or Systems & spinal cord reflexes, Brain stem & cortical

trol, Cerebellar control Basal ganglia control

Dr Mary Abwola Olwedo

Learning outcomes
the end of the session, the student should be able to
escribe the corticospinal (pyramidal) tract and the direct motor pathwa
om the cortex to the limbs
ompare the signs and symptoms of upper motor neuron lesion and low
otor neuron lesions
xplain the functions of the cerebellum
st the signs and symptoms of cerebellar lesions
xplain the functions of brain stem
escribe the basal ganglia and it’s functions
escribe the reflex arc
Motor areas
Motor Areas
ccupies the precentral gyrus & contains large , highly excitable Betz
ells
Motor areas of one side controls skeletal muscles of the opposite side of
he body
eet are at the top of the gyrus and face at the bottom , arms and the
and area in the mid portion
acial area is represented bilaterally, but rest of the representation is
enerally unilateral
rea of representation is proportional with the complexity of function
one by the muscle. So, muscles of hands and speech (lips, tongue , and
ocal cord) occupies more than 50% of this area
he neurons of this area arranged in vertical Columns
The motor system is divided into 4 components:

Direct activation pathway

Control circuits

Indirect activation pathway

Final common pathway

Direct activation pathway
st, best-defined motor pathway
t is a “single neuron” pathway, extending from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cor
corticospinal tract)
Major function: to effect voluntary activity, particularly skilled movements under
onscious control
ns:
mary motor cortex
motor cortex
plementary motor cortex
r neurotransmitters: glutamate (excitatory) and GABA (inhibitory)
mage results in weakness, with loss of voluntary movements especially
d movements, but preservation of other forms of movements including
ents reflexes
ontrol circuits
allel pathways, the cerebellar and basal ganglia, control and modify mo
ty
both receive input from several motor and sensory cortical areas and
ct back to the cerebral cortex via the thalamus. They integrate and
ulate motor activity primarily through the cerebral cortex and direct
ation pathways
also send information to the brainstem and the indirect activation
ways.
sal ganglia
Concerned with learned, automatic behavior and with preparing and maintaining the background s
r posture, needed for voluntary motor activity. (Neurotransmitters: dopamine and GABA)
ebellum
Accomplishes the coordination and correction of movement errors of muscles during active movem
Neurotransmitters: glutamate and GABA)
direct activation pathways
older, more diffuse motor pathways, sometimes called extrapyramida
hways
se pathways mediate the enormous number of automatic activities
olved in normal motor function. For example, the maintenance of erect
ture when sitting or standing requires the coordinated contraction of
ny muscles.
s coordination is under subconscious control and is mediated by the
rect activation pathways which are:
Reticulospinal
Vestibulospinal
Rubrospinal
eases affecting these pathways are manifested with abnormal muscle t
d reflexes.
al common pathway
he somatic (skeletal) muscles that perform the voluntary movements a
under direct control of lower motor neurons and contract only in
sponse to activation by these neurons
ese neurons are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and
ainstem
ower motor neuron and the muscle fibers under its control constitute
otor unit
e final common pathway consists of many motor units through which a
tivities in the motor system must act
eurotransmitter: acetylcholine
ssification of descending motor systems
descending motor pathways have
monly been divided into “pyramidal”
“extrapyramidal” tracts.
classification is based on the finding
the motor tract which originates from
erebral cortex and descends to the
l cord (the corticospinal tract) passes
ugh the pyramids of the medulla, and
efore has been called the “the
midal tract”.
est of the descending motor pathways
ot travel through the medullary
mids, and are therefore collectively
ered under the heading: “the
pyramidal tracts”.
Locations of reticular and vestibular nuclei
Motor neurons
es Neurons that control motor activities
Lower motor neuron (alpha and gamma)
Upper motor neuron
r motor neuron – present in the spinal cord and cranial nerve nuclei; w
pinal cord, there are found in anterior horn cells and cranial nuclei whic
ol the muscular activity
ending tracts – synapse with the lower motor neuron and influence low
r neuron activity
escending tracts are from the motor cortex and are divided into
Pyramidal tracts – which arise from the cerebral cortex
Extrapyramidal tracts – arise from other than the cortex = brain stem nuclei (VII, IX,
ion;
yramidal tracts - skilled voluntary movement of extremities esp hands and fingers
xtrapyamidal tracts – bring about movement by their influence on muscle tone
Extrapyramidal tracts
Control automatic associated movements such as swinging of arms
during movements/walking
Autonomic visceral activities through hypothalamic connections
Extrapyramidal tracts
e following are the important sets of descending motor tracts, named
cording to the origin of their cell bodies and their final destination:
Corticospinal tract,
Corticobulbar tract (= Pyramidal tract)
Rubrospinal tract,
Reticulospinal tracts,
Vestibulospinal tracts,
Tectospinal tract, and
Olivspinal tract
nvergence of different motor control pathway
 uses of UMN lesion & LMN lesion
lesions
roke
auses of demyelination of the UMN
it B12 deificency
Multiple sclerosis
redrick’s ataxia
Amylotropic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
esion
Damage to the anterior grey matter
1. Infections eg polio, west nile fever
2. Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
Damage to the axon
• Cauda equina syndrome – herniation of the disc
• Diabetic neuropathy
Damage to axon terminal ( botulism – inhibition of Ach at the NMJ, ALS)
ff between UMN lesion & LMN lesion
UMN lesion LMN lesion
Lesion of descending tracts Lesion of alpha, gamma motor neuron
the spinal cord & motor cranial nuclei a
their axons
Muscle tone is increase - hypertonia Muscle tone decreases - hypotonia
Rigidity is seen No rigidity
Spastic paralysis Flaccid paralysis
Muscle groups are affected Individual muscle affected
Superficial reflexes are lost Superficial reflexes are lost
Plantar reflex –babinski sign positive Deep tendon reflexes are lost
No muscle wasting Muscle undergo wasting
Plantar response
Spinal cord
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Cervical – 8
Thoracic – 12
Lumba – 5
Sacral – 5
Coccyx – 1
Components of reflex
mponents
A receptor
Sensory neuron (afferent neuron)
Control centre – integrative centre, which can be the interneuron
Motor neuron (efferent neuron), sending a signal, which goes to the effector , for
example the muscle of the hand
Effector – the muscle of the hand
ex arc – is a neuronal circuit that directs the motor response
es of reflexes
stretch reflex (knee jerk) – 1 synapse- group1a afferent nerve – innervates both
nuclear bag fibers & nuclear chain fibers
Golgi tendon reflex (clasp knife) – 2 synapses; when extrafusal fibers contract, th
golgi tendon is stimulates (1b) – innervates only nuclear chain fiber
Flexor – withdrawal eg touching a hot stove – many synapses; II, III, IV. It causes
flexion on the ipsilateral side and extension on the contralateral side,
Reflex arc
e of the brain stem in controlling motor function
The brain stem provides many special control functions, such as
the following:
1. Control of respiration
2. Control of the cardiovascular system
3. Partial control of gastrointestinal function
4. Control of many stereotyped movements of the body
5. Control of equilibrium
6. Control of eye movements
Decerebrate rigidity
e brain stem of an animal is sectioned below the midlevel of the
encephalon, however the pontine and medullary reticular systems, as
he vestibular system, are left intact, the animal develops a condition ca
erebrate rigidity
dity occurs in the antigravity muscles—the muscles of the neck and tru
the extensors of the legs
re is blockage of normally strong input to the medullary reticular nuclei
m the cerebral cortex, the red nuclei, and the basal ganglia. Lacking this
t, the medullary reticular inhibitor system becomes nonfunctional; full
vity of the pontine excitatory system occurs, and rigidity develops

