Chapter 10: Control of Body Movement

Dr. Weiping Ren p g BME 5010

Artificial Limb

Asking the right questions

How do we move the way we do? y Why do we move the way we do? Constraints...

Things which limit our range of movements thus shaping them Things which permit (or even suggest) certain methods of movement or interaction with an object

...and affordances

Motor Control Hierarchy

Motor commands from the brain have been modified by a variety of excitatory and inhibitory control systems, including essential feedback f i l f db k from sensory afferent neurons, along with vision and balance cues.

I. Highest Level (cerebral cortex)

1

Motor cortex the primary motor cortex (Execution)

the secondary motor cortex (Selection)

responsible for generating the neural impulses controlling execution of movement

premotor cortex guidance of movement and control of proximal and trunk muscles of the b d f i l dt k l f th body supplementary motor area planning and coordination of complex movements. posterior parietal cortex for transforming visual information into motor commands

Extensive neural networks between the major motor areas of the cerebral cortex permit fine control of movement, utilizing sensory and intentional signals to activate the appropriate motor neurons at an appropriate level of stimulation.

Primary Motor Cortex

Various parts of the primary motor cortex are directed to particular regions of the body Larger % of the cortex devoted to regulation of regions requiring fine motor control

II. Mid-level structures

Cerebellar and basal nuclei systems y that:

Regulate motor activity Precisely start or stop movements Coordinate movements with posture Block Bl k unwanted movements t d t Monitor muscle tone

Cerebellum
coordination of voluntary motor movement, balance, and muscle tone. Learns and executes instructions for movements and ensures coordination of force, extent and duration of the contractions of the muscles. "learn" and store motor patterns. Injury to the cerebellum may result in: * impaired coordination of motor movement * impaired ability to judge distance * impaired ability to perform rapid alternating movements * tremors upon intentional movement * staggering, wide based walking * tendency toward falling * weak muscles slurred speech

Basal Ganglia (BG)

= Caudate Nucleus, Putamen,

Globus Pallidus Suppress antagonistic or unwanted motor behaviors Form a link in a circuit that originates in and returns to sensorimotor cortex All bene th the surface of the beneath surf ce f cortex) Particularly important for (1) habit learning, e.g., how to drive a car, and (2) selection of movements.

Cerebellum vs. Basal Ganglia

The cerebellum receives input only from the sensorimotor parts of the cortex, whereas th b s l ganglia receive inp t from the entire t x h s the basal n li i input f m th nti cerebral cortex. The cerebellum output goes only to the premotor and motor cortex, while the basal ganglia also project to the prefrontal association cortex. The cerebellum has direct ties with the spinal cord and the brainstem. The basal ganglia have little connection to the brainstem, and no direct connections with the spinal cord cord.

The cerebellum apparently modifies the output of motor systems to bring intention into line with performance; it acts as a comparator. It has been suggested that the cerebellum has a very large associative memory.

Parkinsons Disease

A disorder of the central nervous system, which affects the y , brain and spinal cord. One of the most common movement disorder, and the most common symptom of Parkinsons disease is constant shaking, or tremors. Certain cells in the brain make a chemical substance called dopamine. Dopamine carries messages that tell the body how and when to move. Parkinson's disease occurs when these brain ll di b i cells die or are damaged and there is no longer enough d d d th i l h dopamine to carry these messages, and movement becomes more difficult.

III. Local level

The lowest level of hierarchy (Spinal cord ) y( p

Motor neurons alpha and gamma descending pathways Interneurons excitatory and inhibitory

Examples of the categories of information modifying the production of motor commands from the brain.

Descending Motor Pathways

Pathways from brain carrying motor y f y g commands down to lower motor neurons

Corticospinal pathways

originate in cerebral cortex and terminate in the spinal cord

contralateral or crossed, meaning that the left th t th l ft cortex controls the t t l th muscles on the right side of the body (& vice versa),

Brainstem pathways

influences ipsilateral (same side) motor activity. Important in the control of upright posture, balance, and walking

originate in the brain stem and terminate in the spinal cord

Note: Overlap of function between the two pathways!!

Descending Pathways

Interaction exists b t I t ti i t between th the descending pathways Redundant design means damage to one system may be partially compensated for by the remaining system All movements require continuous, coordinated interaction of both types of pathways

Local control of Motor Neurons

Afferent Input: Length monitoring: Length-monitoring: Stretch Receptor Tension-monitoring: Golgi Tendon Organ Joint receptors: Sense pressure & Position

Motor Neurons: Alpha neurons Gamma neurons Alpha-gamma Coactivation

10

Stretch Receptor

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

Extrafusal fibers Alpha motor neurons Intrafusal fibers Stretch receptors Gamma motor neurons
Note: contractile muscle fibers are extrafusal fibers and are innervated by motor neuron

11

Muscle Spindles
Composed of 3-10 intrafusal muscle fibers that lack myofilaments in their central regions

Regardless of the reason for a change in length, the stretched spindle in scenario (a) generates a burst of action potentials as the muscle is lengthened; in scenario (b), the shortened spindle produces fewer action potentials from the spindle.

12

Alpha-Gamma Coactivation
Alpha motor neurons (larger and control the extrafusal fibers) and Gamma motor neurons (smaller and control the intrafusal fibers) are excited or co-activated at the same time to get continuous information about muscle length.

