OSR Academy TM 8447550189; 9650825058

PREFACE
Dear students,
This edition of Science study material is an outcome of
exhaustive research which has been done, keeping in mind
the current changes in C.B.S.E. mode of evaluation.
We at OSR Academy covered the entire syllabus based on
N.C.E.R.T. as well as we supplement our pedagogy with the
study material prepared by us.
The study material has been prepared by a team of
specialist, which guarantees your success.
This study material is a genuine compilation done from all
the standard textbooks available in the market.
Nothing more than this study material is required to
score A+ grade.
Thank you for being a part of OSR Academy a well
renowned institute, dedicated to the betterment of
education.
Wish you all the best for the preparation period.
Regards
TM
OSR Academy

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INDEX
NAME OF THE CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS 3–10

2. FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE: CELL 11-18
3. MOTION 19-30
4. TISSUES 31-39
5. GRAVITATION 40-46
6. FORCE & LAWS OF MOTION 47-58
7. IS MATTER AROUND US PURE 59-67
8. IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES 68-77
9. GRAVITAION (PART-2) 71-82
10. WORK AND ENERGFY 83-94
11. SOUND 95-107
12. NATURAL RESOURCES 108-116
13. ATOMS AND MOLECULES 117–133
14. WHY DO WE FALL ILL? 134-140
15. DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS 141–156
16. STRUCTURE OF ATOM 157-166

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GRAVITATION (PART-2)
 Thrust :- Force exerted by an object perpendicular to the surface is called thrust.
 Pressure :- Force exerted by any object per unit area is called pressure.

Note: Since, pressure is indirectly proportional to the surface area of the object, thus, pressure increases with
decrease in surface area and decreases with increase in surface area.

 SI unit of Pressure
The unit of force is newton (N) and unit of area is square meter .Therefore,

Note: In the honour of Blaise Pascal, the SI unit of pressure is known as Pascal.

 Define 1 Pa:

Or, 1 Pascal = N m – 2

# Thrust and pressure in everyday life:

(a) Pressure exerted by a brick - A stretched brick kept on the ground exerts less pressure than a brick
kept on the ground in standing position. This happens because the surface area of contact of brick in
stretched position is more in comparison to the brick in standing position. And we know that pressure
increases with decrease in surface area and vice versa. Thus, in the case of stretched position a brick exerts
less thrust over the ground in comparison to the brick kept in standing position.

(b) Camel can run easily over the sand: The feet of a camel are large. Larger feet mean larger area
which results in low pressure. Due to this cam can easily walk on sand without sinking its feet.

(c) Tank easily can run over sand and mud: Caterpillar tracks; surrounding the wheels provide a larger
surface area. Due to this, a tank can move on any terrain without sinking.

(d) Tractor has broader tyres - Tractors are made mainly for agriculture purpose. Because of broader
tyres, a tractor exerts less pressure over the ground as pressure decreases with increase in surface area or
contact and hence easily runs over the muddy field.

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(e) One end of a nail is pointed – When a nail is pushed in a wall or wood, it is pushed from pointed side.
Because of pointed shape, nail exerts more pressure over the wall or wood and is easily pushed by
hammering.

(f) The straps of school bag are broader – Since larger surface area exerts less pressure, therefore
school bags with broader straps exert less pressure over the shoulder of a student while being slung over
the shoulder and a student feels it easy to carry even a heavy bag with more books.

(g) Knife with sharp edge cuts easily compare to one with blunt edge – Knife with sharp edge exerts
more pressure because of less area in contact with an object, such as vegetable and hence it cuts more
easily than a knife with blunt edge.

 Fluids: Substances which can flow are known as fluids. Gas and liquid both are considered as fluids.

 Pressure in Fluids:
Any solid object exerts pressure because of weight. Similarly, since fluids also have weight, thus they exert
pressure. Fluids exert pressure in all directions over the inner walls of a container in which they are kept.

 Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by fluids over the surface are of contact of an object which is
immersed in fluids. Buoyancy is also known as upward thrust.

Ques: Why does an object sink or float over water?

When an object is immersed in water, it exerts pressure over water due to its weight. At the same
time water also exerts upward thrust over the object. If the force exerted by the object is greater than the
upward thrust or buoyancy by water, the object sinks in water otherwise it floats over water.

# Buoyancy in everyday life –

(a) Swimming in water :– Anyone can be able to swim in water because of upward thrust exerted by
water.

(b) Flying of bird or aero plane :– Since air is a fluid, thus it also exerts upward thrust over the object.
Therefore, because of upward thrust of air a bird or aero plane can fly in air.

