Chapter Three

Angle Modulation
Topics discussed in this section:
3.1 Theory of frequency and phase modulation
3.2 Noise and frequency modulation
3.3 Generation of FM
3.4 FM Demodulation

DAWIT. M (M.Tech)

3.1
 3.1 Theory of frequency and phase
modulation
▪ Angle modulation :- In this method of modulation the
angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the
baseband signal ,the amplitude of the carrier wave
maintained constant.

▪ Type of Angle Modulation

1. FM (Frequency Modulation)
2. PM (Phase Modulation)

3.2
 Cont …
▪ Advantage of Angle modulation over Amplitude
Modulation
I. Noise reduction ( amplitude is constant)
II. Improve system fidelity
III. Efficient use of power

▪ Application area

1. Radio broadcasting (88-108 MHZ)

2. TV sound transmission
3. Cellular radio

3.3
 FM (Frequency Modulation)
◼ FM:- is one form of angle modulation it is defined as the frequency of
the carrier wave is varied proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of baseband signal by keeping the carrier phase and amplitude
constant.

◼ Power in an FM signal does not vary with modulation ( ))

◼ FM signals do not have an envelope that reproduces the modulation

◼ The figure below shows a simplified FM generator

3.4
 Cont...

3.5
 Frequency Deviation
◼ The carrier of the transmitter is at it’s resting frequency(no
modulation) and we apply a modulating signal. The amplitude of the
modulating signal will cause the carrier to deviate (shift) from it’s
resting frequency by certain amount.

◼ Frequency deviation of the carrier is proportional to the amplitude of

the modulating signal as illustrated.

3.6
 Cont...
◼ If we increase the amplitude (loudness) of the modulating signal; we
will increase the deviation to maximum of 75KHz as specified by the
FCC. If we remove the modulation , the carrier frequency shift back
to its resting frequency.

◼ The rate at which the carrier shift from it’s resting point to a non
resting point is determined by the frequency of the modulating
signal(the interaction b/n the amplitude and frequency of the
modulation signal)

3.7
 Phase Modulation (PM)
◼ PM:- is one form of angle modulation it is defined as the Phase of
the carrier wave is varied proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of baseband signal by keeping the carrier frequency and amplitude
constant.

Phase Deviation
▪ In phase modulation, the phase shift is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, according to the
formula:

3.8
 Relationship Between FM and PM
◼ Frequency is the derivative of phase, or, in other words, frequency is
the rate of change of phase

◼ The modulation index is proportional to frequency deviation and

inversely proportional to modulating frequency
Block diagram of Angle Modulation

Message Phase FM
integrator wave
signal modulator

a Carrier signal (Cos 2∏fc)

3.9
 Cont...

Message
signal frequency PM
Differentiator
modulator wave

b Carrier signal (Cos 2∏fc)

The block diagram illustrating the relationship between frequency

modulation and phase modulation. (a) Scheme for generating an FM
wave by using a phase modulator. (b) Scheme for generating a PM
wave by using a frequency modulator.

3.10
 Analytical expression for Angle Modulation
◼ If is an angle modulated signal, then

1. Phase modulation:

2. Frequency modulation:

3.11
 Cont...
◼ If is the message signal, then the
frequency modulated signal is given by

Prove1 &2

◼ Here, is called frequency deviation and, then

is called modulation index

3.12
 Cont...
◼ The frequency of the modulated signal is given by

….(*)
Example 3.1: Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the
modulation index and the maximum deviation of the FM wave
represented by the voltage equations .
What power will this FM wave dissipated in a 10Ὠ resistor ?

Solution

3.13
 Cont...
Example 3.2: Determine the percentage modulation for an FM
wave with a frequency deviation of 10. kHz if the maximum
deviation allowed is 25 kHz.

◼ Depending on the value of the modulation index β we may

distinguish two cases of frequency modulation:

1. Narrow band FM, for which β is small compared to one

radian.

