m4 at Nore —> SB NHISh Kumar Reg NO. > 206320046 Subsect > Elechonits Measurewent "And In Strurne ot Subject Code 2» -BET-C5I3 Tetal no. of Pays gaa x x a GD Eaplaiy all +He™” performance ‘Character of analog te Digitol Convertes and vite- verse Ap$ie» Many “charactesishes of ADC must be assessed and evaluated before being designed into a system: The most basic Characteristics are Speed, vyesolution ; dynamic range , aperture Hime and accuracy. UW) Speed 12 ADC Conversion speed refers +o Samplex- per- Second , and measures how pickely 4re device. Gr accurately Gnvert an’ analog Signal/ voltage - Theosetically , -+the Conversion speed is Constrained by the Ny guist ~Shannon theorem. 9n o-they wosds, -the ADC sompling Frequency must be atleast Ayorce Fhe aralog Signal Frequency —TD Reselrdion tos The resolution of these sonal tle from the basic. Principle by abe, all re . APCS Cenyerd » Sianals- Using incvemental voltage Sleps. experemers} by -the number ot bits UN) of -the ape and refeoved to as the least- shrificant b+ (isp) + A Step function is employed che qardizat jon of re analog Sinal tote a elg}ad Sfral: 1sB ts defined aS follows » ie = (Veer = Virveuna)/2",2- ASR oN Vere veFerence Vo Hage, Newwird analog Page Por bit Convertey Discrete levels -2? g 1 : ! x > Revolution = ail S$ : | Decision level eared 2 eciston 8 pee Level Pal ans, 35 45 685 56 i> Dynarnic Range 2% The dynamit ronge refers to tre ratio bfio +the largest and Sma)lest values on Ape Can accurately measure J0 O+rer wordS, it's the fatin b/wthe Strongest — unditoxed Sina to he if , rlnimalty detectable Synal. for ideal nb} ADC , 4he winiroum “deleted value 1188 and Ke HaxmuMn Sei: 30 terms of de » we have Dyaamie Range = (SNR) = 20 lap, (2%) LsB)/isB ) re 4 £09 xN ip Apestust Time 2 oe re operation Signa In o6des +o per forrs the of anaes and Coding a On A/p Converted ' vegies A998 apesture tine: A» carmple- old ¢/H s¥item is used In Order’ 4p ovoid the use of very fast acd expensive A/D Conversion. Thewuse “of a Sareple- rold Cire 1S Useful beause 1 paovides a very Small Hrre for taking Dyer rapid Sare ple the signak and ten holdiirg ts value ger ee canvette st foo a sinusotdod Signod + bé Converted Into a Ag itad foo , timers rreocienuro rate of - change occurs at are Instant where aeRe Noltagiagt Goes aeetegh Zero. The amplitude Charge of voltage at this ; insfant &! ie ge tl [8 [Ensinwi) to = Emi? i Ppesture dime = 4, = Ss eeeVP Accuracy to» Meany facdors tad Copy CaLise hy rea! device 4o denote wm transloy fi ot an ‘dead Apc include Offced erppys ie a four exsors (due to ernperature Michiodiong ANferential Unearity erie ond the dopa ? unadsusded Crrov Among Other Comm pone raf cor ako | Mndrocluce errors devioting Prove Vdeat Apc per formance » Some performance —characyenistics of Digital to Araleg Converter ; mis tncludes resolution , speed, My ram forge, SFPR, ENB and SNR. A performance charg ctenistic unique +o pAc ts tre unde st rable Neng e Signals SPPSARTG within each ny gush Zone " the ouput Other he porlant Characterisc include Sera time and gleich, hepulse area = sHling Here refers to the Hine itt takes frorr Input Code application unt) the output awives at , and remain within , a Speahred esvoe