at is decorticate rigidity and when does it happen? What is opisthotono

uring?
tibular sensations & maintenance of equilibriu
cochlea is the major sensory organ for
ng and has little to do with
ibrium
semicircular canals, the utricle, and
accule are all integral parts of the
ibrium mechanism
ulae—sensory organs of the utricle
saccule for detecting orientation of
head with respect to gravity
The macula of the utricle –determining
orientation of the head when the head is
upright
The macula of the saccule - signals head
orientation when the person is lying down
ch macula is covered by a gelatinous layer in which many small calcium
bonate crystals called statoconia are embedded
e macula has thousands of hair cells, that project cilia up into the
atinous layer
e bases and the sides of the hair cells synapse with sensory endings of
stibular nerve
e weight of the statoconia bends the cilia in the direction of gravitation
l
polarization of the receptor membrane occur when the stereocilia are
agged towards the kinocilia and vice versa, causing fluid channels in the
uronal cell membranes around the bases of the stereocilia to open and
sitive ions enter from the surrounding endolymphatic fluid and vice ver
receptor hyper polarization
hair cells are all oriented in different directions in the maculae of the
les and saccules so that with different positions of the head, different h
become stimulated
“patterns” of stimulation of the different hair cells apprise the brain of
ion of the head with respect to the pull of gravity
rn, the vestibular, cerebellar, and reticular motor nerve systems of the
n excite appropriate postural muscles to maintain proper equilibrium
semicircular duct mechanism predicts that dysequilibrium is going to oc
thereby causes the equilibrium centers to make appropriate anticipator
entive adjustments. This helps the person maintain balance before the
tion can be corrected.
her factors concerned with equilibrium
Proprioceptors –
e vestibular apparatus detects the orientation and movement only of th
ad
erefore, the nervous centers also receive appropriate information abou
orientation of the head with respect to the body via the proprioceptor
neck and body directly to the vestibular and reticular nuclei in the bra
m and indirectly by way of the cerebellum
rioceptive and exteroceptive Information from other parts of the body
pressure sensations from the footpads tell one (1) whether weight is distributed
equally between the two feet and (2) whether weight on the feet is more forward
backward
portance of visual Information in the maintenance of equilibrium - as lo
heir eyes are open and all motions are performed slowly, equilibrium c
maintained
asal ganglia
e in the motor system is predominantly inhibitory
ppression of voluntary and involuntary movements
nning of movement
ase of a lesion in the basal ganglia; there will be no suppression of
oluntary movements; hence so frequent involuntary movements called
orea
nsists of 5 main nuclei
audate nucleus -GABA
entiform (putamen & globus pallidum (internus and externus)) - GABA
ubstancia nigra – uses dopamine (D1 – excitatory, D2 – inhibitory)
ubthalamic nucleus (excitatory – utilizes glumate)
ate & putamen are called corpus striatum – major input pathway for ba
a
men & globus pallidum form lentiform nucleus. Globus pallidum is a ma
ut pathway for basal ganglia
ganglia has both the direct pathway and indirect pathway
ct pathway – facilitation of movement; the ventral anterior nucleus of
amus stimulate the motor cortex, which causes the muscle to contract.
or cortex then stimulates the corpus striatum, which inhibits globus
dum internus which inhibits the motor cortex
rect pathway – inhibition of movement; ventral anterior nucleus of
amus stimulates the cortex, , which stimulates corpus striatum, which
bits globus pallidum externus which inhibits subthalamic nucleus, whic
s glutamate to excite globus pallidum internus which inhibits the ventra
erior nucleus of thalamus
Lesions
udate – chorea