2. Wide band FM , for which β is large compare to one

radian.
3.14
 Narrow Band Frequency Modulation ( )
• Consider Equation (*), which defines an FM signal resulting from the
use of a sinusoidal modulating signal. Expanding this relation, we get

Since

Prove 3
Hence,

3.15
 Cont...
▪The above equation is similar to AM. Hence, for NBFM the bandwidth
is same as that of AM i.e.,2 message bandwidth(2B).

Figure : FM signal - both Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

3.16
Example 3.3
▪In an FM system, when the audio frequency is 500Hz and the audio
frequency voltage is 2.4V, the deviation is 4,8KHz. If the audio
frequency voltage is now increased to 7.2V. What is the new
deviation? If the audio frequency voltage is raised to 10V while the
audio frequency dropped to 200Hz, what is the new deviation ? Find
the modulation index in each case
Solution

3.17
 Wide-Band FM (WBFM) ( ß>>1)

• Wide band FM , for which β is large compare to one radian ( ß>>1)

• Consider Equation (1.1), which defines an FM signal resulting from the
use of a sinusoidal modulating signal. Expressed this relation, as Bessel
series (Bessel functions) we get.

S (t ) = Ac  J ( β )cos(ω
n c + nωm )t
n= −

• Where Jn() are Bessel functions of the first kind. Expanding the
equation for a few terms we have:

3.18
 Cont...
S (t ) = Ac J 0 (  ) cos(c )t + Ac J1 (  ) cos(c + m )t + Ac J −1 (  ) cos(c − m )t
            
Amp fc Amp fc + fm Amp fc − fm

+ Ac J 2 (  ) cos(c + 2m )t + Ac J − 2 (  ) cos(c − 2m )t + 

      
Amp fc +2 fm Amp fc −2 f m

FM Signal Spectrum

3.19
 Cont...
• Sideband structure is more complicated than for AM; many sidebands
produced
• Complexity depends on ß
• However, spacing between carrier and sidebands (and between adjacent
sidebands) is equal to fm, just as for AM
• Theoretically, an infinite number of sidebands produced, but most of
power is contained in first (ß +1) sidebands
• Thus transmission requires a bandwidth of approximately 2 (ß +1) fm
Hz

3.20
 Cont...

3.21
 Cont...
◼ For FM, the bandwidth varies with both deviation and modulating
frequency

◼ Increasing modulating frequency reduces modulation index so it

reduces the number of sidebands with significant amplitude

◼ On the other hand, increasing modulating frequency increases the

frequency separation between sidebands

◼ Bandwidth increases with modulation frequency but is not directly

proportional to it

3.22
 Cont...
• Example 3.4:Use Carson’s rule to compare the bandwidth that would
be required to transmit a baseband signal with a frequency range
from 300 Hz to 3 kHz using.
I. NBFM with maximum deviation of 5 kHz.
II. WBFM with maximum deviation of 75 kHz
• FM is used in
✓ High fidelity FM broadcasting
✓ TV audio broadcasting
✓ Microwave carrier modulation
✓ Point-to-Point communications system
3.23
 3.2 Noise and Frequency modulation
◼ One of the original reasons for developing FM was to give improved
performance in the presence of noise, which is still one of the major
advantages over AM.

◼ One way to approach the problem of FM and noise is think of noise as

a phasor of random amplitude and phase angle.

3.24
 Noise in FM Systems
• FM Threshold Effect: Below a certain SNR, noise dominates, causing abrupt
degradation in output SNR.
• Capture Effect: In FM, the stronger signal suppresses the weaker one, reducing
interference.
• Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis:
✓ Pre-emphasis: Boosts high-frequency components before transmission.
✓ De-emphasis: Attenuates high-frequency noise at the receiver.
• SNR Improvement: FM provides better noise immunity compared to AM due to its
constant amplitude.
• Output SNR is proportional to the square of the modulation index: SNRout∝β2
Advantages of FM Over AM Disadvantages of FM
1. Noise Immunity: FM is less susceptible I. Larger Bandwidth: Requires more
to amplitude noise. spectrum than AM.
2. Constant Amplitude: Power efficiency is II. Complex Circuits: FM transmitters
higher as the transmitter operates at peak and receivers are more complex.
power. III. Threshold Effect: Performance
3. Capture Effect: Stronger signals are degrades rapidly below a certain
captured, reducing interference. SNR
4. Better Fidelity: Suitable for high-quality
audio broadcasting.
 3.3 Generation of FM
◼ There are two ways of generating FM waves

