THEME 4 WATER POLLUTION AND

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT:
PREVENTING DAMAGE TO HUMAN
HEALTH AND LIVES AND CREATING
SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

ABSTRACT
If the large amounts of sewage and wastewater generated by economic activities are not properly treated,
they can harm both human health and ecosystems. In many developing countries, sewerage systems are
developed in only a limited area, resulting in the direct discharge of factory effluents and domestic
wastewater into rivers, lakes, and marshes; thus, the natural environment is degraded due to
developmental activities.

In Japan, approximately 40,000 people 1 were affected by pollution-related diseases caused by factory
wastewater during high economic growth. Laws and regulations involving monitoring and penalties
improved water quality, and pollutant loads from factories dropped to less than one-tenth in 20 years.
Factories improved their production and wastewater treatment processes. Currently, over 90% of the
population uses sewage treated via sewerage connections and on-site systems in their houses.

In closed water bodies 2, water quality is difficult to improve, once deteriorated. Improvement measures
involve controlling the inflow of upstream pollutants, handling point source loads where pollution
sources can be identified, and managing non-point source loads where pollution discharge points can be
specified. In Japan, only 50% lakes have achieved environmental standards of water quality. Thus, the
government has formulated long-term plans for water quality conservation, involving action plans to
implement projects.

During high economic growth, the river environment deteriorated, and Japanese residents were reluctant
to approach and enjoy rivers. As people became more environmentally conscious, the government
undertook the restoration of ecosystems and nature. In 1997, the River Law was revised by adding the
maintenance and conservation of the river environment, in addition to conventional flood protection and
water use. Various initiatives, such as river water purification projects, river development in harmony
with the natural environment, and, more recently, green infrastructure development, were launched. The
government managed illegal garbage dumping into rivers via early detection and actions through river
patrols and “garbage pickup” in cooperation with civil society organizations and local communities.

1
Number based on people eligible for support.
2
Closed water bodies include lakes, marshes, or land-locked seas, with low water exchange with other sources.
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

If economic development is prioritized and water pollution is left unattended, this could lead to
environmental destruction and severe pollution. Thus, a legal system and institutions must be
established to regulate discharge and to improve the water environment with nature-based solutions.

The water quality and environment of rivers, lakes, seas, and groundwater deteriorate because of the
rising population of cities and increasing economic activities. Unless properly treated, sewage can harm
both human health and ecosystems. The lack of sewerage systems and regulation results in the direct
discharge of industrial and domestic wastewater into rivers, lakes, and marshes, and the natural
environment is degraded with further development.

In Japan, water pollution was exacerbated due to prioritized economic development, particularly in
urban areas. Factory effluents caused pollution-related diseases, such as Minamata and Itai-itai disease,
compromising the health of people and causing severe pollution-related problems. In 2010, over 36,000
people 3 were deemed eligible for Minamata disease relief. In addition, water pollution damaged the
ecosystem and deters residents from rivers, considerably impacting the water environment.

In response to the water pollution problems, the government regulated wastewater discharge into water
bodies and employed measures to improve water quality, as explained in the “Water Pollution” chapter.
The chapter “River Environmental Management” describes efforts to conserve the river environment.
The government has been working with civil society organizations and local communities to improve
the quality of river water and preserve riverine ecological habitats and landscapes that were once
deteriorated. As a result, many rivers have become places of leisure for both residents and tourists.

3
Number of people eligible for relief under the Minamata Disease Special Measures Law in Kumamoto and Kagoshima Prefectures in 2010

1
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Water resources management is closely related to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the
relationships between water pollution and environmental management measures and the SDGs are
shown in the following box.

Relationships between Water Pollution and Environmental Management and the SDGs:

(1) Water quality will be improved through measures

against water pollution.
SDG 3: “Good Health and Well-being”; 3.3: “Address
water-borne diseases”
SDG 6: “Clean Water and Sanitation”; 6.2: “Access to adequate and equitable sanitation and
hygiene for all”
SDG 14: “Life below Water”; 14.1:”Prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution due to
land-based activities”
SDG 15: “Life on Land”; 15.1: “Ensure the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of
terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems, particularly forests, wetlands, mountains, and
drylands”

(2) The natural environment of rivers is conserved and restored through environmental management
measures.
SDG 17: “Partnerships for the Goals”; 17.17: “Encourage and promote effective public, public–
private, and civil society partnerships”

2
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

CHAPTER 2 WATER POLLUTION

2.1 Legal System for Water Pollution-related Diseases in Japan

A legal system should be established for the conservation of water quality, through which effluent
standards can be enacted to reduce the impacts of degraded water on human health, living
environment, and ecosystem and effluents can be monitored and regulated. In Japan, government
policies prioritizing economic growth resulted in disastrous pollution problems, such as diseases.

Initially, Japan lacked an

efficient legal system for Table 2.1 Timeline of Water Pollution Diseases and Related
Laws Enacted
protection against water
pollution, as industrial
development was the priority.
With the emergence and spread
of pollution-related diseases, a
legal system was introduced.
Table 2.1 presets the timeline of
pollution and enactment of laws
related.

(1) History of Water Pollution

1) Development of “Polluting
Industry” during the Post-
World War II
Source: Toward the Conservation and Sound Use of Groundwater, Advisory Group on
Reconstruction Period Future Groundwater Use, March 2007, MLIT

After World War II, the public and private sectors collaborated to place the economy on a high-growth
trajectory and achieve economic independence from the reconstruction stage. During this process, the
impact of industrial activities on the environment increased. Heavy industrialization was promoted,
creating a “polluting industry” with high pollutant emissions. Large-scale industrial complexes were
built in coastal areas, and pollution intensified and spread spatially. The rising consumption demands of
people and increasing production in response led to further environmental destruction. During high
economic growth, four major pollution-related diseases emerged because of wastewater from factories
and air pollution, and three of them, except Yokkaichi asthma, were caused by water pollution
(Table 2.2).

The government developed infrastructure to improve the industrial base; however, the budget for living
environment facilities remained small. In 1970, at the end of high economic growth, the project cost for
the construction of living environment facilities constituted only 5.3% of the total public works
expenditure 3.

3
Water Environment Conservation Technology Training Manual General Remarks, Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center, March 1998

3
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Table 2.2 Four Major Pollution-related Diseases

Disease Minamata Disease Second Itai-itai Disease Yokkaichi
Minamata Asthma
Disease
Region of Shiranui Coast, Agano River Jinzu River Yokkaichi City,
Emergence Minamata, Basin, Niigata Basin, Toyama Mie Prefecture
Kumamoto Prefecture Prefecture
Prefecture
Responsible New Japan Showa Denko Mitsui Mining Ishihara Sangyo,
Company Nitrogenous Kanose Plant & Smelting Chubu Electric
Fertilizer Company, Company Power
Acetaldehyde Kamioka Company,
Factory Showa
Yokkaichi
Sekiyu,
Mitsubishi
Yuka,
Mitsubishi
Kasei Kogyo,
Mitsubishi
Moncent Kasei
Substance Methyl mercury compound Cadmium Sulfur oxides
Symptoms Hand and foot tremors, sensory Osteomalacia, Bronchitis,
disturbance, hearing impairment, renal bronchial
neurological disturbance, ataxia, visual dysfunction asthma,
field narrowing, equilibrium pharyngitis and
dysfunction, speech impairment other respiratory
diseases,
emphysema
Outbreak Year Occurred in 1953 1965 Around 1910 Around 1959
and recognized in
1956
Number of 2,283 (as of March 704 (As of 200 (As of
Certified Patients 4 2020) December 2015) March 2018)
Notes: In addition to certified patients, the number of people who received compensation from the government is tens of thousands.
Source: Materials added on the Environmental Science reference website by the project research team