 Factors which affect buoyancy:

i}Volume of the object – Buoyancy or upward thrust exerted by a fluid increases with the volume of the
object immersed in it.
ii}Density of the fluid – The buoyant force or upward thrust increases with increase in density of the fluid.
Denser liquid exert more upward thrust.

Note: This is the cause that it is easier to swim in sea water rather than fresh water. Sea water is saline. Salts
dissolved in sea water increase the density and hence it exerts more upward thrust than fresh water.

 Density: Mass per unit volume of an object is called density or mass density. Density is denoted by Greek
letter rho (ρ).

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# SI Unit of density: The SI unit of mass is kg and SI unit of volume is cubic meter.

# Practical application of density:

1) If density of substance is less than water, it will float on water.
2) If density of substance is more than water, it will sink in water.
3) If density of substance is equal to that of water, it will remain where it is in water.

 Relative density: when density of a substance is expressed in comparison with water, it is called
relative density.

Notes: Relative density has no unit, because it is the ratio of similar quantity.

 Practical application of relative density: When the relative density of a substance is less than 1,
it will float in water otherwise it will sink in water.

 Archimedes’ Principle: Archimedes’ Principle states that when an object is immersed fully or partially
in a liquid, it experiences an upward force which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the object.
Weight of water displaced = buoyant force
 Application of Archimedes’ Principle
(a) In submarines – In submarines, there is a tank which can be filled or emptied as per requirement. It is
called buoyancy tank. When submarines have to go inside the water, the buoyancy tank is filled with water,
so that, the weight of the submarines would become more than the weight of water displaced by it. And
when submarines have to come over the surface of water, the buoyancy tank is emptied and water is
replaced by air. In this condition, the weight of water displaced by submarines will become more than the
weight of submarines and submarine comes over the surface of water.

(b) Air balloons – To raise the air balloon in air; the air inside the balloon is heated. Air expands because
of heat and becomes lighter. Thus, the balloon gets and upward thrust from the surrounding air and rises
up.

(c) Ships – A ship is much heavier than water, yet it floats on water. This happens because of unique shape
of the ship. Because of its shape, the volume of the ship is larger compared to its weight. Due to this, water
displaced by the ship provides a proper upward thrust to the ship and the ship floats on water.

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WORK AND ENERGY

- Work is equal to the product of the force and the distance through which it produces movement.
Although both force and displacement are vector quantities, having both magnitude and direction, work is
a scalar quantity, having only magnitude.

- WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE

Let a constant force, F act on an object. Let the object be displaced through a distance, s in the direction of
the force. Let W be the work done. We define work to be equal to the product of the force and
displacement.

Work done = force × displacement

W=Fs
Thus, work done by force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied bythe
distance moved in the direction of the force. Work has only magnitude and no direction.
Here the unit of work is Newton meter (N m) or joule (J). Thus 1 J is the amount of work done on an object
when a force of 1 N displaces it by 1 m along the line of action of the force.

Note: 1) Work done is negative when the force acts opposite to the direction of displacement.
2) Work done is positive when the force is in the direction of displacement.
Work done when force and displacement having some angle between them
Example :
A porter lifts a luggage of 15 kg from the ground and puts it on his head 1.5 m above the ground. Calculate
the work done by him on the luggage.
Solution:
Mass of luggage, m = 15 kg and
displacement, s = 1.5 m.
Work done, W = F × s = mg × s
= 15 kg × 10 × 1.5 m
= 225 J
Hence, Work done is 225 J.

- Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.
It comes in different forms -- heat (thermal), kinetic energy
Light (radiant), potential energy
Mechanical, muscular energy
Electrical, chemical, and
Nuclear energy etc
- FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound and motion. There are many forms of energy,
but they can all be put into two categories: 1) Kinetic energy and
2) Potential energy.

- KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of the particle on object.

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Example :
An object of mass 15 kg is moving with a uniform velocity of 4 m s–1. What is the kinetic energy
possessed by the object?
Solution:

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Example :
What is the work to be done to increase the velocity of a car from 30 km h–1 to 60 km h–1 if the
mass of the car is 1500 kg?
Solution:

- POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the energy due to the change in shape, size and state of the body.

- POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN OBJECT AT A HEIGHT

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Example :
Find the energy possessed by an object of mass 10 kg when it is at a height of 6 m above the ground. Given,
g = 9.8 m s–2.
Solution:

Example :
An object of mass 12 kg is at a certain height above the ground. If the potential energy of the
object is 480 J, find the height at which the object is with respect to the ground.
Given, g = 10 m s–2.
Solution:

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- LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system
remains constant. A consequence of this law is that energy cannot be created or destroyed. The only thing
that can happen with energy in an isolated system is that it can changeform.

- Energy transformations:

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- Rate of Doing Work
Power measures the speed of work done, that is, how fast or slow work is done. Power is defined as the
rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy. If an agent does a work W in time t, then power is
given by:

Power = work/time
P = w/t
The unit of power is watt (W)
1 watt = 1 joule/second or 1 W = 1 J s–1.
Example :
Two girls, each of weight 400 N climb up a rope through a height of 8 m. We name one of the girls A and
the other B. Girl A takes 20 s while B takes 50 s to accomplish this task. What is the power expended by
each girl?
Solution:

Example :
A boy of mass 50 kg runs up a staircase of 45 steps in 9 s. If the height of each step is 15 cm, find his power.
Take g = 10 m s–2.
Solution:

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Example :
An electric bulb of 60 W is used for 6 h per day. Calculate the ‘units’ of energy consumed in one
day by the bulb.
Solution:

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SOUND
Introduction – Sound

Sound is a type of energy. Sound travels in the form of wave from one place to another.

Production of sound:- Sound is produced because of the vibration of any object. In other
words, when an object is vibrated it produces sound.

Example:-

 Sound can be produced by clapping of palms.

 Sound can be produced by vibrating a string.
 Sound can be produced by beating a table or diaphragm of a drum.
 Sound is produced by a flute because of vibration of air column.
 Sound is produced by a guitar because of vibration of its string.

Thus, an object is needed which could be vibrated to produce sound.

Wave – Sound Wave

The disturbance or oscillation from one location to another location; accompanied by transfer of
energy is called wave.

There are two types of wave, viz. Electromagnetic Wave and Mechanical Wave.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE – Wave that requires no medium to propagate is called

Electromagnetic wave. For example – light wave. Light can also travel through vacuum.

MECHANICAL WAVE – Wave that requires medium to propagate is called Mechanical Wave. For
example - sound wave. Sound cannot travel in the absence of a medium.

TYPES OF WAVE - ON THE BASIS OF DIRECTION:

On the basis of direction of propagation, waves can be divided into two types –

1. TRANSVERSE WAVE – The wave formed because of the oscillation perpendicular to the
disturbance is called transverse wave. For example light wave, water wave, etc.

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LONGITUDINAL WAVE – The wave formed because of the oscillation; parallel to the disturbance;
is called longitudinal wave.

Sound Wave is longitudinal wave – Sound propagates because of oscillation of particles of

medium parallel to the disturbance, thus sound wave is longitudinal wave.

Compression:

Rarefaction:

In the given figure the area of compression is denoted by letter ‘C’ and the area of rarefaction is
denoted by letter ‘R’.

Density, pressure and disturbance:- When compression takes place in the medium, the density
and pressure of the medium increase. When rarefaction takes place in the medium, density and
pressure of the medium decrease.

Production of sound in laboratory:-

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Characteristics of sound wave:

Following are the main characteristics of sound wave:

 Wavelength.
 Amplitude.
 Time period
 Frequency
 Velocity (Speed)

The peak of a wave is called compression or crest. The valley of a wave is called rarefaction
or trough.

# WAVELENGTH: Wave length is the length between two consecutive peaks, i.e. crest or two
consecutive valleys, i.e. trough of a wave. Wave length is represented by Greek letter λ (lambda).
The SI unit of wavelength is metre (m).

NOTE: Louder sound has shorter wavelength and softer sound has longer wavelength.

# AMPLITUDE:- Magnitude of maximum disturbance on either side of the normal position or mean
value in a medium is called amplitude. In other words, amplitude is the distance from normal to the
crest or trough. Amplitude is denoted by letter ‘A’. The SI unit of amplitude is metre (m).

# TIME PERIOD: Time required to produce one complete wave is called time period or time taken
to complete on oscillation is called the time period of the sound wave. The time period of sound
wave is represented by letter ‘T’. The SI unit of time period is second (s).

# FREQUENCY: The number of sound waves produced in unit time is called the frequency of
sound waves. Frequency is denoted by Greek letter ‘ν’ (nu). The SI unit of frequency is ‘Hertz’.

- Relation between time-period and frequency:

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# VELOCITY: Distance covered by sound wave in unit time is called the velocity of sound wave.

