Module 3 Frequency modulation, FM Circuits, FM

Receivers
Impressing an information signal on a carrier by changing its frequency produces FM. Varying
the amount of phase shift that a carrier experience is known as phase modulation (PM). Varying
the phase shift of a carrier also produces FM. FM and PM are collectively referred to as angle
modulation. Since FM is generally superior in performance to AM, it is widely used in many
areas of communication electronics.

Let ө𝑖 (𝑡) denote the angle of a modulated sinusoidal carrier at time t, it is assumed to be a
function of the information-bearing signal or message signal. We express the resulting angle
modulated wave as

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 cos⁡[ө𝑖 (𝑡)] or 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 sin⁡[ө𝑖 (𝑡)]

Phase Modulation
Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous angle ө𝑖 (𝑡)
is varied linearly with the amplitude of message signal as shown by

ө𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)

The term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡⁡represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier, the constant kp
represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in radians per volt
Equation for PM wave is

𝒔𝑷𝑴 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎(𝒕)) or 𝒔𝑷𝑴 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎(𝒕))

Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous
frequency 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) is varied linearly with the amplitude message signal m(t), as shown by

Where kf , represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator

1 𝑑ѳ(𝑡)
𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
ѳ𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋 ∫ (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)⁡)𝑑𝑡
0 0

𝑡
= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋 ∫ (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)⁡)𝑑𝑡
0

𝑡
ѳ𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
0

Equation for FM wave is given by

𝒕 𝒕
𝑺𝑭𝑴 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫𝟎 𝒎(𝝉)𝒅𝝉) or 𝑺𝑭𝑴 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫𝟎 𝒎(𝝉)𝒅𝝉)
Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation:
Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the instantaneous frequency of the carrier with
respect to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. In FM, carrier amplitude remains
constant.

The modulating information signal is a low frequency sine wave.

With no modulating signal applied, the carrier frequency is a sine wave at its normal resting
frequency or centre frequency.

As the modulating signal goes positive, the frequency of the carrier increases proportionately.
The highest frequency occurs at the peak amplitude of the modulating signal. As the modulating
signal amplitude decreases, the carrier frequency decreases. When the modulating signal is at
zero amplitude. the carrier is at its center frequency point.
When the modulating signal goes negative, the carrier frequency decreases. It continues to
decrease till the peak of negative half cycle of the modulating sine wave. Then as the
modulating signal increases toward zero, the carrier frequency again increases. This
phenomenon is illustrated as shown in below figure 1.
As the modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies above and below its
normal center or resting frequency.
The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known as the
frequency deviation fd. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of
the modulating signal.
Basic Principles of Phase Modulation
When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase modulation (PM) signal.
The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift. Assume further
that positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging phase shift and negative
signals produce a leading phase shift.
As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag, and thus the delay of the
carrier output, increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal. The result at the output
is the same as if the constant-frequency carrier signal had been stretched out. When the
modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This causes the carrier sine
wave to be effectively speeded up or compressed.
The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs during the time that
the modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate. For a sine wave modulating signal, the
rate of change of the modulating signal is greatest when the modulating wave changes from
plus to minus or from minus to plus.
The maximum rate of change of modulating voltage occurs exactly at the zero crossing points.
In contrast, note that in an FM wave the maximum deviation occurs at the peak positive and
negative amplitude of the modulating voltage. Thus, although a phase modulator does indeed
produce FM, maximum deviation occurs at different points of the modulating signal.
In PM, the amount of carrier deviation is proportional to the rate of change of the modulating
signal. Since the frequency deviation in PM is proportional to the rate of change in the
modulating signal. The frequency deviation is proportional to the modulating signal frequency
as well as its amplitude. This effect is compensated for prior to modulation.
The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs during the time that
the modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate. That is when the modulating signal
changes from plus to minus or from minus to plus.

Relationship Between the Modulating Signal and Carrier Deviation

a) Frequency Deviation and modulating signal amplitude

In FM, the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal. The maximum deviation occurs at the peak positive and negative amplitudes of the
modulating signal.

In PM, the frequency deviation is also directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal. The maximum amount of leading or lagging phase shift occurs at the peak amplitudes
of the modulating signal. This effect for both FM and PM is shown in figure below.
b) Frequency Deviation and modulating signal frequency

The frequency deviation of an FM signal is constant for any value of modulating frequency.
Only the amplitude of the modulating signal determines the amount of deviation.

The deviation varies a PM signal with different modulating signal frequencies. The higher the
modulating signal frequency. the shorter it period and the faster the voltage changes. Higher
modulating voltages result in greater phase shift and this in turn produces greater frequency
deviation. However, higher modulating frequencies produce a faster rate of change of the
modulating voltage and thus greater frequency deviation.