2) Local Government’s Initiatives

With the emergence of environmental issues, local governments faced a brunt of criticism from the
resident population and had to solve the issues on their own before the national government could act.
Around 1949, local governments began enacting ordinances for pollution prevention (see Reference).
Many ordinances set out procedures for permitting the establishment of factories that might cause
pollution but did not regulate emissions. Actions of the National Government

Regulations on water pollution did not proceed easily because of opposition from the industrial sector.
In 1951, the Natural Resources Research Council of the Economic Stabilization Agency (now the
Cabinet Office) submitted a “Recommendation on the Prevention of Water Pollution” to the President
of the Economic Stabilization Agency and presented the outline of a bill. However, opposition from the
industry, particularly the mining sector, which was considered the most severely affected by the

4
Patients certified by the Law Concerning Pollution-Related Health Damage Compensation and Other Measures. This system was enacted in
1973 to promptly and fairly protect pollution victims, taking into account the special nature of pollution damage and civil liability for pollution
causes.

4
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

regulation, was so intense that the act was considered premature and not enacted. Subsequently, from
1953 to 1957, the Ministry of Health and Welfare held 20 conferences among various ministries and
agencies to prepare for the law. The ministries of health, industry, and fisheries drafted various bills, but
none succeeded.

(2) Legal Systems

1) Two Water Quality Laws

The Water Quality Protection Act in 1958 was the first act in Japan to prevent water pollution. It
designated water bodies and set effluent standards for factories and workplaces. Subsequently, the
Industrial Wastewater Act was designed to ensure compliance with water quality standards.

However, the two water quality acts did not function enough in preventing pollution for the following
reasons: (1) the purpose of the acts included harmonization with the economy; (2) the regulated water
areas were limited; (3) measures to enforce compliance with the effluent standards were specified in
multiple acts and the regulatory contents were inconsistent among the acts; (4) there were no sanctions
(direct punishment system) for violating the standards, and facilities subject to regulation were for the
manufacturing industry alone, with few and limited pollutants subject to regulation; (5) the regulations
addressed only the concentration of pollutants; (6) the effluent standards were moderate enough to retain
the current status; and (7) the water quality monitoring system was inadequate.

2) Water Pollution Prevention Act

In 1970, the Headquarters for Pollution Prevention was established, headed by the Prime Minister. The
national diet on pollution, called the “Pollution Diet,” was also convened, aiming to overhaul pollution-
related laws and regulations. Finally, fourteen pollution-related laws were enacted to establish an
effective system.

The 1970 Water Pollution Prevention Act aims to prevent water pollution in water bodies and
groundwater, protect public health, and preserve the living environment. The “harmony clause”
concerning harmonization with economic development was deleted. Regulations were strengthened by
expanding the regulatory region from designated areas nationwide and increasing the number of
substances to be regulated. The act protects victims by providing liability for damage to human health
caused by factory effluents.

3) Basic Environment Act

Economic development entailed socioeconomic activities, such as mass production, consumption, and
disposal. It also led to the concentration of economies in cities, where domestic wastewater caused
pollution problems in urban life, such as nitrogen oxide pollution and water pollution. Increased waste
burdened the environment to an ever-greater extent, and the natural environment continued to deteriorate.

Many issues, such as air and water pollution, occur in multiple environmental elements rather than
individual ones, and measures against individual environmental elements cannot solve such complex
issues. Acid rains and deforestation affect natural ecosystems. Forests absorb greenhouse gases.
Measures addressing pollution prevention and natural environment conservation are required to mitigate
the global environmental issues.

5
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

In 1993, in response to the growing demand for comprehensive measures to protect the environment,
the Basic Environment Act was enacted with the following principles: “enjoy and inherit the benefits
from the environment,” “build a society that enables sustainable development with less environmental
impacts,” and “actively promote global environment conservation through international cooperation.”

(3) Institutional Development

In 1967, the Central Council for Pollution Prevention Measures was established as a government system
in the Prime Minister’s Office. The national government consulted pollution prevention measures with
the council. In 1993, the council became the Central Environment Council, which dealt with
environmental policy. In 1971, the Environmental Agency was established to integrally control the
existing pollution regulations under the jurisdiction of 13 ministries.

Under the 1967 Basic Act for Pollution Prevention Measures, local governments were responsible for
promoting, monitoring, regulating, and guiding measures against water and other forms of pollution as
well as handling complaints and disputes. The budget increased from 370 billion yen in 1970 to 5.5
trillion yen in 2000. The number of staff members, including environmental specialists, increased from
approximately 3,000 nationwide in 1970 to approximately 16,000 in 2001. Laboratories were
established for monitoring, research, and analysis.

2.2 Wastewater Regulation

To improve water quality, wastewater is regulated through acts and ordinances and monitoring is
conducted.

(1) Factory Effluents

Factory effluents are regulated based on water quality standards and total volume regulations in Japan.
Factories are required to record the water quality of the effluent and take emergency actions. Some
factories have their own treatment facilities, while others are connected to sewage systems.

Figure 2.1 shows the Biochemical

Oxygen Demand (BOD) loads 5 for 1970
and 1989. Over the past 20 years, the
total BOD load decreased to
approximately 20% of the level in 1970.
The BOD load from the industrial
sources decreased to approximately 7%.
Factories reduced loads by improving
production and wastewater treatment Source: Environmental Strategy of Water, Nakanishi Junko, Iwanami Publications
processes. Figure 2.1 BOD Loading

5
It is used as one of the indicators of water pollution.

6
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

In 1970, the Water Pollution Prevention Act was enacted, and ordinances were introduced by local
governments to regulate the discharge of factory effluents into water bodies. Specified facilities with an
average wastewater volume of 50
m3/day or more are subject to
regulations under the Act (Figure 2.2).
Specified workplaces include facilities
that discharge (1) substances that may
harm human health or the living
environment or (2) sewage or liquid
Source: Project Research Team
waste containing dioxins. The effluent
Figure 2.2 Specified Factories Subject to the Water
standards and regulations for specified Pollution Prevention Act
facilities are classified into the
following categories:

 National minimum effluent standards: Nationwide uniform standards set by the national
government

 Additional stricter standards by prefecture: In areas where national standards are insufficient to
prevent water pollution, prefectural governments additionally establish more stringent standards
in terms of the amount of effluent or expand the target of specified facilities 6.

 Standards for additional scope: For substances and industries that are not regulated by the Water
Pollution Prevention Act, local governments establish ordinances setting standards for these
substances and industries.

 Standards for total pollutant load: In areas where regulations are ordinarily not sufficient to
achieve environmental standards, such as closed water bodies, standards for total pollutant load
(Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), nitrogen, and phosphorus) are applied to facilities. The
regulation is executed based on the amount of load (concentration × water volume) and not the
concentration.

The agreement for pollution prevention with companies became an important measure that complements
regulation through acts and ordinance. In 1964, Yokohama City signed an agreement for pollution
prevention with a company when the city sold reclaimed land in the coastal area. In 1969, 436
agreements were signed, and as of 2006, the number of effective agreements exceeded 32,000.

Factories discharging wastewater are required to measure their pollutant loads and record the
measurement results. Local governments conduct on-site inspections several times per year in each
factory. The purpose is to reaffirm that the workplaces were operated properly, complying with the
regulations. Advance notice of on-site inspections is not issued.