13

Significance of Alpha-Gamma Coactivation

Maintains constant level of stretch in

intrafusal fibers during contraction and relaxation to provide optimal feedback.

Tension-monitoring systems
Golgi tendon organ (GTO) receptors

Located within tendons Contracting the muscle activates the Golgi tendon organs

NOTE this reciprocal innervation is opposite that of the muscle-spindle afferents!

14

Golgi tendon organ (GTO) receptors

GTO activation inhibits the agonist muscle (via release of glycine onto alpha-motoneuron) receptors function to prevent overover contraction of striated muscle

GTO

8.29

Tension Monitoring in Muscles

Stimulation of the afferent neurons of Golgi tendon organs activates motor neurons of antagonistic muscles Thus, inhibits motor neurons of the contracting muscle and its synergists NOTE this reciprocal innervation is opposite that of the muscle-spindle afferents!

15

Stretch Reflex
A muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle

16

Knee Jerk Reflex: Stretch & Reciprocal Inhibition Reflexes

Monosynaptic or polysynaptic?

Monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic reflex

17

Flexion Reflex: Pull away from Painful Stimuli

Leg retracts from painful g p stimulus and body is supported by extending the other leg. This mechanism provides further input from sensory receptors. (e.g. a response to pain may involve the withdrawal reflex).

Key components of Reflex Arc

Spinal cord (in cross-section) Stimulus
2 Sensory neuron 1 Receptor 4 Motor neuron 3 Integration

center
5 Effector

Skin

Interneuron

Receptor site of stimulus Sensory neuron transmits the afferent impulse to the CNS Integration center either monosynaptic or polysynaptic region within the CNS Motor neuron conducts efferent impulses from the integration center to an effector Effector muscle fiber or gland that responds to the efferent impulse

18

SUMMARY:

Muscle spindle afferents monitor muscle length. Golgi tendon organs monitor muscle tension. Flexion Reflex: Pull away from Painful Stimuli

Muscle Tone

Resistance of skeletal muscle to passive stretch The continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscles. It helps maintain posture post re Due to viscoelastic properties of muscle, joints & the degree of alpha motor neuron activity

19

Muscle Tone

Hypertonia abnormally high muscle tone due to greater than normal alpha motor neuron activity

Due to disorders of descending pathways that decrease inhibitory influences on motor neurons

Hypotonia abnormally low muscle tone, yp y , accompanied by weakness, atrophy, and decreased or absent reflex responses

Muscle Tone

Spasticity: form of hypertonia in which muscles develop increased tone briefly when they are stretched a bit, followed by relaxation Rigidity: continual hypertonia, resistance to passive stretch is constant Other types of hypertonia include cramps (prolonged) and spasms (brief)

20

Voluntary

Mode of Body Movement

Conscious awareness and attention is directed toward the action.

Involuntary Reflexes rapid stereotyped, such as eye-blink, rapid, stereotyped eye blink coughing, knee jerk graded control by eliciting stimulus

Movement occurs at joints!

Control of Voluntary Movement

21

Balance is MIRACULOUS !!!

..Complex and Interactive

22

Center of Gravity (COG)

In physics, the center p y of gravity (CoG) of an object is the average location of its weight. In a uniform gravitational field, it field coincides with the object's center of mass.

Motor activity must be informed about the bodys center of gravity in order to make adjustments in the level of stimulation to muscles whose contraction prevents unstable conditions (falling). p g

23

Characteristics of Walking (Gait Cycle)

Cyclic Universal Pattern BiBi-laterally symmetric g p Range of Speeds Adaptable to Varied Surfaces Efficient

Gait analysis

April 30, 2007

Gait Analysis: Techniques and Recognition of Abnormal Gait

24

Gait analysis involves the measurement of:

1. T 1 Temporal / Spatial velocity, cadence, step l S ti l l it d t length, etc. 2. Kinematics - the movement of the body in space without any reference to forces. 3. Kinetics the forces i 3 Ki ti - th f involved in producing l di d i these movements. 4. Dynamic Electromyography - the study of Gait Analysis: Techniques and Aprilmuscular activity patterns during walking. 30, 2007 Recognition of Abnormal Gait

Intrafusal muscle fibers

A) are found in muscle spindles. ) p B) are innervated by alpha motor neurons. C) generate most of the tension in a skeletal muscle. D) A and B. E) A and C.

25

Golgi tendon organs

A) are located in the tendons joining muscle and bone. bone B) monitor the strength of muscle contractions. C) are associated with monosynaptic reflexes. D) A and B. ) E) all of the above.

Smooth muscle contraction

A) needs interaction between actin and myosin. ) y B) stretching can trigger smooth muscle contraction. C) Hormones affect smooth muscle contraction. D) acetylcholine and norepinephrine are two neurotransmitters for muscle contraction. E)All of above E

26

Draw a muscle spindle within a p muscle, labeling the spindle, intrafusal and extrafusal muscle fibers, stretch receptors, afferent fibers, and alpha and gamma fib d l h d efferent fibers.

Describe the components of the knee jerk (stimulus, receptor, afferent pathway, integrating center, efferent pathway, effector, and response).

27