bart arsund the final owl put Vo Hage DAC }- —Setty—>, pare firme i ; | | ‘ ' = i Rivg firme ) WN Allewoble _ 9% pac ! i f ervor bard stout FJ | Slew.) } Tire | Jabys Frys This iTlusdyat'on of prc, SeHuinge ainve Shriass Ane Bidtderenpe. Yn chime 14 -falces from sop} Ho ttdpud Curd) are output arsives ane remarrs 6+ 0 Specified Creev bard arcund the flood) pelted age => Glitch ~irpulse area behaviours of pac sf Po R- 2k Ord” String ~xesistoy PAC. The Quiteh- inn pube is defined” os YoHdag © ransiees! appering ot th BRE gudput during a “wajor- GUY “fearstfion”. Gb 8 measured. In nv" S (energy) Gnd 1s Syrivalent to area under Carve Or oO NolteAe — Hime graph - TH pute impulse GwiSes beguse read Gittuits” don't wore Fro One lonversien value (40 ‘next monotonically , thus in f Guten energy ink He output and Wn surn detecriati-g a pre's SIDR. % _anoher ir portard Character which Affers S 17] ri, Fitanthy * Reso lution too G+. th the degece

tity Clement.——— 6 ® Dy maroc. Range to» This Sa peasusemend of ane Liference behuren spre Signals the Aecibels + Th's teS0 lution brgest ard Siratlert Ac Can Peproduce expressed iy fs Usually felatta +o Pac and nose lor» - 62> Explaio world oF ara log oo ip tad Onvertey i ard hiatal +o analog Gnvertes by ophuining two of each. PMS 235 Analog +0 Mgted (ALD) Conversior i slghHy move Complex tran (d>/A) CrxMarnples Qnyersion The fallnw ima frase Yrethod gre mest Gromonly used. Successive approximation method (potentormedat RNs ge Eevee lap on ae eee ti> Voltage to Frequercy Cnversion rmethod VW Auto —slope type) (Integration Aype S Integration metiod > Potentrome fac ALP _Onvester ios ~ ee) ; ama lai Bloc le a gsarr of poten+Ho metac A/D Conver tee4 Wlealcing 12 The Potendiomede AD Converter Comtotns & voltage divider nefuorle wir Gurse® and fine eps. The vo Hage ainge network 8 Connecded Fhrough Clecteonyc Switches toa vo lage aropacades which, CrmPaxetS an» fnderhal Vol-age Provideat sy A, gate fextnce> | soedieie ist th, a Vo Hone « he output oF pe Chih unknown Cormporats , ; On eC ®ror SGr a fed -» logic Civcus'ts which operate Switches Fo Conte] tne Steps on tre voHage Aivider refurrk The meosurement ceguence usually “select the largest. Steps of te internal voltage firsh tre magnrhide OF tre Steps dlecwcsses Und! -'e “will pothl SS y@Ched 4ne output fS Teak ona dl Counten ‘ i” ip Vo ldase 48 Time A/D Gnverter (Ramp. Type )ers Tis type. of AD anvestes ud/Uzes difit! cunke techniques fo mesure the Hime required fre o volfege ramp Lo mise from Zewo “fo npr Vo |4o9¢ leve] obop Sra |a 2 les King 6 A well defined , internally generate ramp voltage, i's fed ..qwo voltage Compara doy as$ Shown In Ay. The famp Voltage may have either a negative or a positive Gr'r6 Slope Let us: Consider’ a > pamp Vo Hage With O positive going slope.’ chen Phe Pnput voHege tc eqpad 40 fre ground vo Hae, tre Greind Gornprrates emits o Stast “Signal tp a Gate which opens and Permits. tre passage of pulser ofa clock froma Sel Cryst) orcillafer do Lites COUN When “ramp voltage i capil. fo tre level of input vol-ag € of re St Gra Cornperater 4 Produces oa Signal 4e Close tre gate and = Shs fortes Count ds Prevented. * D/P Converter’ a Ri Foytes Binory weiphden wesstance >/h (on verter Working $28 THN Grvertes consists of the fo I[nivir-gs Components 59 WI SHYChens” these “are h SuMHChes ) “Bhs! for Coch obits , These) sare U) Residtances “oe Them a reside “ne dusgrie OF Dd. weSiMoxss Ohe Pesi'sdow t's Gpnected sn the .ohalP UT OREO ME arena The pesistancer’ ype weiphted HO > pF gate Yesitteree rn CNY eee arias is the vesisdarce - tp Gik¢uu't of nex# SIGH) ford bit ts 26 AM 80 hoy y The resiShree OO eg ers Orci ee ofp. ' itd Reference Source tm me voHage of tne ze ference Source 1 » Lp. and 4s Stable: Ww Currest +o noltage Gnverdes Sau 54 1S an Optra arpl'fres. traf adds up tre | Gurrents Ala fo the “reset NeP Meee develop arn output Gnalvsy volfoge Sigral. wht, rs peopatonal fo ott Digi tet ropurt sgrol « — moe” output” Current ee ESS * 9n proctcad 2/P Cirew't , the geared Nefwork, GUed qa prac, ix Grrectid +o PuP- Flop register Which holds ne “aug tal ynumber . As | rte divider is simply. a passive nechuerk, tre digita) Input Vo Hoge. determiner the ot put voltage. Because Uta vo Hage levels are usually notilas: Precise as reyrired tr an analog System . level OrmplFiens\ it) «by Paced “bio Sne ALp- Flop wears Jew an divider nefeork - Sra Spal ,- 3 Sielo e GY Explaio Constuction of LED and Lop Avs () Light Emitting rode (LED) tos The LED iS a PY Guncdony dente wbieb bro yds Nhtes wher a Current passes throug b Hin te forward direction Charges Carriers teCorbr'ratlon 4 oCCurs at ‘a Py suncton as Froro oN sides and on elector Cross ‘ reoMmbines with — bo/es P sides: when feCombinadi'on takes place, ThE charge | Carries give up energy iin the Fesin of peat ord © Uyht OF fre Sermitorducty, reateria) 1% tyanslucest the bight 1S Gms Hed . Gnd the Tunctroo ty Source 0 Org at iTwrs is the Uyht eendieg dade he 4 Pp. ‘ Lived rar 1? Metal Film connection all lived (a) le PrfFused P-type Coss “Section Currest Unit SEswHNee 0 angistor tb Lep Cortmolled by ransistey Switch:‘ tf FLA) Shase a Cao8-sechonad view of g Aypicad LED Charge Grricn. recombirachins fakes. place | Jn Pry watertod «Therefore, dre P-8eg0n becomes -tya Surface OP ie Hoytate Pectianin ODA tennis» o meted Bilm anode i clepasited around ate edge OF tre p type mafenat: The method Connectdn for tre dewte Is usualy a @old Film at the botfow of N-type region . fwo helps tn reflectixg che Ujht to. curfce.: UH) Ligusd Crysdat Avodes (Leplizs Ligud crystas | AW displays (Lops) are. used: t'n Similar Application, where LEDS ax? used. These applications. are display of numen'e and Alphanument ChowiCtes tn dof matn'> and Segmental displays, F The Leps..are wf duo typers v) Dynowee tate wivg type nasa ST) Feld efect type flec Uguig = 7} sy aq ees Spaces wlass mired sucface in reflecdHrg type ot Fo: Liquid Crt adinde all (Lep/ THE Construction of a Ayo mic scatferty Uyud crystal Cell chewn g jin fifure: The Ugui'd Coyedel weatertal yray be ane ofub a athe Severn? br agrie Gmpounds whith exhy bie optical ‘property of a Gystel hegh they Ferran Uquad > forre liquid Cryrfad ie boyerrd ie, Glass chet with pronsparent electrode? depasy‘teg Om he nerd e faces - ; When "a potential tb applied ac Re raid b Gevtess whe sf - wet Biseuph Ine ole culay ; ra as thirbulanees' then he Mgnmen? And produce yt oy spoke