1. Direct generation and

2. Indirect generation

1.Indirect Method of Armstrong

Figure : Narrow band FM wave generation

3.26
 Cont...

Figure : Block diagram of the indirect method of generating a Wide

band FM wave generation.

3.27
 2. Direct Method

◼ In a voltage control oscillator (VCO), the frequency is controlled by

external voltage.

◼ The oscillation frequency varies Linearly with the control voltage. We

can generate an FM wave by using the modulating signal m(t) as a
control signal. This given by

◼ One can construct VCO using in Hartley or Colpitt oscillators, for

instance , the frequency of oscillation is given by
Prove 4
3.28
 Cont...
If the capacitance C is varied by the modulating signal m(t), that is if

- Here we have used the binomial approximation thus

3.29
 Cont...
Because , the maximum capacitance deviation is

Hence
• Direct FM generation advantage
a. Generally produces sufficient frequency deviation and
b. Requires little frequency multiplication.
• Dis advantage this method has poor frequency stability

3.30
 3.4 Demodulation of FM SIGNALS
• Frequency demodulation is the process that enables us to recover the
original modulating signal from a frequency-modulated signal.
Methods:
1. Frequency Discriminator followed by an envelope detector.
2. Phase locked loop demodulator.

Frequency Discriminator

3.31
 Cont...

• If we observe the above equation carefully, it is both amplitude and

frequency modulated.
• Hence, to recover the original signal back an envelope detector can be
used.
3.32
 Cont...

Figure : FM Signal both amplitude and frequency modulation

4.33
 Phase Locked Loop Demodulator
• Because of their low cost and superior performance especially when the
SNR is low, FM demodulation using PLL is the most widely used
method today.
• The output of the loop filter H(S) act as an input to the VCO as
shown below .

3.34
 Cont...
• The free running frequency of VCO is set at the carrier frequency
• The instantaneous frequency of the VCO is given by

• If the VCO out put is , then its instantaneous

frequency is There fore

Where C and B are constant of the PLL.

3.35
 Key Components of a PLL
1. Phase Detector (PD): Compares the phase of the incoming modulated
signal with that of a reference signal generated by the Voltage-
Controlled Oscillator (VCO). It generates an error signal proportional
to the phase difference.
2. Low-Pass Filter (LPF): Filters out the high-frequency components of
the error signal, leaving a control voltage that represents the phase or
frequency deviation of the input signal.
3. Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO): Generates a signal with a
frequency that varies based on the control voltage input. The VCO
frequency adjusts to minimize the phase difference with the input
signal, effectively “locking” onto it.
4. Feedback Loop: Ensures that the VCO output follows the frequency
and phase of the input signal by continuously adjusting based on the
phase detector’s output.

3.36
 Operating Principle
• In a PLL demodulator:
i. The input signal (which could be FM or PM modulated) enters the
phase detector, where it’s compared with the output of the VCO.
ii. Any difference in phase generates an error signal, which goes
through the LPF to produce a control voltage.
iii. This control voltage adjusts the VCO frequency, bringing it closer to
the frequency of the input signal until both are synchronized.
iv. For FM demodulation, the VCO control voltage is used as the
output, as it corresponds to the frequency variations in the input
signal.
• FM Demodulation: The control voltage represents frequency changes
in the input signal, making it suitable for FM signal demodulation.
• Advantages
✓ Noise Rejection: PLLs have inherent noise rejection properties, which makes them
ideal for demodulating signals in noisy environments.
✓ Stability: When locked, PLLs can maintain stability even with slight variations in
the input signal.
3.37
 Summary

3.38
 Chapter-4
Radio Transmitters and
6.39 Receivers