After on-site inspection, the results are examined promptly. When a factory is at risk of not meeting the
effluent standards, the local government instructs improvement measures. The local government repeats
the on-site inspections to confirm whether the status has improved. Only a few improvement instructions

6
When a prefecture, by ordinance, extends the applicable scope of facilities subject to regulation by the national government to smaller facilities
(lowering the scale requirement presented in Figure 2.2).

7
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

are issued annually. When effluents do not satisfy the standards, the local government provides penalties
regardless of whether the effluents are intentional or negligent.

In the case of a risk due to the discharge of hazardous substances from a specified factory, immediate
emergency preventative measures are warranted and the prefectural governor must be promptly notified
of the accident and measures. In the case of an accident, the following measures are required:

1. Emergency measures: To stop the outflow of the hazardous substance

2. Notification and communication: To notify the status of the accident and damage to and
communicate with the relevant agencies

3. Investigation of environmental damage: To investigate damages, including downstream water

bodies, and take the required measures

4. Post-accident measures: After emergency measures, investigations of the impact on downstream

areas continue and permanent measures are prepared to prevent the recurrence of the accident

When pollution in water bodies intensifies due to abnormal droughts, the prefectural governor may take
the necessary measures to reduce the volume of wastewater flowing into the water bodies.

Effluents from specified factories as well as those from factories connected to the sewerage system
should satisfy the effluent standards. If the effluents from a factory exceed the standards, a facility must
be installed to reduce pollutants within the limits.

(2) Agricultural Wastewater

When wastewater from rural areas flows into channels, water quality declines. Water quality can be
improved by domestic wastewater treatment using rural sewerage systems and on-site wastewater
treatment systems called Johkasou, which treats both black and gray water at household level. In
addition, agricultural chemicals used on farmlands return to rivers and groundwater. Rainfall during
flooding also causes pesticide run off. To ensure safety, only those pesticides registered under the act
can be manufactured, imported, and sold. To prevent harm to humans, livestock, aquatic animals, and
plants due to crop residues, soil residues, and water pollution, each pesticide is only registered after
confirming that it does not exceed the relevant standards. Because indiscriminate and improper pesticide
use can adversely affect living organisms and the environment, usage standards, such as the type of
crops applicable, time of use, and use amount, are set. With regard to water pollution caused by
pesticides, regulations based on legislation have set environmental standards and items requiring
monitoring as well as criteria for withholding registration 7.

(3) Monitoring

Water quality is monitored to ensure that effluents from sewerage treatment plants and factories comply
with the standards. Monitoring the water environment is crucial for gathering data for planning and
formulating policies, plans, and programs related to the water environment. The Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism (MLIT) and the local governments monitor the water quality in

7
Registration shall be withheld if the pesticide, when used by the general public in accordance with the description in the application form,
causes water pollution in the public water bodies that is thought to be linked to the use of pesticides, and there is a risk of harming humans and
livestock due to the use of this water (Criteria for withholding registration due to water pollution).

8
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

rivers and lakes. Guidelines were developed for monitoring rivers, dam reservoirs, and weirs. Prefectural
governors can implement programs for flexible monitoring based on local conditions (Figure 2.3).
Rural sewerage systems report the amount and quality of wastewater to clarify the impact of agricultural
activities on the environment. The National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences issued the “Agro-
Environmental Monitoring Manual for the Conservation of Aquatic Environments.” The agricultural
sector has improved agricultural land management to address water pollution issues 8.
In 1971, the Act on the Improvement of Pollution Prevention Systems in Specific Factories was enacted.
Companies with specified facilities under the act, including small- and medium-sized companies, must
have the following staff: pollution prevention supervisors 9, pollution prevention managers, and chief
pollution prevention managers. These companies have created a system to voluntarily engage in
pollution prevention. Pollution prevention managers and chief pollution prevention managers should be
qualified to pass national examinations.

Ordinance-
designated City Prefecture (Water quality measurement in rivers, lakes, MLIT
sea areas and groundwater)
(Water quality measurement in city) (Water quality measurement in
Consul-
⬥ Preparation of Water Quality Measurement Plan Consul-
major parts of Class A Rivers)
 Water quality measurement Coordinate with MLIT and ordinance-designated cities to create
-tation -tation ⬥ Water quality measurement
 Water quality measurement a plan for efficient and regular monitoring of water quality
results ⬥ Water quality measurement
results
⬥ Water Quality ⬥ Health items (cadmium, total cyanide, etc.)
Measurement ⬥ Living & environment items (BOD, COD,
total zinc in aquatic organisms, etc.)
Collection Sampling Analysis Information Disclosure
⬥White Paper ⬥Homepage
⬥Water Quality Measurement
Results
Water Env. Comprehensive Info. Site
Distribution of Water https://water-pub.env.go.jp/water-
Quality Measurement pub/mizu-site/index.asp
Sites in Public Waters
⬥ Summary of Water Quality Measurement Results
⬥ Response to water pollution incidents Publish-
Number of ⬥Response to water bodies that exceed or fail to meet environment
-ing
Measurement standards
Sites (2005)
Reporting of
Results

Instructions, notifications & technical Ministry of Status of Achievement of Environmental

advice necessary for regular Standards (BOD or COD)
monitoring of water quality Environment Rivers
87.2%
Overall 83.4

⬥Decision of env. conservation measures

Sea Area 76.0
Achievement Rate (%)

⬥Formulation of basic env. plan Collection, analysis & Lakes 53.4

Health Items: 5,600 ⬥Env. standards and effluent regulations compilation of nation-
Living & Env. Items: 8,545 ⬥Analysis method, survey method
wide water quality
Overall

⬥Treatment standards for regular monitoring

Rivers

DXN Water Quality: 1,912 Sea Area

⬥Response to water pollution accidents data into a database Lakes

Substrate: 1,623 Showa Heisei 13 15

Source: Japan’s water environment Administration, September 2012, Ministry of the Environment
Figure 2.3 Regular Monitoring System

8
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) has been implementing measures to help conserve agricultural land, water, and
the environment since 2007.
9
The person who supervises and manages the business (plant manager, etc.). A person must be appointed if the company has 21 or more regular
employees.

9
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

CHAPTER 3 SECURING CLEAN SURFACE WATER

3.1 Improving the Quality of Discharged Water

The quality of water discharged into water bodies must be improved. A combination of sewerage
facilities and on-site facilities (e.g., Johkasou) can improve the quality for domestic wastewater.

Wastewater entering water bodies comprises domestic wastewater, factory effluents, and agricultural
wastewater. The quality each type of wastewater must be improved. Figure 3.1 shows the sources of
pollution and discharge points. Factory effluents and agricultural wastewater are explained in section
2.2, while domestic wastewater is explained in this section.

Pollution Source Domestic Type

Household Commercial Wastewater Industrial Livestock Paddy Farm- Other,
Forests
Wastewater Wastewater from Tourism Effluent Wastewater fields land Urban Area

Pollution Discharge

Rural Sewage
Treatment Treatment
Johkasou Sewerage Treatment
Facility Facility
System Plant

Discharge from
Discharge from Domestic Discharge from Discharge from
Sewage Treatment Discharge from Surface Source
Source Factories Livestock
Plant
Source: Prepared based on Guidelines and Commentary on the Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning of Sewerage Systems, MLIT, 2015
Figure 3.1 Sources of Pollution and Discharge Points

Domestic wastewater comprises black water from human waste and gray water from kitchens, baths,
and laundry sources. Gray water comprises 70% domestic wastewater in the loading ratio and is one of
the major causes of water pollution. As the BOD load of untreated and discharged gray water is
considerable, a combination of Johkasou and sewerage systems is used for the conservation of water
bodies.