In PM, then the carrier frequency deviation is proportional to both the modulating frequency
and the amplitude. In FM, frequency deviation is proportional only to the amplitude of the
modulating signal, regardless of its frequency.
Converting PM to FM

To make PM compatible with FM, the deviation produced by frequency variations in the
modulating signal must be compensated for. This can be clone by passing the intelligence signal
through a low-pass RC network as illustrated in Figure above.
This low-pass filter(integrator) called a frequency-correcting network, pre distorter or 1/f filter
causes the higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated. Although the higher modulating
frequencies produce a greater rate of change and thus a greater frequency deviation, this is
offset by the lower amplitude of the modulating signal, which produces less phase shift and
thus less frequency deviation.

The pre distorter compensates for the excess frequency deviation caused by higher modulating
frequencies. The result is an output that is the same as an FM signal. The FM produced by a
phase modulator is called indirect FM.
The equation for PM wave

The equation for FM wave

Comparing the equations for FM wave and PM wave,

𝑡
FM signal may be regarded as a PM signal in which the modulating wave is ∫0 𝑚(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 in
place of m(t). This means that an FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then
using the result as the input to a phase modulator, as in Figure a.
Conversely, a PM signal can be generated by first differentiating m(t) and then using the result
as the input to a frequency modulator, as in Figure above

Modulation Index and Sidebands

Any modulation process produces sidebands.

In FM and PM. as in AM, sum and difference sideband frequencies are produced. ln addition,
a large number of pairs of upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a result, the spectrum
of an FM or a PM signal is usually wider than that of an equivalent AM signal.
Figure shows the frequency spectrum of a typical FM signal produced by modulating a canier
with a single-frequency sine wave. Note that the sidebands are spaced from the carrier fc and
from one another by a frequency equal to the modulating frequency.
Theoretically. the FM process produces an infinite number of upper and lower sidebands and
therefore a theoretically infinitely large bandwidth. However, in practice, only those sidebands
with the largest amplitudes are significant in carrying the information. Typically, any sideband
whose amplitude is less than I percent of the un modulated carrier is considered insignificant.
Thus, FM is readily passed by circuits or communication media with finite bandwidth.

Modulation Index
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation
index.
𝑓𝑑
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑓𝑚
Where fd is the frequency deviation and fm is the modulating frequency.

Note :

1. In most communication systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the
frequency deviation and the modulating frequency. For example. in standard FM
broadcasting. the maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz. This produces a modulation index of 𝑚𝑓 =
75
15
= 5.
2. When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum modulating
frequency are used in computing the modulation index, mf is known as the deviation
ratio.
Single tone frequency Modulation:
Consider the message signal 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚⁡ cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

Instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave:

𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)

= 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡

Where 𝒇𝒅 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑽𝒎 ⁡⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚⁡𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

1 𝑑ѳ(𝑡)
𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
ѳ(𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋 ∫ (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)⁡⁡)𝑑𝑡
0 0

2𝜋𝑓𝑑 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +
2𝜋𝑓𝑚
𝑓𝑑 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +
𝑓𝑚
𝒇𝒅
ѳ(𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) where 𝒎𝒇 = ⁡⁡⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛⁡𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝒇𝒎

Equation for FM wave is given by

𝑆𝐹𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)) (or)

⁡𝑆𝐹𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎⁡𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚⁡𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒅 → 𝒇𝒅 = 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒇𝒄

𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎⁡𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚⁡𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒅 → 𝒇𝒅 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏

Carrier swing =2fd

Problems:

1.

2.

3.

Spectral Analysis of FM wave

Equation for FM wave is given by

𝑆𝐹𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

This equation is solved with a complex mathematical process known as Bessel functions.

The result is as follows:

𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 ∑∞
−∞ 𝐽𝑛 sin(2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡)-
The FM wave is expressed as a composite of sine waves of different frequencies and amplitudes
that when added give an FM time-domain signal.

The first term is the carrier with an amplitude given by J0.

The next term represents a pair of upper and lower side frequencies equal to the sum and
difference of the carrier and modulating signal frequency. The amplitude of these side
frequencies is J1. The next term is another pair of side frequencies equal to the carrier ± 2 times
the modulating signal frequency. The other terms represent additional side frequencies spaced
from one another by an amount equal to the modulating signal frequency.
The amplitude of the sidebands are determined by the J, coefficient, which are in turn
determined by the value of the modulation index. These amplitude coefficients are computed
by using the expression

The Bessel coefficients for a range of modulation indexes are given in below table:

The leftmost column gives the modulation index mf. The remaining columns indicate the
relative amplitudes of the carrier and the various pairs of sidebands. Any sideband with a
relative carrier amplitude of less than 1 percent (0.01) has been eliminated. Note that some
of the carrier and sideband amplitudes have negative signs. This means that the signal
represented by that amplitude is simply shifted in phase 180° (phase inversion).