pueden Pd "5 not activated , P RS Pen a) Men he Ug ayo, FC mole Gila Futu lori ahd! Vanibes & achvaleg Btolveres te doll ans ah es UEF 0 he oppears 4p SR eran aft iN a i pe bright fhe Phenomenon yes CaMed — Ayramye SQHervia, ee Ge Canned ‘ enn P At pby be ane sia es Ups aychs type, qulth tre exCeptire rat —— Saatfeaies eae opticas filtees a faced ae Peer €ach (Loss where The Cats Crystal atertal io are Field effect cel) i's also Of Lif erent ype from | thot ernployed My the dynamic Stattertg Cells The material Used I farts fool nematic’ type ard actually -puiste the Light Pass ing through Are SEK ie kaa: not. energised, no dusishng of lend darees ploce ard the (Cel appears Aull. Liquid Crystal Ces art Of duo typesim (2). Transmittive, PE». my ¥ | j- se dre fransmittive type cell,’ both gla ae are hantparert So that Light om a oe Source 1s Scattered! iy the forward rection when the cell rs acdWated i — te reflect . flee ive type cell, hes a reflecting turfor ; ne) ide Of + glass) sheets + The inated ht On ARE) Front surface, oftre, Cul oF dyramically Scwewed by a0 activated ceu. Both types of (euls appear quate brngbd phen activated even under ambrent light Grditions « i ; + Advantages Oy LOp hes Mes thes howe | lovioy Gast: Ss they have bo Paver us consuoption + UW) LED t2s > They are yniniature, in dle and they Can be stacked cag ethers do for and alphanume 7C asplays - efficiency and ere’! s radiation o wrich emit light tm gen) ved etc: nument¢ > LEDs have. Wiyh of elechommognere _+ Ips are. available afferent Colours UKE % pisod vortages > ) LED 12 eS anere hyh power Compared ao? LCD» peguoy PO vare not swted dex large arto displays: Fi) Wepeses? They are slow devices 2. aie used e". cAic ther ufe spon rs quite Srall requirement atpa 84> Pxplale the specifeation of dgrlal meter Aspley Austss * Dire Display unrés:— nese are any wnys of classy fitedton igrtad display Unrts> One of -the method of clasify/rg Ahem fs based: upon. the format Used. The Aisploy Can be planar he endire tad -out ‘Chawrders and in re Same plane OY nonrplanar, where Fhe Characters are cisplayed to bl fferent planes > - The planar displays may illuminated! segmental ype, il uvolnated dot ratex type , Usp loy ubring reax Projectoo. and faseous discharge ype Seqmentsl drsploys- The non plonay displays Include gaseous eusChorge , ie xe ~ ae OF vs & § i s e vu es é& z & P ° Pulse to be Connected Fig: DCA with herr Peadout =“ Resolution Mn Digital Mefers tos The number of dig/tal postions (0 simply ,-tre 70: of gits) used ina Airtel mefer determines reseultion: Thus a -thyse agit display on a aiyrel voltemeder (pyr) fre orv rage will be able to Indiate values from zero to 999 av > witr Smallest In crerert o¢ resolute» of “tMv: gn prachce. a frurtn doght usuodlty Gprble of indiotig either © or Lodnly. & ploceds to tre left of acctive digi « T's peemrtr grira above 999 te 1999 40 give over la? a for (pnvierce’ Th IS cobled 5 rge ; . LP GE tp EOS ale a fae digit display’ Te sesolutten ofa ciy-k/ medex, nnveves FS adefdermmhed by a number of active ov fil aigrts aes *a WG SSfims nevoF Poll anit. Pesolution = oh t§ 10” Theeefore 0 wy phy: has a renlytin 4 ef Neo = d0001 ‘ a Sensitivity of pyptal _Mefers t>s | Sena