(1) Treatment Methods for Domestic Wastewater in Japan

In Japan, sanitation facilities are under the jurisdiction of multiple authorities, resulting in complicated
administration. Sewerage facilities are under the jurisdiction of the MLIT, rural sewerage systems for
agriculture, forestry and fisheries communities are under the jurisdiction of MAFF, and Johkasou is
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Environment (MOE). The wastewater treatment coverage
ratio 10 was 90.9% in 2017 (Figure 3.2). The following methods are used to treat domestic wastewater:
(1) vault toilets (for black water); (2) Johkasou; (3) public sewerage systems; and (4) rural sewerage
systems.

10
An indicator of the prevalence of wastewater treatment facilities. It is calculated as the number of people who have access to sewerage and
rural sewerage systems etc., plus the number of people who use Johkasou etc., divided by the total population.

10
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Note: The wastewater treatment connection rate and sewerage treatment connection rate are from the MLIT’s sewerage department,
while the environmental standard achievement rate is from the MOE.
Municipalities that could not be surveyed due to the Great East Japan Earthquake were not included in the survey (2011: Iwate, Miyagi,
and Fukushima prefectures; 2012: Iwate and Fukushima prefectures; 2013 and 2014: Fukushima Prefecture; 2015: 11 municipalities in
Fukushima Prefecture; 2016: 10 municipalities in Fukushima Prefecture; 2017: 8 towns in Fukushima Prefecture; 2018: 7 towns in
Fukushima Prefecture; 2019: 3 towns in Fukushima Prefecture.
Source: Promotion of Sewerage Development, MLIT, with additions and corrections
Figure 3.2 Changes in Wastewater Treatment Coverage Rate, Sewerage Treatment Coverage Rate,
and Environmental Standard Achievement Rate

(2) Selection of Treatment Method

1) Comprehensive Basin-wide Plan of Sewerage Systems

Sewerage development is the most basic measure for water quality protection in water bodies. The
Sewerage Act requires the formulation of a basic plan, the Comprehensive Basin-wide Plan of Sewerage
Systems, which serves as an upper-level plan. Individual public and basin sewerage plans are formulated
based on this plan. The Plan defines (1) the basic development policy; (2) the areas treated by sewerage
systems; (3) the layout, structure, and capacity of facilities; (4) the priority of projects; and (5) the target
amount and method of reducing nitrogen and phosphorus discharged from sewerage treatment plants in
closed water bodies.

11
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

2) Selection of Treatment Method

Treatment methods are selected from

an economic viewpoint. In urban Sparsely populated area is
maintained by Johkasou
areas, where the population is Rural area is served by Rural
Sewerage Systems
concentrated, collective treatment is
Mainly installed in
more economical because the per- each house to treat
domestic wastewater
capita cost (total construction and
maintenance costs) is lower. On-site
treatment is more economical in
sparsely populated areas (Figure 3.3).

Local governments formulate a The sewerage treatment

system is installed to area-
development plan by zoning for each wide and treats various The central part is served by
wastewater such as domestic, sewerage system
treatment method and estimate commercial & workplace
construction costs. The features of Source: MLIT Website

typical treatment facilities are listed Figure 3.3 Treatment Facility Development
in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Features of Typical Treatment Facilities
Item Sewerage system Rural sewerage system Johkasou
1. Characteristic Large-scale Small-scale On-site treatment
centralized collective decentralized treatment Wastewater is treated
treatment system system separately by installing
Sewage is collected  Sewage is collected treatment facility at each
through a pipe and through a pipe culvert household site
treated at the and treated
treatment plant
2. Targeted Wastewater from Mainly domestic Mainly domestic wastewater
wastewater various citywide wastewater from from each household
sources (domestic, agricultural
school, business, and communities
industrial sources)
3. Water quality Stable treated water is Stable treated water is Installed and maintained by
protection effect maintained (by the maintained (by the local the local government or
local government) government) individual households
4. Economic Economic in densely Economic in densely More efficient than sewerage
efficiency populated areas (i.e., populated villages, system, which require the
urban areas), efficient economics of scale installation of long pipe
due to economies of work, resulting in high culverts in villages for
scale economic efficiency scattered houses
Long service life Long service life Short service life
5. Required Usually, ~5–20 years Usually, ~5–6 years Usually, 1 week to 10 days
period for Due to the large scale It can be put into service Immediate effect of sewage
development of the project, the start relatively early treatment can be expected
of service is delayed
6. Population 100,740,000 3,370,000 11,760,000
treated
Notes: Population treated is data as of the end of 2008
Source: (1)–(5) obtained from the Ibaraki Prefecture website; (6) obtained from the MLIT website

12
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

(3) Sewerage System

In Japan, the sewerage treatment

coverage ratio has increased by 70% over
the 50 years since 1965 (Figure 3.4). In
2019, the coverage ratio was 79.7%
(Figure 3.2). In the 1960s, while the
water supply coverage ratio was
approximately 70%, the sewage
coverage ratio remained below 10%.
Because river water quality deteriorated
during high economic growth and the
population was concentrated in urban
areas, a large number of sewerage Source: MLIT Website

systems were constructed. Sewerage Figure 3.4 Changes in Water Supply and Sewerage
Treatment Coverage Ratio
facilities include (1) pipelines to collect
sewage and convey it to treatment plants; (2) treatment plants to process sewage; and (3) pumping station
facilities to supplement pipelines and treatment facilities. Sewerage systems are also classified into
public, river basin-wide, and urban sewerage systems.

 Public sewerage system: managed by the local governments of cities, towns, and villages to treat
sewage in urban areas

 River basin-wide sewerage system: Managed by the prefectural government to receive and treat
sewage from systems managed by multiple local governments

 Urban sewerage system: Sewerage systems managed by the local governments to drain sewage,
mainly from rainwater.

(4) Johkasou

Johkasou is a unique system in Japan. The septic tanks used in developing countries only black water,
whereas the Johkasou treats both black and gray water. They are used in rural areas, where houses are
scattered sparsely. The coverage ratio of Johkasou was 9.3% 12 in 2018. Local governments or individual
households install these systems. The anaerobic filter floor contact aeration method 13 is commonly
adopted (Figure 3.5). Under the Johkasou Act, Johkasou must be maintained, cleaned, and inspected by
contractors licensed by the local governments.

12
MLIT Press Release Documents (August 23, 2019)
13
After entering the anaerobic filter tank, the solids are removed and the organic matter is decomposed by anaerobic microorganisms on the
surface of the filter media. The same process is repeated through another anaerobic filter layer, whereupon the water enters the contact aerobic
tank. Here, the water is further treated by aerobic microorganisms while being agitated by air.

13
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Figure 3.5 General Treatment Method in Johkasou

Note: Filter: Large chunks and water-soluble dirt are separated, and anaerobic microorganisms attached to the filter material decompose organic
matter.
Contactor: Aerobic microorganisms attached to the contact material further decompose the organic matter in sewage.
Disinfection tank: Escherichia coli and other pathogens are eliminated with chemicals and treated with safe water.
Source: Website of Cleanup Federation in Wakayama Prefecture

(5) Rural Sewerage System

It is a small-scale decentralized treatment facility in rural areas (Figure 3.6). The target number of
households is approximately 20 or more, and the capacity is approximately 1,000 people. Rural
sewerage system prevent water pollution, allow for the reuse treated water for agricultural purposes, and
enable the return of sludge to farmlands. Prefectures, municipalities, and agricultural irrigation area
improvement and management associations (farmers’ associations) 14 operate these facilities.