The plot of Bessel function data is given below.

 ∞

𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 ∑ 𝐽𝑛 sin(2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡)

−∞
∞
𝑉𝑐
|𝑣𝐹𝑀 (𝑓)| = ⁡⁡∑ 𝐽𝑛 𝛿(𝑓 − (fc + 𝑓𝑚 )) − 𝛿(𝑓 + (fc + 𝑓𝑚 ))
2
−∞
Examples of FM signal spectra. (a) Modulation index of 0 (no modulation or sidebands). (b)
Modulation index of 1. (c) Modulation index of 2. (d) Modulation index of 0.25 (NBFM).

Figure above shows several examples or an FM signal spectrum with different modulation
indexes. The unmodulated carrier has a relative amplitude of 1.0. With no modulation, all the
power is in the carrier. With modulation, the carrier amplitude decreases while the amplitudes
of the various sidebands increase.
Narrow Band FM signal
the FM signal occupies no more spectrum space than an AM signal. This type of FM is called
narrowband FM, or NBFM.
The formal definition of NBFM is any FM system in which the modulation index is less than
π/2 = 1.57, or mf < π/2. However, for true NBFM with only a single pair of sidebands, mf must
be much less than 𝜋/2. Values of mf in the 0.2 to 0.25 range will give true NBFM.

The primary purpose or NBFM is to conserve spectrum space, and NBFM is widely used in
radio communication. However, NBFM conserves spectrum space at the expense of the signal-
to-noise ratio.

Differences between Narrow band FM and Wide band FM

Sketch the spectrum of FM with a modulation index 4 and Bessel coefficients

are as follows

fc-4fm fc-3fm fc-2fm fc-fm fc fc+fm fc+2fm fc+3fm fc+4fm

FM Signal Bandwidth
Higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant sidebands and the
wider the bandwidth of the signal. When spectrum conservation is necessary, the bandwidth of
an FM signal can be deliberately restricted by putting an upper limit on the modulation index.
The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the modulation index.

𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚 𝑁 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)

where N is the number of significant sidebands in pairs

The sidebands whose amplitude is greater than 1 percent of the carrier (0.01 or higher) is
considered
Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson's rule. This rule
recognizes only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2
percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher). This rule is

𝐵𝑊 = 2(𝑓𝑑 + 𝑓𝑚 ) − − − − − − − − − − − (2)

Problem:
What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a deviation of 3kHz and a maximum
modulating signal of 5kHz as determined by
a) Accurate bandwidth
b) Carson’s rule
Noise Suppression Effects of FM
Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems and any
power line switching that produces transient signals. Such noise is typically narrow spikes of
voltage with very high frequencies. They add to a signal and interfere with it.
The potential effect of such noise on an FM signal is shown in Figure 1. If the noise signals
were strong enough, they could completely obliterate the information signal. FM signals,
however have a constant modulated carrier amplitude and FM receivers contain limiter circuits
that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.

Figure 1: An FM signal with noise.

Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped off, as shown in
Figure 1. This does not affect the information content of the FM signal. since it is contained
solely within the frequency variations of the carrier. Because of the clipping action of the limiter
circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated.

Even if the peaks of the FM signal itself are clipped or flattened and the resulting signal is
distorted, no information is lost. ln fact. one of the primary benefits of FM over AM is its
superior noise immunity. The process of demodulating or recovering an FM signal actually
suppresses noise and improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

Noise and Phase Shift

The noise amplitude added to an FM signal introduces a small frequency variation or phase
shift, which changes or distorts the signal.

The carrier signal is represented by a fixed-length (amplitude) phasor S. Assume a single high-
frequency noise signal varying in phase. This noise signal is represented as a rotating phasor
N. The composite signal of the carrier and the noise, labelled C, is a phasor whose amplitude
is the phasor sum of the signal and noise and a phase angle shifted from the carrier by an
amount φ.
 Figure 2: How noise introduces a phase shift

The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and signal phasors are at a right angle to each
other. This angle can be computed with the arcsine or inverse sine according to the formula

Where S/N is input signal to Noise ratio at the receiver

A frequency deviation because of phase shift due to Noise,

From the expression, it is clear that the worst-case phase shift and frequency deviation will
occur at the highest modulating signal frequency.

The overall effect of the shift depends upon the maximum allowed frequency shift for the
application. If very high deviations are allowed, i.e., if there is a high modulation index. the
shift can be small and inconsequential. If the total allowed deviation is small. then the noise-
induced deviation can be severe.