Therefore, velocity can be defined as distance travelled per second by sound wave.

- Quality of Sound

# Timbre: The quality of sound is called timber of sound. Timber is one of the characteristics of
sound that enables us to differentiate between two different types of sound.

# Difference between noise and sound:

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Medium is a must for propagation of sound wave:

Since sound wave travels by the compression and rarefaction of the particles, so a medium is
necessary for propagation of sound wave. Sound cannot propagate without a medium. Sound
wave cannot propagSound wave cannot propagate through vacuum. This can be demonstrated
using the bell jar apparatus.

When all air is vacuumed out of bell jar, the sound of the bell is not heard outside. This happen
because there is no medium present, consequently no particles present for compression and
rarefaction in the bell jar through which sound waves could propagate.

# The velocity of sound waves depends upon the following three factors:

 Nature of the medium

 Temperature
 Humidity present in air

# Nature of medium: The velocity of sound is maximum in solid, moderate in liquid and minimum
in gas. For example:

# Temperature: The velocity of sound is directly proportion to temperature. This means, velocity of
sound increases with increase in temperature. For example: sound wave at 0ͼC in air is 332m/s.
The velocity of sound waves at 20ͼC in air is 344m/s. This is the reason, we hear more clearly on a
hot day than on a cold day.

# Humidity present in air: Since, velocity of sound wave in water is more than that in air, so
humidity in air increases the velocity of sound. Therefore, an increase in humidity in air increases
the velocity of sound and a decrease in humidity in air decreases the velocity of sound. This is the
cause that we can hear more clearly in rainy season than in summer.

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Reflection of Sound

Bouncing back of sound wave from the surface of solid or liquid is called reflection of sound.

Laws of reflection:

Use of Reflection of Sound:-

1. Loudspeaker, Megaphone, bulb horn: In such devices, a funnel like cone shaped tube is
used. Sound is introduced at the narrower end of tube and let to come out from wider end.
Because of successive reflections, the amplitude of sound is added up which makes the sound
louder. The name ‘Loudspeaker’ is given as it is used to make the sound louder.

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2. Stethoscope: – Stethoscope is used to hear the sounds of internal organs of a patient; for
diagnostic purposes. It works on the laws of reflection of sound.

3. Soundboard – Sound board is a big concave board and is set in such a fashion behind the
stage that speaker is at the focus. Sound coming from speaker falls over sound board and gets
reflected towards the audience. As a result, the audience sitting in the hall even at far distance
from the speaker can clearly hear what the speaker is saying.

Additionally, the ceiling of the auditorium is also made curved so that it also acts like sound board.
The curved surface of the ceiling reflects the sound waves and facilitates better hearing.

Echo: Repetition of sound because of multiple reflection of sound wave is called echo.
Condition necessary for creation of echo:

# Reverberations:

Persistence of sound wave for a long time because of multiple reflections is called reverberation.
Usually, this happens in big halls. Sound becomes too blurred and distorted to be heard in big
concert halls because of reverberation. This can often lead to annoyance.

# To overcome this problem, sound absorbent materials, such as curtains, plant fibre, compressed
fireboard, carpets, etc. are used in the auditorium. These materials absorb undesired reflected
sound and reduce reverberation.

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# Audible or inaudible sound:

The human ear can hear the sound between frequencies of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz this is known as
audible sound.

Sounds wave below 20 Hz and above 20,000Hz is known as inaudible sound waves.
Human can hear this range of sound hence known as inaudible sound waves.

# Infrasonic Sound or Infrasound

Sound, below the frequency of 20Hz is called infrasonic or infrasound. Many animals; such
as whale, elephant, rhinoceros, etc. can produce and hear sound having frequencies below 20 Hz.

# Ultrasound or Ultrasonic Sound Sound, above the frequency of 20000 Hz is called

ultrasound.Many animals such as dogs, cat, bat, monkey, deer, etc. can hear ultrasound.

# Explain how bats catches its prey or detect location?

Bats catch their prey by producing ultrasound. Bat produces ultrasound and detects the
reflected sound waves coming from any obstacle; such as a prey. By detecting the reflection of
ultrasound, bat understands the position and type of prey or of any obstacle in the way. Some
aquatic animals, such as dolphin, also use ultrasound to catch their prey.

USE OF ULTRASOUND

Because of high frequency, ultrasound is associated with more energy and can penetrate upto a
large extent. This characteristic of ultrasound makes it very useful for many purposes. Some of its
uses are given here:

- In detection of ailments in the human body.