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries website

Figure 3.6 Rural Sewerage and Drainage Facilities

14
For more information on agricultural irrigation area improvement and management association, Theme 1-2: Water Rights.

14
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

(6) Water Quality Monitoring

The Water Pollution Prevention Act requires sewage treatment plants to measure discharged water and
record the results. For privately installed Johkasou, a designated inspection agency examines water
quality once a year. The inspector gives the owner of the tank the inspection results with the
classification of “appropriate,” “acceptable,” or “inappropriate”15. If the result is deemed “inappropriate,”
the owner takes actions for improvement with the guidance of specialists from public health centers. For
Johkasou managed by the local governments, periodic inspections are conducted by designated agencies
in accordance with the Johkasou Act.

3.2 Improvement of Water Quality in Closed Water Bodies

It is difficult to improve the quality of closed water bodies, such as lakes, once it deteriorates. A
long-term system should be established to regulate and improve the quality of inflowing water.

Lakes, marshes, inland bays, and land-locked seas are closed water bodies, with little exchange of water
with open water areas. In these water bodies, inflowing pollutants can easily accumulate, hampering
efforts to improve water quality. Population and industry are concentrated in areas of the Tokyo Bay, Ise
Bay, and Seto Inland Sea, resulting in significant pollutant emissions. During high economic growth,
the pollution load flowing into lakes increased with increased socioeconomic activities, resulting in
eutrophic lakes, red tides, and other forms of water pollution. Water pollution further triggered various
issues affecting the use of water bodies, such as water supply problems (malodor and bad taste), damage
to fisheries, and decreased tourism value. Many lakes and marshes were found to be considerably more
polluted than the water quality environmental standards.

In 1984, the Act on Special Measures Concerning Conservation of Lake Water Quality (the Lakes and
Marshes Act) was enacted, which contributed to the improvement of water quality in closed water bodies.
However, the rate of achievement of environmental standards (COD, nitrogen, and phosphorus) for
closed water bodies remained lower than that for rivers (Figure 3.7).

Trends of the achievement rate of environmental Trends of the achievement rate of environmental
standards (BOD or COD) standards (total nitrogen and total phosphorus) for lakes
Source: 2019 Water Quality Measurements of Public Waters, Ministry of the Environment

Figure 3.7 Status of Environmental Standard Achievement

15
When making a judgement, the results of visual inspection, water quality inspection, and document inspection are comprehensively evaluated.

15
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

The Act on Special Measures Concerning Conservation of Lake Water Quality was enacted to improve
the water quality of lakes and marshes. Eleven lakes and marshes were specifically designated,
whereupon prefectures formulated lake and marsh water quality conservation plans and runoff water
improvement promotion plans (5-year plans). The plans indicated a long-term vision and goals to be
achieved, providing a period for achieving the goals and quantitative indicators. These plans are shared
among stakeholders. Thus, local communities should be involved in the implementation process. Based
on these plans, projects to conserve water quality were implemented, and regulations were enforced to
reduce the pollution load. The measures cover (a) projects to reduce pollution load, such as sewerage
systems and Johkasou, and (b) dredging of sediment, aeration, diversion of water.
There are two types of pollution sources: (a) point source loads, such as wastewater from households,
factories, and offices, for which the point and amount of discharge can be identified, and (b) non-point
source loads, such as wastewater from paved roads in urban areas and agricultural fields, for which the
point of discharge is difficult to identify. In the data for Kasumigaura and Lake Inba, the ratio of point
source load to non-point (area) source load was 1:1 (in 2000).

Landowners (farmers, road managers, and sewerage managers) in agricultural and urban areas have
implemented measures to improve water pollution. Measures to improve point source loads include the
construction of sewage systems and Johkasou. Measures to improve non-point source loads included
the following (Table 3.2):

(a) Measures for load sources: to handle loads generated by human activities in urban areas,
farmlands, and forests.

(b) Measures for discharged load: to reduce the generated load by controlling rainwater runoff and
purifying discharged water.

(c) Measures at the water area to be conserved: to prevent effluent loads from reaching the target
water bodies (designated lakes and marshes) through rivers.

16
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Table 3.2 Non-point Source Improvement Countermeasures

Classification Measures for Measures for discharged load Measures for water
load sources areas to be
conserved
Urban areas • Rainwater pit • Rainwater infiltration pit Measures for rivers
• Pipe cleaning • Underground infiltration of rainwater • Installation of
• Road surface through trenches water purification
cleaning • Rainwater storage ponds plants
• Prevention of • Storage facilities in each house • Installation of
garbage dumping • Water purification plants gravel-contained
• Tree • Reduction of overflow water in basin for water
management sewerage purification
Agricultural • Proper • Reuse of irrigation water • Installation of thin-
land application • Water treatment using irrigation ponds gravel-layer in the
amount of • Dredging of agricultural drainage channels for water
fertilizer channels purification
• Improvement of • Improvement of agricultural drainage • Establishment of
fertilizer channels (water purification plants) retarding basins
application • Prevention of water leakage from rice • Dredging of river
methods fields channels
• Fertilizers and • Improvement of irrigation water • Maintenance of
related materials management riparian forests
• Crop rotation for • Soil surface covering • Conservation and
vegetables • Windbreak measures regeneration of
• No-till farming • Use of adsorption characteristics for wetlands/lagoons
• Rice planting denitrification and dephosphorization, • Use of ponds
etc.
Forests • Prevention of • Sand settling ponds, turbidity control
illegal garbage works, slit type dams, etc.
dumping • Driftwood prevention and removal
facilities
• Management of forests (promotion of
thinning,)
• Maintenance of riparian forests
Others • Appropriate use of land
• Appropriate use of livestock manure
• Measures against load on golf courses and in tourist facilities
• Promotion of initiatives by residents
Source: Basic concept of measures in the basin for lake water quality: Measures for loading from non-specific pollution sources; MLIT, MAFF,
and MOE, March 2006.

17
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

CHAPTER 4 FINANCIAL RESOURCES FOR MEASURES AGAINST WATER

POLLUTION

Local governments use subsidies of the national government and private funds to operate sewerage
systems. Polluters should bear their cost share for measures against water pollution based on the
polluter-pays principle.

4.1 Financial Resources

(1) Cost-sharing

Public sewerage works are considered financially independent, publicly owned companies. Sewerage
usage fees cover expenses. As a general rule, expenses are divided into rainwater drainage expenses
borne by the public and sewage treatment expenses borne by the users.

Table 4.1 summarizes the allocation of construction costs for sewerage systems. Part of the construction
cost is covered by local government bonds, which are repaid during the operation period. The users pay
principle is adopted because sewerage improves the user’s living condition environmentally, is
convenient, and increases the asset values of the land. The sewerage uses pay a certain amount, such as
the pipe construction cost. National and local governments subsidize the installation of Johkasou.
Factories construct wastewater treatment facilities. Some local governments provide subsidies.
Table 4.1 Allocation of Construction Costs
Type Construction costs
Public Government funds (grants: 1/2 rate for major pipes and 1/2 or 5.5/10 rate for treatment
sewerage plants)
Local Funds: Local government bonds (appropriation rate = 100%)
: Contribution from users
: Prefectural subsidies
River Government funds (grants: ½ rate for major pipes and 1/2 or 2/3 rate for treatment plants)
basin Local funds: Local government bonds (for subsidies, appropriation rate = 60%; for local
sewerage government finance, appropriation rate = 90%)
: Local government cost: Local government bonds (for subsidies, appropriation
rate = 60%; for local government finance, appropriation rate = 90%)
General account transfers (cities, towns, villages)
General account transfers (prefectures)
Source: Overview of Sewerage System Finances, MLIT

In accordance with the principle of public expenditure on rainwater drainage and user expenditure on
sewerage treatment, public funds (general account transfers) cover the costs of draining and treating
rainwater and private funds (sewerage use fees) cover the costs of sewerage. Sewerage usage fees
account for approximately 50% of the ordinary revenue of public sewerage services, with a cost recovery
rate 17 of approximately 90%. For public sewerage systems in areas with a low population density, this
rate is as low as 77%. The fees are revised at intervals of 9 years on average, most often with a revision
rate of 5–10%, followed by 10–15% and <5% 18.