Where S/N is output Signal to noise ratio at the receiver

Problem
Preemphasis and Deemphasis in FM circuits:
Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the high-frequency components of
the modulating signal. Since noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it contains a lot of
harmonics and other high-frequency components. These frequencies can be larger in amplitude
than the high-frequency content of the modulating signal, causing frequency distortion that can
make the signal unintelligible.

For e.g. musical instruments typically generate signals at low frequencies but contain many
high-frequency harmonics that give them their unique sound and must be passed if that sound
is to be preserved. Thus, a wide bandwidth is needed in high-fidelity systems. Since the high-
frequency components are usually at a very low level, noise can distort them.

To overcome this problem, most FM systems use a technique known as Preemphasis that helps
offset high-frequency noise interference. At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed
through a simple network that amplifies the high-frequency components more than the low-
frequency components. The simplest form of such a circuit is a simple high-pass filter of the
type shown in Figure 1 (a).

Figure 1 a)Preemphasis Circuit b) Frequency response of preemphasis circuit

Specifications dictate a time constant of 75 µs. where t= RC. Any combination of resistor and
capacitor (or resistor and inductor) giving this time constant will work.

Such a circuit has a cutoff frequency of 2122 Hz. frequencies higher than 2122 Hz will be
linearly enhanced. The output amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave.
The preemphasis circuit increases the energy content of the higher-frequency signals so that
they become stronger than the high-frequency noise components. This improves the signal-to-
φnoise ratio and increases intelligibility and fidelity.
The preemphasis circuit has an upper break frequency at which the signal enhancement flattens
out which is computed with the formula

The value of usually set well beyond the audio range and is typically greater than 30kHz.

To return the frequency response to its normal, ''flat'' level , a deemphasis circuit, a simple low
pass filter with a time constant of 75µs is used at the receiver as shown in figure 1 (c). Signals
above its cutoff frequency of 2123 Hz are attenuated at the rate of 6 dB per octave. The response
curve is shown in Figure 1 (d).

Figure 1 ( c) Deemphasis Circuit (d) Frequency response of Deemphasis Circuit

 As a result, the preemphasis at the transmitter is exactly offset by the deemphasis circuit in the
receiver, providing a flat frequency response.

The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for
the high-frequency component during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked
by noise. Figure 1 (e) shows the overall effect of preemphasis and deemphasis.

Figure 1 (e) Combined Frequency Response

Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modulation
Advantages of FM
ln general, FM is considered to be superior to AM.

1)Noise Immunity

The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity to noise, made possible by the clipper
limiter circuits in the receiver which effectively strip off all the noise variations, leaving a
constant amplitude FM signal.
FM can tolerate a much higher noise level than AM for a given carrier amplitude. This is abo
true for phase-shift-induced distortion.
2)Capture Effect

Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signal on the same frequency are effectively
rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and the demodulating method used by FM receivers,
a phenomenon known as the capture effect takes place when two or more FM signals occur
simultaneously on the same frequency totally eliminating the weaker signal. If one signal is
more than twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger signal capture the channel, totally
eliminating the weaker signal.

With modern receiver circuitry. a difference in signal amplitude of only 1 dB is usually

sufficient to produce the capture effect.

In contrast, when two AM signals occupy the same frequency, both signals are generally heard,
regardless of their relative signal strengths. When one AM signal is significantly stronger than
another, naturally the stronger signal is intelligible. However, the weaker signal is not
eliminated and can still be heard in the background. When the signal strengths of given AM
signals are nearly same, then they will interfere with each other, making both nearly
intelligence.

Although the capture effect prevents the weaker of two FM signals from being heard, when
two stations are broadcasting signals of approximately the same amplitude, first one may be
captured and then the other. This can happen, e.g., when a driver moving along a highway is
listening to a clear broadcast on a particular frequency. At some point. the driver may suddenly
hear the other broadcast. completely losing the first, and then, just as suddenly, hear the original
broadcast again. Which one dominates depends on where the car is and on the relative signal
strengths of the two signals.

3) Transmitter Efficiency

A third advantage of FM over AM involves efficiency. AM can be produced by both low-level

and high-level modulation techniques. The most efficient is high-level modulation in which a
class C amplifier is used as the final RF power stage and is modulated by a high-power
modulation amplifier. The AM transmitter must produce both very high RF and modulating
signal power. In addition, at very high-power levels. large-modulation amplifiers are
impractical. Under such conditions, low-level modulation must be used if the AM information
is to be preserved without distortion.

The AM signal is generated at a lower level and then amplified with linear amplifiers to
produce the final RF signal. Linear amplifiers are either class A or class B and are far less
efficient than class C amplifiers.

