases with reduction in. miodutatio Dy the resultant with Fig. 3.10.5. Thus the resultant at the output of the combining network j Hon index, as “shown in the block diagram of Fig. 3.10.5 operates as a phase modulator. 'S phase modulated, rence TIT : Combine parts ¥ and 1: i Combining parts 1 and Il we get the block diagram of the Armstrong method o shown in Fig. 3.10.6. FM generat eration as ye4 communication (MSBTE} nl Phase 16 modulator cut | —_[e : xy” Sa FS] rte o nh wie 90° phase |__TSanan meee. + fo ne row] es ee ) — a : ecto] <— Audio equatzoris actualy 40 an RC low pass fier Modulating signal Fig. 3.10.6 : Block agram of indirect method The audio equalizer block shown in Fi . if. 3.10.6 is nothing but a ww pass filter. The role of RC Find bes already oem aieedsceat eter nothing but an RC low pass filter, The role of R «Th nob signal is passed through the audio equalizing circuit and applied to the phasc modulator circu «We get the FM wave at the output of the combining network. Thus in the indirect method of FM generation we use phase modulation to obtain FM. «The operation of Armstrong method can be summarized as follows Operation of the Armstrong Method : Now refer to Fig. 3.10.1. The operation of the Armstrong method is as follows «The crystal oscillator generates the carrier at low frequency typically at 1 MHz, This is applied to the combining network and a 90" phase shifter. + The modulating signal is passed through an audio equalizer to boost the low modulating frequencies. for the reason discussed earlier. The modulating signal is then applied to a balanced modulator * The balanced modulator produces two sidebands such that their resultant is 90° phase shifted with respect to the unmodulated carrier © The unmodulated carrier and 90° shifted sidebands are added in the combining network. + As discussed earlier, at the output of the combining network we get FM wave. This FM wave has a low carrier frequency f, and low value of the modulation index my. lation index are then raised by passing the FM wave through the frequency is then raised by using a mixer and then the f and my * The carrier frequency and the modu first group of multipliers. The carrier both are raised to required high values using the second group of multipliers. The effect of ‘multiplication and mixing is as discussed ea Tie FM signal with high f, and high my is power level of the FM signal 31 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis 3414 Pre-emphasis : lier. then passed through a class C power amplifier to raise the Asked in Exam : W-03, S-07 > New Syll. : $-08 fas a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies has been observed that in FM, the noise hi f modulation index (my) for higher modulating This effect can be reduced by increasing the vplue o! frequencies ( f,,),een 3:23 y Li, ‘Analog Communication (MSBTE) deviation “8” and 8 can be increased by increasing the om, ¢ reasing the deviat : ++ This can be done by ienasink Ong frequancis. of mong sina at Hate fequeney modulating signals artificially thon i 1 : ighet ‘hs if we “boos” the amplitude of higher Feat et es possible to improve the noise immunity at high ae ‘The artificial boosting of higher modulating ae ee a Signal is achicv sting of higher frequency modulating signal \ eae at te Seadicias AF signal is passed through a high pass R lying it, the FM modulator, . : . a 7 As fh, inereases, reactance of C decreases and modulating voltage applied to FM mostulator goes og increasing, ‘The frequency response characteristics of the RC high pass network is shown in Fig. 3.11.1(b). Modulating Pre-emphasized AF signal ° FM output Pre-omphasis citeutis basically a high ass fitor (a) Typical pre-emphasis uit (©) Pre-emphasis characteristics Fig. 3.111 The boosting is done according to this prearranged curve, The amount of pre-emphasis in US FM transmi standardized at 75 psec, The pre: emphasis circuit is basi ‘The pre-emphasis is carried out at the transmitter is 2.122 Hz as shown in Fig. Thus the pre ically a high pass filter, ‘The comer frequency for the Re 3.11.10). Y for the RO high-pass network “emphasis lit is used