bus pallidum – athetosis – failing movement of the hands

bthalamic nucleus – hemiballismus

bstancia nigra – it’s neurotransmitter is dopamine and is associated with

vement – parkinsonism; patients presents with tremors (resting tremo
rolling tremors, akinesia/bradykinesia
Cerebellar
ction;
Balance
Equilibrium – connected to inner ear
Muscle tone
Coordination of movements
Motor learning
ation –behind the 4th ventricle
–
er part – cerebellar cortex
p nuclei – in the deeper parts of the cerebellum; nuclei include; denda
mmonest, emboliform, Globose and Fastigial nuclei. All these are excitat
outputs go to thalamus
Cerebellar cells
nocerebellum – associated with the function of coordination and work
ociation with fastigial nucleus, globose nucleus and emboliform
o cerebellum associated with planning of the motor movements. This
rks in association with the dendrate nucleus
tibulo cerebellum (flocculo nodular lobe) – is for equilibrium, works in
ociation with vestibular nuclei
ferent cells in the cerebellum cortex
llate cells – inhibitory
ket cells – inhibitory
kinje cells – largest, inhibitory
nular cells – excitatory
gi cells inhibitory
art – Stop signalling
ulses from the deep nuclei of the cerebellum go to the thalamus, then
or cortex, which then helps in the start – stop signaling
re are 3 layers within the cerebellum, from outward to inwards
Molecular layer – has stellate and basket cell
Purkinje layer – has purkinje cells
Granular layer has granula cell and golgi cell. Golgi cell inhibits the
granular cell
rs/impulses from the inferior olivary nucleus in the medulla which has
rs that go to thalamus then motor cortex of the brain then to the musc
sing it to contract to cause movement
mbing fibers from the inferior olivary nucleus, later wind round the
drites of purkinje cell and stimulate it to cause inhibition of the deep
ei, so that movement stops
nction of the cerebellum in overall motor control
nervous system uses the cerebellum to coordinate motor control functi
ree levels, as follows:
estibulocerebellum –
This consists principally of the small flocculonodular cerebellar lobes that lie under
posterior cerebellum and adjacent portions of the vermis
Vestibulocerebellum is important in controlling balance between agonist and antag
muscle contractions of the spine, hips, and shoulders during rapid changes in body
positions as required by the vestibular apparatus
t calculates in advance the rates and directions where the different parts will be du
the next few milliseconds and these calculations are the key to the brain’s progress
to the next sequential movement
During it’s dysfunction, equilibrium is far more disturbed during performance of ra
motions than during stasis, especially when these movements involve changes in
direction of movement and stimulate the semicircular ducts
Spinocerebellum
nsists of most of the vermis of the
sterior and anterior cerebellum
us the adjacent intermediate
nes on both sides of the vermis

provides the circuitry for

ordinating mainly movements of
e distal portions of the limbs,
pecially the hands and fingers
erebrocerebellum
consists of the large lateral zones of the cerebellar hemispheres, latera
ntermediate zones
ceives virtually all its input from the cerebral motor cortex and adjacen
motor and somatosensory cortices of the cerebrum

ansmits its output information in the upward direction back to the brain
tioning in a feedback manner with the cerebral cortical sensorimotor
em to plan sequential voluntary body and limb movements, planning th
much as tenths of a second in advance of the actual movements

is called development of “motor imagery” of movements to be perform

bers from the spinal cord (spinocerebellar/mossy fibers) stimulate the
anular cells of the cerebellum, which stimulate the basket and stellate c
hich inhibit the purkinje cells and stops it from inhibiting the deep cell
ons of the cerebellum
coordination of movement – ataxia
st pointing
ndular knee jerk
stagmus
sdiadochokinesia – unable to perform rapid alternating movements
entional tremors
Further reading
A. Describe the types of muscle spindles and their innervation
B. Explain the function of muscle spindles
A. Describe control of posture and movement of the brain stem
B. Explain decerebrate rigidity