- In cleaning of machinery parts which are beyond reach without disassembling of parts.
- Detection of any deformities in metal blocks.
- Detection of any blockade in pipe lines.

SONAR :-

SONAR: The full form of SONAR is SOund Navigation And Ranging. This is a device which is used
to measure depth of sea bed, locate scraps, wrecks, submarines of enemies, etc. in the water by
producing ultrasound. It is fitted over ships and submarines. Ultrasonic sound waves are produced
by SONAR and when these waves return after reflection from anything in water, they are analyzed
with the help of computer. The shape and position of objects under sea and ocean is detected on
the basis of speed and nature of reflected ultrasound waves.

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Human Ear :

Structure of Human Ear:

The human ear can be divided into three main parts, viz. external ear, middle ear and internal ear.

External Ear: The external ear is outside the body and is also called pinna. It extends into the ear
canal.

Middle Ear: The middle ear is composed of the ear drum or tympanum and the bone ossicles.
There are three bone ossicles, viz. the hammer, the anvil and the strirrup.

Internal Ear: The internal ear is composed of a cochlea and three semi-circular canals. The
cochlea makes the hearing apparatus and the auditory nerve from it goes to the brain.

Working of Human Ear: The external ear catches sound waves and channelizes them to the ear
drum, via the ear canal. During compression, the pressure increases outside the ear drum which
forces the eardrum to move inwards. During rarefaction, the pressure decreases outside the ear
drum which forces the eardrum to move outwards. Thus, a vibration is produced in the eardrum.
Further, the three bones amplify the sound wave, by vibrating in turns. In the inner ear, the
vibrations are converted into electrical signals. These signals are transmitted by the auditory nerve
to the brain. Finally, the brain interprets those signals as sound.

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NATURAL RESOURCES
Resources on the Earth
Biosphere: The whole combination of animals, plants and non-living beings which by their interaction
make the planet earth a live and vibrant place is called biosphere.

Biotic Components: Living things constitute the biotic component of the biosphere.

Abiotic Components: The air, the water and the soil form the non-living or a biotic component of the
biosphere. The air is called the hygrosphere, the water is hydrosphere and the soil is called lithosphere.
- Air
Air is a mixture of many gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. All living beings need
oxygen to break down glucose molecules and get energy for their activities. This results in the production of
carbon dioxide. Another process which results in the consumption of oxygen and the concomitant
production of carbon dioxide is combustion. This includes not just human activities, which burn fuels to get
energy, but also forest fires. Despite this, the percentage of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere is a mere
fraction of a percent because of carbon dioxide fixation.

- Carbon Dioxide Fixation

(i) Green plants convert carbon dioxide into glucose in the presence of Sunlight and
(ii) Many marine animals use carbonates dissolved in sea-water to make their shells.
The Role of the Atmosphere in Climate Control:
Atmosphere covers the Earth, like a blanket. We know that air is a bad conductor of heat. The atmosphere
keeps the average temperature of the Earth fairly steady during the day and even during the course of the
whole year. The atmosphere prevents the sudden increase in temperature during the daylight hours. And
during the night, it slows down the escape of heat into outer space. The moon, which is about the same
distance from the Sun that the Earth is, with no atmosphere, the temperature ranges from –190º C to 110º
C.

- The Movement Of Air: Winds

These phenomena are the result of changes that take place in our atmosphere due to the heating of air and
the formation of water vapour. Water vapour is formed due to the heating of water bodies and the
activities of living organisms. The rise in temperature creates a low pressure zone which attracts cool air
from high pressure zone and pushes up the hot air. Thus the atmosphere can be heated from below by the
radiation that is reflected back or re-radiated by the land or water bodies. On being heated, convection
currents are set up in the air.

- Air Pollution
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment.
Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or
man-made.
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are
substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas
from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.
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Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or
interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone - one of the many secondary
pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

- Rain
When water bodies are heated during the day, a large amount of water evaporates and goes into the air.
Some amount of water vapour also gets into the atmosphere because of various biological activities. This
air also gets heated. The hot air rises up carrying the water vapour with it. As the air rises, it expands and
cools. This cooling causes the water vapour in the air to condense in the form of tiny droplets. This
condensation of water is facilitated if some particles could act as the ‘nucleus’ for these drops to form
around. Once the water droplets are formed, they grow bigger by the ‘condensation’ of these water
droplets. When the drops have grown big and heavy, they fall down in the form of rain.
Rainfall patterns are decided by the prevailing wind patterns. In large parts of India, rains are mostly
brought by the southwest or north-east monsoons.