at the tra ter i emphasis circuit is used at the transmitter as shown in the following block diagram, VW Tansmiting- ‘anten Modulating na ‘AF signal Car oscillator Fig, 3.11.2 : FM transmitter including the pre-emphasis ate De-emphasis : Asked in Exam : S-03, W-03, S-04, W-04, S-07 ‘The artificial boosting given to the higher modulating frequencies in the process oF Pre New Syll. : Sy Asked se ow let us 568 HOW 10 reciv oe Iho FM generation and transmission Now let u CIN ty Z Earlier we have learnt about the cl FM signal and demodulate it a FM receiver. The frst thing that strikes us is its similarity vig + Fig, 5.11 shows the block diagram of a the AM receiver. Receiving antenna, AE ampltier oscillator Fig, 5.1.1; Block diagram of FM receiver “superheterodyning””, as the AM receiver. + The FM receiver also operates on the principle of * However even though the AM and FM receivers operate on the same principle and the blocks upto the IF amplifier are identical, the FM receiver is different from the AM receiver in the following way 5.1.1 Difference between FM and AM Receivers : 1, The operating frequencies in FM are much higher than in AM. 2, The FM receivers need the circuits like limiter and de-emphasis, 3. The FM demodulators are different from AM detectors. 4, The method to obtain the AGC is different in FM receivers. ‘Now let us study the FM receiver circuit block by block 5.1.2 RF Amplifier : * Im the domestic AM receivers, the RF amplifier is not used. But in the FM receivers, the RF amplifier is always used, : * The advantages of using the RF amplifier are (It improves the signal to noise ratio. (ii) It will match the receiver input impedance to the antenna impedance, {n order to mect the second requirement (ie, the matching) a grounded base or grounded gate amplifier is used. The circuit diagram of a grounded gate amplifier is as shown in Fig, 5.1.2 * The grounded gate or grounded base amplifiers have low the antenna, input impedance which matches with that of * As the gate terminal is grounded the input is isolated from the ‘is ci yuire neutralization, it has low distortion and its operation is si oe ee imple,y Receiving antshna ew easier Output transformer Output of amplifier Doodiping + Vo a capacitor 1.2 : Grounded gate FET RE ampli mixer or Frequency Changer : RF amplifier ir to AM receivers, the mix simi er st * yemediate frequency IF. qris is done by mixing the input signal (£,) with a ; 3 feqweney is higher than the signal frequency ° | inthe FM broadcasting the tuning range of incoming ff : nis fom 88 MHz to 108 MHz giving the rao of 125 fn a tt AM broadcasting Therefore ee ‘ Rot a problem in FM receivers, The RF amplifier and mixer stages rommally use Sas they are less noisy. The local oscillator generally uses a bipolar transistor. Te colpits or clapp oscillators are commonly used. + Te IF produced at the output of the mixer is at 10.7 MHz in FM receivers as compared to 455 to 470 kHz in AM receivers. : oe 514 IF Amplifiers : Asked in Exam : $:03, W-04, S-06, W-06 + The IF amplifiers used in FM receivers are similar to those used in the AM receiver but the IF and the tendwidth required are much higher than those in the AM receivers. Here the IF is 10.7 MHz and the tendwidth is 200 kHz. + Due to the large bandwidth the gain per stage will be low. Therefore two or more IF amplifiers are required to be used. These amplifiers are cascaded together. * The criteria for the selection of the IF are same as those studied in chapter 4 for the AM receivers. 