FM signals have a constant amplitude, and it is therefore nor necessary to use linear amplifiers
to increase their power level. In fact, FM signals are always generated at a lower level and then
amplified by a series of class C amplifiers to increase their power. The result is greater use of
available power because of the high level of efficiency of class C amplifiers. Even more
efficient class D, E. or F amplifiers are also used in FM or PM equipment.

Disadvantages of FM

1)Excessive Spectrum Use

The greatest disadvantage of FM is that it simply uses too much spectrum space. The bandwidth
of an FM signal is, in general, considerably wider than that of an AM signal transmitting similar
information. Although it is possible to keep the modulation index low to minimize bandwidth,
reducing the modulation index also reduces the noise immunity of an FM signal.

Since FM occupies so much bandwidth. it is typically used only in those portions of the
spectrum where adequate bandwidth is available, i.e., at very high frequencies. In fact, it is
rarely used below frequencies of 30 MHz. Most FM communication work is done at the VHF,
UHF, and microwave frequencies.

2) Circuit Complexity
One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the complexity of the circuits used for
frequency modulation and demodulation in comparison with the simple circuits used for
amplitude modulation and demodulation. Today, this disadvantage has almost disappeared
because of the use of integrated circuits. Although the ICs used in FM transmission are still
complex, they require very little effort to use and their price is just as low as those of
comparable AM circuits.
FM Circuits
• There are two different types of frequency modulator circuits, direct circuits and circuits
that produce FM indirectly by phase modulation techniques.
• Direct FM circuits make use of techniques for varying the frequency of the carrier
oscillator in accordance with the modulating signal.
• Indirect modulators produce FM via a phase shifter after the carrier oscillator stage.
Frequency demodulator or detector circuits convert the FM signal back to the original
modulating signal.

Frequency Modulators
A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the
modulating signal.

The carrier is generated by either an LC or a crystal oscillator circuit. and so a way must be
found to change the frequency of oscillation. In an LC Oscillator, the carrier frequency is fixed
by the values of the inductance and capacitance in a tuned circuit, and the carrier frequency can
therefore be changed by varying either inductance or capacitance. The idea is to find a circuit
or component that converts a modulating voltage to a corresponding change in capacitance or
inductance.

When the carrier is generated by a crystal oscillator, the frequency is fixed by the crystal..
Connecting an external capacitor to the crystal allows minor variations in operating frequency
to be obtained.

Again. the objective is to find a circuit or component whose capacitance will change in response
to the modulating signal. The component most frequently used for this purpose is a varactor.
Also known as a voltage variable capacitor, variable capacitance diode, or varicap. This device
is basically a semiconductor junction diode operated in a reverse bias mode.

Varactor Operation:
A junction diode is created when P and N-type semiconductor are formed during the
manufacturing process. Some electrons in the N-type material drift over into the P-type
material and neutralize the holes there forming a thin area called the depletion region. where
there are no free carriers, holes or electron.

This region acts as a thin insulator that prevents current from flowing through the device.

If a forward bias is applied to the diode, it will conduct. The external potential forces the holes
and electrons toward the junction, where they combine and cause a continuous current inside
the diode us well as externally. The depletion layer simply disappears as shown in fig (b).
If an external reverse bias applied to the diode as in Fig (c) no current will flow. The bias
increases the width of the depletion layer. The higher the reverse bias, the wider the depletion
layer and the less chance for current flow. A reverse-biased junction diode acts as a small
capacitor. The P and N-type materials act as the two plates of the capacitor and the depletion
region acts as the dielectric. With all the active current carriers (electrons und holes) neutralized
the depletion region, it functions just as an insulating material. The width of the depletion layer
determines the width of the dielectric and therefore, the amount of capacitance. If the reverse
bias is high, the depletjon region will be wide and the dielectric will cause the plates of the
capacitor to be widely spaced, producing a low capacitance. Decreasing the amount of reverse
bias narrows the depletion region, the plates of the capacitor are effectively closer together,
producing a higher capacitance. All junction diodes exhibit variable capacitance as the reverse
bias is changed. The symbols used to represent varactor diodes are shown in Fig. 2

varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance values, most units having a nominal
capacitance in the 1- to 200-pF range. The capacitance variation range can be as high as 12:1
Figure 3 shows the curve for a typical diode.

Figure 1: Depletion region in junction diode

Figure 2
Figure 3: Capacitance versus junction voltage for a typical varactor.

A maximum capacitance of 80 pF is obtained at I V. With 60 V applied. the capacitance drops

to 20 pF. a 4: 1 range. The operating range is usually restricted to the linear center portion of
the curve.

Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage are generally referred
to as voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs). Voltage controlled crystal oscillators are generally
referred to as VX0s.