17
The cost recovery rate is the percentage of necessary sewage treatment cost covered by the user fee revenue.
18
Ordinary revenues are based on 2008 financial results, and the cost recovery rate and revision rate of user fees are based on the 2008 Survey
on the Status of Settlement of Accounts of Local Public Corporations.

18
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Many local governments collect sewerage fees using water supply fees. They comprise a basic use fee
as a fixed amount and a metered use fee commensurate with the amount of sewage discharged into the
sewer. The amount of sewage used for the metered use fee is equivalent to the amount of tap water used.
This system is advantageous for the residents because of a single point of contact for payment and a
single procedure for starting and stopping the use of the system. Local governments can also save the
cost of administration by consolidating procedures.

The financial situation is severe in the sewerage sector due to reduced revenue from users caused by the
shrinking population and increased investment cost for renewal required due to aging facilities. Publicly
owned companies for sewerage services should improve their financial management ability by
introducing accounting standards for private companies, accurately determining the status of assets, and
implementing flexible management.

(2) Efforts to Connect Each House to the Sewerage System

Some households are not connected to the system, even though the act requires households to be
connected to the public sewerage system within 3 years. In rural areas, the coverage rate remains
unchanged, mainly for economic reasons and due to the lack of environmental awareness. Various efforts
are underway, including the following:

(a) Subsidies, grants, and other programs by the local governments

(b) Dissemination activities through the sewerage service support staff
(c) Raising awareness of residents through door-to-door visits
(d) Promotion of flush toilets through publicity campaigns
(e) Sewerage saving with incentives

4.2 Polluter Pays Principle

Countries where the government bears the cost of prevention of environmental pollution may be at a
competitive advantage for business compared with those where the cost of pollution prevention is borne
by businesses. In May 1972, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Recommendation of the Council on Guiding Principles concerning International Economic Aspects of
Environmental Policies was introduced to prevent such inequities in international business competition.

In Japan, the Basic Environment Act stipulates those polluters appropriately bear the relevant costs. The
polluter pays principle is the basis of the compensation method for health damage and cost-sharing for
pollution prevention projects. The private sector must invest in water pollution prevention measures.
Almost all such facilities were constructed between the 1970s and the early 1980s, thanks to loans from
governmental financial institutions.

19
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

CHAPTER 5 RIVER ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

5.1 Trends of River Environment Improvement

River improvement projects should be in harmony with the nature by minimizing negative
environmental impacts and creating rich environment.

In the 1990s, as a reaction to conventional river improvement using concrete, the government promoted
“nature-friendly river work” to preserve and create a habitat for the growth and breeding of aquatic
organisms and diverse landscapes inherent to rivers, taking into account the natural processes of the
entire river and harmony with the lifestyle of local people and their history and culture (Figure 5.1). In
1997, the River Law was revised to include the objectives of river improvement and management
(Figure 5.2) (Theme 1-1: Legislation and Organization). It responds to public needs by improving and
conserving the river environment.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the river environment, river management offices (RMOs)
survey water and terrestrial ecosystems, conditions of diverse river flows, nature of riparian areas, and
people’s utilization of the river space. The surveyed data are used for river improvement, including the
formulation of relevant plans. Since 1990, dams and rivers managed by the MLIT and Japan Water
Agency have regularly been surveyed for the river environment once every 5 years as part of the National
Survey on Natural Environment in the River and Water Shore. Eight items are investigated, including
six biological surveys (fish and shellfish, benthic animals, plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, mammals,
and terrestrial insects), a river environment base map survey (condition of the river flow type, such as
rapids, pools, and riparian channels), and a river space utilization survey (users of the river space). The
survey results are compiled in a database (Figure 5.3).

Source: Current status of efforts to develop and preserve the river environment, MLIT, April 13, 2007
Figure 5.1 History of Effort to Improve the River Environment

According to the 2002 Act for the Promotion of Nature Restoration, nature restoration involves the
conservation, regeneration, creation, or maintenance of the natural environment through the
participation of various local actors, including administrative agencies, local governments, non-profit
organizations (NPOs), and experts, aiming to actively restore natural damage.
20
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Regarding people’s participation in river management, in 2013, the River Law was amended to establish
the “River Cooperation Organization System” for supporting NPOs and other civil society organizations
engaged in river maintenance and river environment conservation. These civil society organizations
clean up rivers, conduct surveys, and disseminate information. Such efforts taking the environment into
account have led to recent activities related to green infrastructure development.

Source: New developments in river environment administration, MLIT

Figure 5.2 History of the River Law Amendment

Source: MLIT National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management website
Figure 5.3 River Environment Database

21
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

5.2 Plan to Manage the River Environment

The river environment is maintained following a management plan prepared with the involvement
of local residents, experts, and related organizations.

To implement comprehensive measures to conserve and create river environments, the Basic Plan of
River Environment Management (now renamed the River Environment Management Plan) has been
formulated since 1983. Although this plan is not legally enforceable, it has been applied to many rivers
and systems. The plan mainly stipulates the following: basic concept, monitoring, river facility
management, and implementation plan of projects.

As a case study, the Tama River Environmental Management Plan is described here. The conservation
plan for the Tama River was incorporated in the River Improvement Plan. The plan is built upon two
pillars—“space management” and “water surface management plan”—to promote people engagement
in various activities and preservation of the nature.

(1) Space Management: Within the river area, each part of the high water channel is categorized
into eight functional space designations using five types of zones as follows (Figure 5.4):

Source: Guidebook to the Plan to Manage the Natural Environment of the Tama River, MLIT, March 2002
Figure 5.4 Five Zones and Eight Functional Space Designations for the Tama River

(2) Water Surface Management plan: The downstream area is used for wide-ranging purposes,
such as boat and water recreation (e.g., rowing and fishing). Guidelines for harmonious and
well-organized use are established. The river area is divided into water surface and waterside

22
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

zones considering the functional space designated in the management plan to show desirable
water surface use (Figure 5.5).

Source: Guidebook to the Plan to Manage the Natural Environment of the Tama River, MLIT, March 2002
Figure 5.5 Waterside Spaces

5.3 Management of River Water Quality

To maintain the normal function of a river, the water quality must be improved and the river
environment must be restored and maintained.

RMOs work with the environmental and sewerage sections to realize water quality management. One
of the objectives of the River Law (enacted in 1964) is to maintain the “normal function of river water,”
which has the following four main meanings:

 Maintaining and improving water quality by diluting or purifying wastewater and preventing
saltwater intrusion
 Maintaining river channels and preventing the blockage of the river mouth
 Maintaining the water level for water intake and navigation
 Maintaining the growth and breeding of aquatic animals and plants

The following water purification methods are used:

1) Purification using gravel: Gravel (stones) is used as a contact material in the septic tank. When
polluted water is slowly poured onto the gravel layer, microorganisms on the surface of the gravel
absorb pollutants and decompose them, resulting in water purification.