515 Amplitude Limiter Stage : Asked in Exam : S-06 ‘The FM wave which is transmitted by the transmitter has a constant amplitude. But while travelling, toise and other unwanted signals get added to it and change its amplitude, These unwanted amplitude changes in the received FM signal must be removed before the signal goes for demodulation. " Olterwise distortion appears in the demodulated signal as the demodulators react to amplitude changes % Well as frequer changes. . The amplitude thence ell semove all the unwanted amplitnds variations from the received signal and itis always placed. before the FM detector as shown in the block diagram of Fig 5.1.1 "Fe 5.13 sh e sof the limiter plotted against its input, This is called as. the wansfer dansihsc ae tnt Ie shows thatthe Limiting action takes place only over a limited range of e ; put * Te ining istics in Fig. 5.13. “x” limiter character faite fore called as the “lower threshold of ‘This point is’ there!54 munication (MSBTE) ‘Analog Communication (Ms ant. Beyond the point Y™ the will remain cons the limiter output wil yo e i so reason is that the angle of output current ase in the input, The reason ras tr is fed to the output tank circu : much that very less pow Output voltage Vo Input involts No limiting 5.1.3 : Response of the limiter «i 5.1.6 Double Limiting and AGC : Asked in Exam : Ws + In order to increase the “limiting range”, tw known as double limiting, «The use of second limiter can be avoided by using the AGC (automatic gain control) circuit. The Age will ensure that the input to the limiter will always be in the “limiting range” irrespective of the sine of the input. + It also avoids the overloading of the last IF amplifier. co amplitude limiters are connected in: cascade, This i, 5.1.7. Waveforms at Various Points in an FM Receiver : Fig. 5.1.4 shows various stages of an FM receiver alongwith the waveforms at different points. Amplified Amplitude No amplitude { sasiaions i ANAS iver prior P| ure | /: 1 Hs ABC. ak adh FM Local detector osclator Auto sigal [_osciator_] I aS 2 emphasis Ampitiod ee ‘Ao sional AF and power amp, ) ;. 5.1.4 : Waveforms at various points in an FM receiver 5.2 FM Detectors : . ‘ “ we ‘An FM detector or demodulator is a circuit which receives an FM wave at its input and prods message signal or modulating signal at its output as shown in Fig, 5.2.1. + Demodulation or detection is exactly opposite to the modulation process.“r+ se urseriminator response 5.4 Ratio Detector : 06, $4 Asked in Exam : w.gg, W-04, S-05, W.05, $-06, W- . ‘The circuit diagram of a basic ratio detect OFS as shown in Fig, 5.4.1. If you compare this circuit with the Fost ter Secley will notice that these two circuits are ide tical exce 1, The direction of diode Dy is reversed 2. A large value capacitor C, 7 ction, )°" discriminator discussed in the previous se Pt for the following changes s has been included in the circuit, ‘The output is taken somewhere elseFM Radio Receiver FM input from, final IF amplifier Large value Input Capacitor) transformer + Output Voltage play; Ratio detector circuit Fig S41; io detector i VVidual diodes liscriminator it-can be shown that the rat output voltages from the indi: Hence similar to the phase di individual output voltages, utput y ltage is equal to half Of the difference between the the out Put voltage is proportional to the difference between the S41 Amplitude Limiting using Ratio Detector : + Let us see now the reaction of the ratio detector circuit to the amplitude changes in the FM signal which is applied at its input. + Ifthe FM input V, tries to increase, the secondary current (through D, and D,) will start flowing, Hence + But the voltage Vary ie. voltage across the capacitor C5 will not change instantaneously, It will increase very gradually. Thus the load current has increased but the load voltage V, ‘'y iS almost constant. Hence the load impedance is said to be decreased. Voltage also increases. Due to this, extra diode the load current increases. Due to this decreased load impedance, the secondary of the input transformer is heavily damped. Due to the damping, the Q decreases and therefore the gain of the amplifier driving the ratio detector will also decrease. This will counteract the increase in FM input voltage to the ratio detector. Similarly if the amplitude of the FM- input signal tries to decrease, the load impedance will now increase, The damping of th input transformer is reduced, Q increases increasing the gain of the driving ping of the ii i e ‘nplifier to compensate for the reduction in amplitude. ; The ratio detector thus provides the amplitude limiting by means of the process called “Diode Variable io detector thus pro Damping” 8 A “2. Advantages of Ratio Detector : Easy to align, sh 2 S00d linearity, due to Tinear phase Feo ea aeaanrot required plitude. limiting is provided inherently. So additio1 between primary and secondary,| Anal 5.4.3. Disadvantat 1 More m Operation is 60" amber of eo™P plicated oop (PLL) § swonttiougl here were many advantages op or © ‘ ase Locked | pment of integrated cir i, 5.5 Phi The phase toe en PLL known, the disc first used j i ‘i costly f ° ut after the ed loon PLL. iets We n thi i rete P rngntal building, BIOCkS im electron ic ©The high & sechnology. the 60st the funda ve observe that of PLL has reduced: of PLL bi econo ov8 © odulatic FSK dem ion, motor speaj demodulation, k ‘ rable as a single package, Thy + Hence now technology Te ‘ «The PLL principle is used 0 apts 5 yy the PLL is avai n control, frequency’ multiplicalo® and division © | 64, 565 a costes ore aca 000, OL? Operation of PLL: : 1, As shown in this figure th 5.5.1 Principle o Block diagram of the basic phase locke Jked loop consists of : phase loc ‘A phase detector oF PI . hase comparator «A low pass filter «An error amplifier Fk voltage controled oscillator (VCO). Voltage output Input ue controlled ih oscillator Voto eo Foodback path | Fig, 51 + A basic phase locked loop | Phase detector / comparator : ney f, and Be ‘The tw .¢ two inputs to a phase detector or comparator are the input voltage V, at frequet s feedback voltage from a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) at frequency f, ney f,. ‘The phase detector compares these ty res these two signals and produces a de voliage V, which is proportional © | e the phase difference betwee! . n f, and f,. The output voltage V, of Se ., of the phase detector is called as ert | . ‘This error voltage is then ay ipplied to a lo Low pass filter : ae | | } sf © The ow pass filter remove s the high fre and prod! 7 quency i a ripplefree de level, 'y noise present in the phase detector output prod © This de level is amy plified to an ade adequate level amplifier output voltage is a calle oe aie plied to a voltage controlled oscillator control voltage VOe evel ‘re control voltage V. is applieg Controlled Oscillator (VCO) FM Radio Receiver at the re output frequency of VCQ jg g ge is compared with the input fo Mput of a co 'reetly Proportion, alt Frequency ps 1° Ue de co ggjusted continuously until it jg equal ei Mrol voltage V.. The VCO frequency: Y the ph Phase detector and it (VCO frequency) is t fo the ‘input frequency i icc. ee - tree states of operation through 1 Free running : (There is no cont hich the yi CO unde rol on VCO guar oe 2 Capture : The comparison of ¢ and’ Tequeney f.). begins closer to fy The control voltage V, starts adjusting f, to bring it phase lock : When f, is exactl: : ei cmal. fhe PLL & ia to testes ic except for a finite phase difference o Phase locked. Once locked, (jee phase locked, the PLL tracks the chansosy ange by same amount as that of the input 552 Some Important Definitions Related to PLL : () Free running state : + Before we apply the input voltage V,, the phase locked loop is said to be in the free-running state. * Once the input is applied, the VCO output frequency starts changing, and the PLL enters into the capture mode. (i) Lock-in-range : * Once the PLL is phase locked, it starts tracking the changes in the input frequency f,. + The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain the phase lock with the incoming signal is defined as the lock-in-range. ; : + Ibis sometimes called as the tracking range. The tracking range is expressed as a percentage of the VCO output frequency f,. tii) Capture range : * Capture range of a PLL is defined lock with the input signal. * The capture range is also expressed "as the range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire as a percentage of f,, The capture range is always smaller than the lock range. 6 : ") Pullin-time : the total time taken by the PLL to establish the phase lock between * Pull-in-time is defined as output and input frequencies tors su The pull-in-time depends on many os sain ete. the input and output signals, the over ch as the initial phase, frequency difference between