Applications of VCO:

1. Frequency Modulation.
2. Voltage-to-frequency conversion.
3. Phase-locked loops.

Frequency Modulation with an IC VCO

Figure a: Block Diagram of IC VCO

 Figure b: Basic frequency modulator using the NE566 VCO

IC VCO is a lower frequency VCO, using RC multivibrator-type oscillators whose frequency

can be controlled over a wide range by an ac or dc input voltage. The block diagram of widely
used IC NE566 VCO is shown in figure (a).

External resistor R1 at pin 6 sets the value of current produced by the internal current sources.

The current sources linearly charge and discharge external capacitor C 1 at pin 7. An external
voltage Vc applied at pin 5 is used to vary the amount of current produced by the current
sources.

The current sources linearly charge and discharge external capacitor C1 at pin 7.

An external voltage V c applied at pin 5 is used to vary the amount of current produced by the
current sources.

The Schmitt trigger circuit is level detector that control the current source by switching between
charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges to a specific voltage level.
A linear sawtooth of voltage is developed across the capacitor by the current source. This is
buffered by an amplifier and made available at pin 4. The Schmitt trigger output is a square
wave at the same frequency available at pin 3. If a sine wave output is desired, the triangular
wave is usually filtered with a tuned circuit resonant to the desired carrier frequency.

A complete frequency modulator circuit using the NE566 is shown in Figure b. The current
sources are biased with a voltage divider made up of R2 and R3. The modulating signal is
applied through C2 to the voltage divider at pin 5. The 0.001µF capacitor between pins 5 and
6 is used to prevent unwanted oscillations. The center carrier frequency of the circuit is set by
the values of R1 and C1. Carrier frequencies up to 1 MHz may be used with this IC. 1f higher
frequencies and deviations arc necessary, the outputs can be filtered or used to drive other
circuits, such as a frequency multiplier. The modulating signal can vary the carrier frequency
over nearly a 10:1 range, making very large deviations possible. The deviation is linear with
respect to the input amplitude over the entire range.
A 10-GHz SiGe integrated VCO

This circuit uses silicon-germanium (SiGe) bipolar transistor to achieve an operating frequency
centered near 10 GHz.

The oscillator uses cross coupled transistors Q1and Q2 in a multivibrator or flipflop type of
design. The signal is a sine wave whose frequency is set by the collector inductances and
varactor capacitances.
The modulating voltage, usually a binary signal to produce FSK. is applied to the junction of
D1 and D2. Two complementary outputs arc available from the emitter followers Q3 and Q4 .
In this circuit, the inductors are actually tiny spirals of aluminum (or copper) inside the chip,
with inductance in the 500 to 900 pH range. The varactors are reverse-biased diodes that
function as variable capacitors. The tuning range is from 9.953 to 10.66 GHz.

Frequency Demodulators
➢ Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the carrier back to a proportional
voltage variation can be used to demodulate or detect FM signal.
➢ Circuits used to recover the original modulating signal from an FM transmission are
called demodulators, detectors, or discriminators.

1. Frequency Demodulation using Slope Detectors

The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector makes use of a tuned circuit and
a diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variation. The basic circuit is
as shown
 The FM signal is applied to resonant circuit, the signal voltage induced into L2 and the
output voltage is taken from across 𝐶1 .
As shown in the response curve of the tuned circuit, the voltage across 𝐶1 peaks at the
resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 . At lower or higher frequencies, the voltage falls off.
To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so that the center or carrier
frequency of the FM signal is approximately centered on the leading edge of the response
curve. As the carrier frequency varies above and below its center frequency (𝑓𝑐 ), the tuned
circuit responds as shown in figure (b) .
If the frequency goes lower than the carrier frequency, the output voltage across 𝐶1
decreases. If the frequency goes higher, the output across c1 goes higher. Thus, the ac
voltage across 𝐶1 is proportional to the frequency of the FM signal. The voltage across 𝐶1
is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1. These are filtered into a varying
dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original modulating signal.
The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning them so that FM signal is correctly
centered on the leading edge of the tuned circuit. In addition, the tuned circuit does not
have a perfectly linear response. It is approximately linear over a narrow range, but for
wide deviations amplitude distortion occurs because of the non - linearity.
The slope detector is never used in practice, but it does show the principle of FM
demodulation. i.e., converting a frequency variation to a voltage variation.