tivity 1s ae Smallest Chorg ¢ i) “tnpud whe WU es eles 8 able te letect i ee fe is nest Vo Hag to full Sale wale veal drplitee/ by dhe ers Veolia _- | Cy AR) oe Gaya full or velee of eter Ore Qo ge reScludim expressed (as Retr wal A PcCuracy specibitarten +>» Accuracy fr Usually expressel as A> Retendoa™ ap we vendig plus a Percendége of full gcole~- of. den «the, perlendeg eof i pull, stole pat ef te. de yn ents 1s ginen yn berm of 27, ds. when this 1s done > +e Aiph art ye fexved AOL OSt ag ¢ leoigf Sonib can! Apts ( Lgp): 41% 3 Draw and tXplin Ane — Condducdnn oh * Wumer'e And ah honumer’c Atpay: Avs tsi py ¢ rirentad displays way be erher F or 14 Segrrendad Ones deperc'-g upon whed or numeric or Oph ntaw erric ctisplay 5 ore. WOOT Can A TSegrert Aisplay user ” segents to Asplay Cheracters file alphonumenie bisplay uses 1A Segments do Lighy Charatan Including numbers, OS kell as alphobe+s D seven rate aia 58 go SCfmartas eee ies F jt VS Usual to Crafloy Dialer each Sp rent. F, eA eh StYmect LED iplays (Ce ee awe decimat ptt) 6 8% Semen) ane ote pattern y's Shoplified by ma Kage ore terminal Ginmon +o all, LED* and other bevmical Corres ponding): ~ dn feren dh SAreert> The teymins Gn be exter of Common Grdvanode ferm, of Comwen Cathode fot os usr” jn hy LOD« Sor ee Common Cothod ° @romen toe Config avatyor Se. 3 4 Comren anode Confrgur odio‘ 18 ; 9r commen anode LEP! have to be driven bY) rye decden PCS Ord me: Common -andde LEB be oyiven by active lod decoders « fy Rec ype of decodes Connected 70 a bei th Se trent cLigpley ang BY hoy be” hott that Serit, ssesisdors ave included fre each of ther LADS cervepondiz] do me LED Cor es poral +o Aeciwal point Dp 1s @@ also provid ce 0 are display, which aga bes a Gurr ent ; Uniting réystarce | the typitat value of Sets reithnce is MEO Siege oe Seg ment Current! of abut 20'mp ; G02 +5V Ar Une ot ger Decoder Peewee ee Agaiy LED Seqmert Asp By foward oe, uifperend Lébs we ou diplay ane aligts 0 trevgh J: fee example: Fo oe BD oes pipe cHeD! abe Ga e.and f art Fors word based. fo Uyght YP 5, we nee! do fesword grid Samenk OP 9 cha + ae 1S Seven SQmrerd Uspoy ) deperclieg -upon Digit fo de Aispoyed , Ba oe a of Lbs ix Forword bjased+ The Various dea Fro~n... On fo g'tINCh Gon be cLitplavect er SEVEN S SEG re ot uy flay, ) 0Alpbanumexre chisplays go : The Alphanumen -dutplays awe und fo cliplay Alpha be af Well as nument Choracters /'7 secporse to tre Alecdntatl tmpuls + Arraxs of Leps a8 well as CRTs ace extreroly useFu/ us aris opplitatier memor7 trot art Used generat’ of Pho nur exc characters , Grd oshrFt pegrstee FS Yrementes avollable 4 mos /Isf fore: & 90 such splays , po Vastous such alphonumence dusplay using 1g LEDS » Glued eyyhteer segment isphy ww hewn 3» a INIZ| (ZA S| Read only to faciWate lo rg Sexe are now We, SRP Secea€ arrang cA WOs - one Fy 1 Cighteen carrer display Conshuct'eo Sos P |phanurmem’c Lop ot Aisploy owe built In Standard Confygurath'n Such as jo x2, Bxt ard 40 X4. fhe jrem cusplays vs broken nurbes 0 f Chore ters qren numbes avey i's Ident freaner of dno rote tre In €aoch TOO Ard of wows fh a lero hee. “re fv o, & ES Characters Thot means a 4tofal of 22 example of of trese OD Gi ars ploy : Cheracters aft oa ees