2) Purification using rapids and pools: This reproduces the “rapids” and “pools” of the river’s
inherent “self-cleaning” functions. The river flow is slow in pools, wherein pollutants are settled
and decomposed. The rapids provide oxygen and filtration through sand and gravel.

3) Thin laminar flow purification method: The riverbed is lined with gravel as the contact material,
and water is spread widely and thinly for greater exposure to the contact material. The turbulence
of water flow caused by the contact of water with gravel and the supply of oxygen at the water

23
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

drop in the weir located upstream are also important for purification. Microorganisms on the
gravel surface adsorb and decompose pollutants.

4) Vegetation purification method: Reed beds produce a natural purification effect. The reeds serve
as a habitat and a rich environment for the growth of aquatic organisms and plants.

Under the River Law, activities that may affect the cleanliness of water are regulated, such as the
following:

 Sewage discharge exceeding the volume of 50 m3/day,

 Actions should be taken in the case of emergencies when the river becomes extremely polluted due
to abnormal droughts.

Sumida River Water Quality Improvement

Sumida is a 23.5-km-long river with the basin area of 690.3 km2, which splits off from the Arakawa
River in Iwabuchi (Kita Ward, Tokyo) and joins the Shingashi, Shakujii, and Kanda rivers and many
other tributaries to flow north–south through the eastern lowlands of Tokyo. Previously, the Sumida
River was clean, in which Japanese icefish inhabited and people could play. In 1940, chemical plants
and dyeing factories began to populate the river, with BOD dropping to as low as 10 mg/L 21 at the
Senju Bridge and 5 mg/L at the Ryogoku Bridge. By 1952, the river became so polluted that fish
could no longer thrive. Toxic gases and malodors were generated and people living nearby constantly
experienced mild coughing, red eyes, loss of appetite, and headaches.

Efforts based on legislation and sewerage system improved water quality. In response to an extreme
drought in 1964, a pipeline was constructed from the Tone River via the Arakawa River for water
supply. This surplus water was used for dilution to purify the Sumida River. Due to accumulated
pollutants at the river bottom, flood protection and navigation were hindered; thus, dredging was
started in 1958 and continues to this day.
Source: Ministry of the Environment Chapter 21: Sumida River
Arakawa River System Sumida River Basin River Improvement Plan, Tokyo Metropolitan Government, June 2016

5.4 Efforts to Improve Water Quality in Urban Rivers

Various stakeholders and residents should be involved in improving the water environment.

In 2015, nearly 90% of Class A rivers and 80% of urban rivers in Japan satisfied the environmental
standards (BOD), compared with only around 30% in 1995. As an action plan to improve the water
quality of urban rivers, the “Clear Stream Renaissance 21” has been implemented since 1993, followed
by the “Clear Stream Renaissance 2” in 2001. As a result, water quality improved (Figure 5.6).

Under the Clean Stream Renaissance 21 and 2, local governments, RMOs, sewerage offices, and related
organizations formed a council to set water quality improvement goals and implement environment

21
At a BOD of 10 mg/L or higher, the oxygen in the river is consumed and disorders associated with anaerobic decomposition, such as malodors,
begin to emerge. In a source of water supply, when the BOD exceeds 3 mg/L, it is said to be difficult to treat with general water purification
methods.

24
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

improvement projects with the agreement of all parties involved. Water quality improvement targets
were set according to the conditions of each river. For instance, in the case of the Kimotsuki River in
Kagoshima Prefecture, targets were set to “create an environment where children can play safely and
happily and where they can easily become familiar with the river.”

Source: MLIT Website

Figure 5.6 Percentage of Sites that Achieved Environmental Standards for Class A and Urban
Rivers Nationwide

Water Quality Improvement in Ayase River (Tokyo, Saitama)

Until the latter half of the 1950s, the Ayase River had a clear flow where people could play in the
water. However, with the development of the riparian areas, it gradually became dirtier, and since
1980, it was the dirtiest river in Japan for 15 consecutive years. To restore the river, mayors of cities
along the river, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Saitama Prefecture, and the MLIT worked to
improve the sewerage systems and purification facilities, involving the local community in the
activities. The water quality of the Ayase River gradually improved. In 2000, the river was no longer
the dirtiest in Japan (Figure 5.7).

Note: Provided by the Soka City Environment Division to CCTV Camera Image
the Edogawa River Construction Office website [foaming Yanaginomiya Area, Yashio City, Saitama
water believed to be domestic wastewater (laundry water)
from a waterway flowing into the Ayase River]
Ayase River in 1973 Ayase River in 2021
Source: MLIT Edogawa River Office website
Figure 5.7 Past and Present Condition of the Ayase River

25
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

The local community set a standard called the Citizen’s Environmental Standard to demonstrate the
efforts (Figure 5.9) put in by the residents for improving water quality. It includes “transparency,”
“odor and water color,” “garbage,” “habitat and growth of organisms (fish, benthic animals, aquatic
plants, etc.),” “use of the waterfront,” and “waterfront scenery.” The local council decided to use an
evaluation method, which involves local peoples as the “Water Environment Surveyors” and a
questionnaire survey. The basin was divided into 10 blocks to improve water quality. Figure 5.8
presents the blocks and examples of the measures employed.

Sources: Based on MLIT Edogawa River Office Website, Ayase River Seiryu Renaissance II Annual Report 2011, Ayase River Seiryu
Renaissance II Regional Council, November 2011
Figure 5.8 Examples of Countermeasures by Blocks in the Ayase River Basin

Junior high school students conducting water quality Cleanup of the Ayase River basin by residents and
surveys (Ina Town) government (Saitama City)

A lecture on what you can do for the river (Yashio City) Ayase River Water Quality Survey by everyone (a
simplified water quality survey) (Adachi Ward)
Source: Edogawa River Office website
Figure 5.9 Examples of Collaboration and Education with Local Residents Along the Ayase
River

26
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

5.5 Nature-friendly River Works

The extensive use of concrete in river improvement results in the loss of the river environment.
Improvement measures must allow the geomorphological processes of river, such as erosion and
sedimentation.

In Japan, nature-friendly river improvements create rivers in harmony with the natural environment. The
main objective is to allow natural processes, such as erosion and sedimentation, and natural changes in
the river form. Many flood protection and water management facilities were constructed with gray
materials of iron and concrete during the post-war reconstruction and high economic growth. However,
opinions on the need to preserve and restore the natural environments have been increasing.

The Ministry of Construction (now MLIT) launched the “Nature-Friendly River Works” Initiative in
1990. At that time, the measures preserved and restored the waterfront area, such as riverbank protection
using natural materials, such as stones, trees, and porous concrete, on which plants could grow. After
nearly 15 years of trial, the “nature-friendly river works” became a common and inevitable method of
river improvement (Figure 5.10). The MLIT formulated the “Basic Guidelines for Creating Nature-
friendly Rivers” in 2006 and the “Technical Standards for River Channel Planning for Small and
Medium Rivers” in 2008.

Source: MLIT Website

Figure 5.10 Nature-friendly River Works (Before and After Construction)

Conventional construction methods that use local materials are recognized as nature-friendly. These
techniques blend in with the surrounding natural conditions and are highly adaptable to the waterfront
topography. The methods include (1) water control works, such as “Seigyu” to control water flow,; (2)
submerged fascine mattresses to protect river banks; (3) riparian forests to mitigate flooding; and (4)
weirs used for irrigation water intake (Figures 5.11 and 5.12). Submerged fascine mattresses have been
used in the Shinano, Abukuma, and Agano rivers in Japan and in the Mekong River in Laos. Moreover,
in Afghanistan, Dr. Nakamura constructed an irrigation intake weir using stones modeled on the
Yamada weir in Kyushu (Figure 5.12).