2. Frequency Demodulation using PLL (Phase Locked Loops)

A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency or phase-sensitive feedback control circuit used

in frequency demodulation, Frequency synthesizers and various filtering and signal
detection applications. All phase-locked loops have the three basic elements.
➢ When no input signal is applied, the phase detector and low-pass filter outputs are
zero. The VCO then operates at what is called the free running frequency, its
normal operating frequency as determined by internal frequency-determining
components.
➢ When an input signal close to the frequency of the VCO is applied, the phase
detector compares the VCO free-running frequency to the input frequency and
produces an output voltage proportional to the frequency difference or phase
difference called the error voltage. The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency
in an attempt to correct for the original frequency or phase difference.
➢ At some point, the error voltage causes the VCO frequency to equal the input
frequency. when this happens, the PLL is said to be in a locked condition.
Although the input and VCO frequencies are equal. there is a phase difference
between them. usually exactly 90°, which produces the dc output voltage that will
cause the VCO to produce the frequency that keeps the circuit locked.
➢ If the input frequency changes, the phase detector and low-pass filter produce a
new value of dc control voltage that forces the VCO output frequency to change
until it is equal to the new input frequency. Any variation in input frequency is
matched by a VCO frequency change, so the circuit remains locked.
➢ The VCO in a PLL is therefore capable of tracking the input frequency over a wide
range. The range of frequencies over which a PLL can track an input signal and
remain locked is known as the lock range. The lock range is usually a band of
frequencies above and below the free-running frequency of the VCO. If the input
signal frequency is out of the lock range, the PLL will not lock. When this occurs.
the VCO output frequency jump to the free-running frequency.
 ➢ If an input frequency within the lock range is applied to the PLL, the circuit
immediately adjusts itself into a locked condition. The phase detector determines
the phase difference between the free-running and input frequencies of the VCO
and generates the error signal that forces the VCO to equal to the input frequency.
This action is referred to as capturing an input signal. Once the input signal is
captured, the PLL remains locked and will track any changes in the input signal
as long as the frequency is within the lock range. The range of frequencies over
which a PLL will capture an input signal. known as the capture range, is much
narrower than the lock range, but like the lock range is generally centered on the
free-running frequency of the VCO.

Communication Receivers
➢ In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it reaches
the receiver, particularly when it has travelled over a long distance.
➢ The signal, which has shared the free-space transmission media with thousands of other
radio signals, has also picked up noise of various kinds.
➢ Radio receivers must provide the sensitivity and selectivity that permit full recovery of
the anginal intelligence signal.
➢ The radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the superheterodyne receiver.
Invented in the early 1900s, the superheterodyne is used today in most electronic
communication systems.
 Characteristics of good Receiver
1. Selectivity
A communication receiver must be able to identify and select a desired signal from
thousands of others present in the frequency spectrum is called selectivity
selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using tuned circuits and/or filters.

2.Sensitivity
A communication receiver's sensitivity, or ability to pick up weak signals is mainly a
function of overall gain. The factor by which an input signal is multiplied to produce
the output signal. In general, the higher the gain or a receiver, the better is sensitivity.
High gain in communication receivers is obtained by using multiple amplification
stages.

➢ A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired signal in the RF spectrum and
eliminate or at least greatly attenuate all other signals. A receiver with good sensitivity
involves high circuit gain.

Superheterodyne Receivers

Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower frequency known as

the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers is used to provide a
fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity.

1. RF Amplifiers
➢ The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feed it to the RF amplifier also called
a low noise amplifier (LNA). Because RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and
selectivity, they are sometimes referred to as preselectors. Tuned circuits help select the
desired signal.
➢ Because of the extra gain, it improves selectivity of the added tuned circuits and
improve the S/ N ratio. Further, spurious signals are more effectively rejected,
minimizing unwanted signal generation in the mixer. Minimizing unwanted signal
generation in the mixer.
➢ RF amplifier also minimize oscillator radiation. The local oscillator signal is relatively
strong and some of it can leak through and appear at the input to the mixer. If the mixer
input, connected directly to the antenna, some of the local oscillator signal radiates,
possibly causing interference to other nearby receivers. The RF amplifier between the
mixer and the antenna isolates the two, significantly reducing any local oscillator
radiation.
 Figure 1: Block Diagram of Superheterodyne Receiver

2. Mixers and Local Oscillators

➢ The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer.

➢ The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator or frequency synthesizer. The
mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator signal, and the sum and difference
frequencies of these signals. Usually, a tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects
the difference frequency or intermediate frequency (IF). The sum frequency may also
be selected as the IF in some applications.
➢ The mixer may be a diode. a balanced modulator, or a transistor. MOSFETs and hot
carrier diodes are preferred as mixers because of their low-noise characteristics.
➢ The Local oscillator is made tunable, so that its frequency can be adjusted over a
relatively wide range. As the local oscillator frequency is changed, the mixer translates
a wide range of input frequencies to the IF.

3. IF Amplifiers

➢ The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same modulation that appeared
on the input RF signal.
➢ This signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages and most of the receiver
gain is obtained in these stages. Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity. Since
the intermediate frequency is usually much lower than the input signal frequency, IF
amplifiers are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to obtain. Crystal, ceramic,
or SAW filters are used in most IF sections to obtain good selectivity.

4. Demodulators
➢ The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the demodulator, or detector which
recovers the original modulating information. The demodulator may be a diode detector
(for AM). a quadrature detector (for FM), or a product detector (for SSB).
➢ The output of the demodulator or DAC is then usually fed to an audio amplifier with
sufficient voltage and power gain to operate a speaker.

5. Automatic Gain Control

➢ The output of a demodulator is usually the original modulating signal, the amplitude of
which is directly proportional to the amplitude of the received signal.
➢ The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into a de voltage by
a circuit known as the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit. This dc voltage is fed back
to the IF amplifiers and sometimes the RF amplifier to control receiver gain. They help
the receiver to function over a wide range, so that strong signals do not produce
performance-degrading distortion.
➢ With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is automatically adjusted depending on the
input signal level. If it is very high. the AGC circuit produces a high de output voltage,
thereby reducing the gajn of the IF amplifiers. This reduction in gain eliminates the
distortion normally produced by a high-voltage input signal. When the incoming signal
is weak, the detector output is low. The output of the AGC is then a smaller dc voltage.
This causes the gain of the IF amplifiers to remain high, providing maximum
amplification.
Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a higher or lower
frequency while retaining all the originally transmitted information.
In radio receivers, high-frequency radio signals are regularly converted to a lower intermediate
frequency, where improved gain and selectivity can be obtained. This is called down
conversion. In satellite communications. the original signal is generated at a lower frequency
and then converted to a higher frequency for transmission. This is called up conversion.

Mixing Principles
Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation carried out by a mixer circuit or
converter. The function performed by the mixer is called heterodyning.

Figure: Concept of mixer

Above figure shows the schematic diagram of a mixer circuit. Mixers accept two inputs. The
signal fs, which is to be translated to another frequency. is applied to one input, and the sine
wave from a local oscillator f0, is applied to the other input.

The signal to be translated can be a simple sine wave or any complex modulated signal
containing sidebands. The oscillator is the carrier and the signal to be translated is the
modulated signal.

The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands formed when the local
oscillator and input signal are mixed. The output of the mixer, therefore, consists of signals
𝑓𝑠 , 𝑓0 , 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓0 , 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓0 . The local oscillator signal (𝑓0 ,), original input signal 𝑓𝑠 , are not needed
in the output and are therefore filtered out. Either the sum or difference frequency in the output
is the desired signal.
For example to translate the input signal to a lower frequency, the lower sideband or difference
signal 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓0 , is chosen. When translating to a higher frequency. the upper sideband or sum
signal 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓0 is chosen
A tuned circuit or filter is used at the output of the mixer to select the desired signal and reject
all the others.

For example. for an FM radio receiver to translate an FM signal at 107.1 MHz to an

intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz for amplification and detection. a local Oscillator
frequency of 96.4 MHz is used.

The mixer output signals are 𝑓𝑠 = 107.1𝑀𝐻𝑧, 𝑓0 = 96.4𝑀𝐻𝑧, 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓0 = 203.5𝑀𝐻𝑧, 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓0 =

10.7𝑀𝐻𝑧. Then a filter selects the 10.7MHz signal (the Intermediate frequency 𝐼𝐼𝐹 ) and rejects
the others.

As another example, suppose a local oscillator frequency is needed that will produce an IF of
70 MHz for a signal frequency of 880 MHz. Since the IF is the difference between the input
signal and local oscillator frequencies. there are two possibilities, 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑓0 = 880 + 70 = 950
MHz and 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓0 = 880 - 70 = 810 MHz.

A JFET Mixer

FET's make good mixer, because they provide gain, have low noise and offer a nearly perfect
square-law response.
The FET mixer is biased so that it operates in the nonlinear portion of its range. The input
signal is applied to the gate and the local oscillator signal is coupled to the source.

The characteristic drain current versus gate voltage curve is a perfect square law function. With
a perfect square-law mixer response, only second-order harmonics are generated in addition to
the sum and difference frequencies. Again, the tuned circuit in the drain selects the difference
frequency.
Other mixers. such as diodes and bipolar transistors, approximate a square-law function.
However, they are nonlinear so that AM or heterodyning does occur. The nonlinearity is such
that higher-order products such as the third, fourth. fifth, and higher harmonics are generated.
Most of these can be eliminated by a bandpass filter that selects out the difference or sum
frequency for the IF amplifier. However the presence of higher-order product can cause
unwanted low-level signals to appear in the receiver. These signals produce birdlike chirping
sounds known as birdies. It can interfere with low-level input signal from the antenna or RF
amplifier. FETs do not have this problem. and so FETs arc the preferred mixer in most receivers
except for high-frequency applications, where diode mixers are used.