27
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Source: Kofu Rivers and National Source: Shinano River Downstream Office website Source: Hokkaido Development Bureau
Highways Office website website
Seigyu (Water control works): A Fascine mattress (riverbed and Riparian forest: Forests reduce
pyramidal structure of pile-like riverbank erosion control): the force of floodwater flow
members installed in places Bunches of fascine are arranged in a and inundation currents,
where driving piles into the grid pattern to form a large mat, which prevent embankment breaches,
riverbed is difficult due to gravel is then filled with stones and gravels, and mitigate flood damage.
or stones. To prevent the works and sunk to the riverbed.
from flowing away, a gabion is
used as a weight.
Figure 5.11 Conventional Construction Methods

Kama II Weir (Afghanistan) Yamada Weir (Japan)

Note: Weirs are designed to take water and have been constructed since ancient times. Some are made of wood, while others of masonry.
A weir was constructed in Afghanistan based on the Yamada weir, which has been used as an irrigation weir in Japan since the Edo period.
Source: Peshawar Association website, Asakura City website

Figure 5.12 Conventional Weir

5.6 Green Infrastructure Initiatives

Green infrastructure is expected to produce various effects, such as disaster management,

environmental improvement, and regions’ attractiveness.

Japan used green infrastructure to protect tsunamis as recovery works from the Great East Japan
Earthquake in 2011. The government organizations developed tsunami barriers with an afforestation
program. The term “green infrastructure” was used in the National Land Formation Plan in 2015, which
utilizes the diverse functions of the natural environment (Figure 5.13). To promote green infrastructure
initiatives, a platform has been established with members of relevant government ministries and
agencies, local governments, the private sector, and academic parties. These initiatives contribute to
building a carbon-neutral society while simultaneously solving various issues.

In the Maruyama River, an ecological network was formed in cooperation with the local community by
restoring wetlands, which were used by storks as feeding grounds. The related activities included the
production of brand-name rice (named “storks harvest”), environmental education at elementary schools,
and other local developmental activities (Figure 5.14). The efforts in the Maruyama River are in line
28
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

with the sustainable development goal (SDG) targets 2, 4, 6, 11, 13, 15, and 17. There are also examples
of local governments using crowdfunding and hometown tax payment systems to promote green
infrastructure. Additionally, ESG investments and green bonds have been used (Theme 5: Urban Water
Management).

Source: Green Infrastructure Portal Site, MLIT

Figure 5.13 Green Infrastructure

29
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

Kaya District

Wetlands revived in the Kayo area

Ecological survey with children in Kayo District Storks feeding in the wetlands of Hinoso Island
Source: MLIT Kinki Regional Development Bureau Toyooka River National Highway Office Website
Figure 5.14 Efforts in the Maruyama River

30
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

5.7 Measures Against Illegal Waste Dumping

Illegal dumping of garbage degrades the river environment. Thus, countries should employ
appropriate measures to stop illegal dumping. In Japan, penalties for illegal dumping were enacted.

In developing countries, there are many cases of

illegal dumping, not only in riverine areas but also in
rivers. One cause of illegal dumping is the lack of a
well-functioning waste collection and disposal
system.

In Japan, garbage collection and disposal work as a

system; however, there are cases of illegal garbage
dumping into rivers. Under the River Law, the penalty
for illegal dumping is “imprisonment not exceeding 3
Source: Created based on the Arakawa-Karyu River Office
months or a fine not exceeding 200,000 yen” and website
under the Waste Management and Public Cleansing Figure 5.15 Trends of the Number of
Act, “imprisonment not exceeding 5 years or a fine Garbage Dumping Cases in the Lower
Reaches of the Arakawa River
not exceeding 10 million yen.” RMOs work with
NPOs and local communities to conduct “trash pickup” activities, detect trash early, and respond to
illegal trash dumping during daily river patrols. These efforts include reporting illegal dumping to the
police and public relations. According to the Arakawa-Karyu River Office (Figure 5.15), there are
approximately 400 dumping cases per year. As for the types of garbage, household garbage, oversized
garbage, and vehicle dumping, such as bicycles and motorcycles, account for 80% of the total.

31
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

CHAPTER 6 LESSONS LEARNED

(1) Establishing a legal system and enforcement mechanisms can regulate adverse
environmental effects. Water pollution affects human health and lives and may destroy
ecosystems and the environment. In Japan, government policies prioritizing economic growth
resulted in the emergence and spread of disastrous pollution-related diseases. During the high
economic growth, water pollution caused by effluents from factories led to the outbreak of
pollution-related diseases, such as Minamata and Itai-itai, affecting tens of thousands of people.
The legal systems and local government ordinances cover water quality standards, monitoring,
and penalties. Local governments can conduct on-site inspections of factories and impose on
penalty for illegal actions.

(2) Pesticide use should be regulated as they deteriorate the quality of river water and
groundwater. In Japan, various standards have been established to regulate pesticide use. The
permissible pesticides should also be registered, and crops for which the pesticides can be used,
the time when they can be used, and the permissible amount for use are specified.

(3) Domestic wastewater should be treated to achieve quality that meets the standard values.
In Japan, local governments have formulated basic plans to develop basin-wide sewage
systems. Treatment methods can be optimized by the conventional sewerage system and
Johksou, on-site treatment facility at the household level, taking into account the population
density, topographic conditions, and economic efficiency.

(4) For closed water bodies such as lakes and marshes, more stringent measures are essential
for preserving water quality. In lakes, marshes, inland bays, land-locked seas, and other
closed water areas, improving water quality is difficult once deteriorated. There are two types
of pollution loads: point and non-point sources. For the latter, improvement measures are
required over large areas because the discharge points of pollutants are difficult to be identified.
The act was enacted, followed by the setting of long-term targets, formulation of short-term
plans, and implementation of water quality improvement for lakes and marshes in Japan.

(5) Green infrastructure can contribute to the creation of a carbon-neutral society and
resolution of various social issues. Green Infrastructure or nature-based solutions, which
utilize the diverse environmental functions, highlight the region’s attractiveness based on the
river’s characteristics, local nature, and culture as well as mitigating disaster damage. In Japan,
the River Law was revised to make the environment an internal objective for river
improvement projects.

32
Project Research
Japan’s Experience on Water Resources Management

REFERENCES
Prefectures and Cities Enacting Pollution Prevention Ordinances
Organization Year of Organization Year of Organization Year of
establishment establishment establishment
Tokyo 1949 Aichi Prefecture 1964 Okayama 1965
Metropolitan Prefecture
Government
Kanagawa 1951 Hyogo 1964 Kumamoto 1965
Prefecture Prefecture Prefecture
Osaka 1954 Nagano 1964 Kawasaki City 1960
Prefecture Prefecture
Fukuoka 1955 Miyagi 1964 Sapporo City 1962
Prefecture Prefecture
Niigata 1960 Fukushima 1965 (Smoke and Soot Prevention
Prefecture Prefecture Ordinance)
Shizuoka 1961 Ibaraki 1965
Prefecture Prefecture
Saitama 1962 Tochigi 1965 Soja City 1962
Prefecture Prefecture
Chiba 1963 Wakayama 1965 Kumamoto 1965
Prefecture Prefecture City
Source: Modern Capitalism and Pollution, Tsuru Shigeto, Iwanami Shoten 1968

33