- Water: A Wonder Liquid

Water occupies a very large area of the Earth’s surface and is also found underground. Some amount of
water exists in the form of water vapour in the atmosphere. Most of the water on Earth’s surface is found
in seas and ocean sand is saline. Fresh water is found frozen in the ice-caps at the two poles and on snow
covered mountains. The underground water and the water in rivers, lakes and ponds is also fresh. However,
the availability of fresh water varies from place to place. Practically every summer, most places have to face
a shortage of water. And in rural areas, where water supply systems have not been installed, people are
forced to spend considerable amounts of time in fetching water from faraway sources.
Importance of Water: All cellular processes take place in a water medium. All the reactions that take place
within our body and within the cells occur between substances that are dissolved in water. Substances are
also transported from one part of the body to the other in a dissolved form. Hence, organisms need to
maintain the level of water within their bodies in order to stay alive. Terrestrial life-forms require fresh
water for this because their bodies cannot tolerate or get rid of the high amounts of dissolved salts in saline
water. Thus, water sources need to be easily accessible for animals and plants to survive on land.

- WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, ocean and groundwater caused
by human activities, which can be harmful to organisms and plants that live in these water bodies.
We use the term water-pollution to cover the following effects:

1. The addition of undesirable substances to water-bodies. These substances could be the fertilizers and
pesticides used in farming or they could be poisonous substances, like mercury salts which are used by
paper-industries. These could also be disease-causing organisms, like the bacteria which cause cholera.

2. The removal of desirable substances from water-bodies. Dissolved oxygen is used by the animals and
plants that live in water. Any change that reduces the amount of this dissolved oxygen would adversely
affect these aquatic organisms. other nutrients could also be depleted from the water bodies.

3. A change in temperature. Aquatic organisms are used to a certain range of temperature in the water-
body where they live, and a sudden marked change in this temperature would be dangerous for them or
affect their breeding. The eggs and larvae of various animals are particularly susceptible to temperature
changes.

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- Soil
Soil is an important resource that decides the diversity of life in an area. The outermost layer of our Earth is
called the crust and the minerals found in this layer supply a variety of nutrients to life-forms.
The factors or processes that make soil:

• The Sun: The Sun heats up rocks during the day so that they expand. At night, these rocks cool down and
contract. Since all parts of the rock do not expand and contract at the same rate, this results in the
formation of cracks and ultimately the huge rocks break up into smaller pieces.

• Water: Water helps in the formation of soil in two ways. One, water could get into the cracks in the rocks
formed due to uneven heating by the Sun. If this water later freezes, it would cause the cracks to widen.
Two, flowing water wears away even hard rock over long periods of time. Fast flowing water often
carries big and small particles of rock downstream. These rocks rub against other rocks and the resultant
abrasion causes the rocks to wear down into smaller and smaller particles. The water then takes these
particles along with it and deposits it further down its path. Soil is thus found in places far away from its
parent rock.

• Wind: In a process similar to the way in which water rubs against rocks and wears them down, strong
winds also erode rocks down. The wind also carries sand from one place to the other like water does.

- Biogeochemical Cycles
A constant interaction between the biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere makes it a dynamic, but
stable system. These interactions consist of a transfer of matter and energy between the different
components of the biosphere.

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- THE WATER-CYCLE

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on,
above, and below the surface of the earth. Since the water cycle is truly a "cycle," there is no beginning or
end. Water can change states among liquid, vapour and ice at various places in the water cycle. Although
the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules can come and
go.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Water evaporates as vapor into the air.
Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the
atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around
the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. A portion of runoff enters
rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and
groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes.

- The Nitrogen-Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of nitrogen and nitrogen-
containing compounds in nature. It is a cycle which includes gaseous components.
Earth’s atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, making it the largest pool of nitrogen. Nitrogen is essential for
many biological processes; it is crucial for any life here on Earth. It is in all amino acids, is incorporated into
proteins, and is present in the bases that make up nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. In plants, much of
the nitrogen is used in chlorophyll molecules which are essential for photosynthesis and further growth.

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Processing, or fixation, is necessary to convert gaseous nitrogen into forms usable by living organisms.
Some fixation occurs in lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria.
These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce
ammonia, which is then further converted by the bacteria to make its own organic compounds. Some
nitrogen fixing bacteria, such as Rhizobium, live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas or beans).
Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for
carbohydrates. Nutrient-poor soils can be planted with legumes to enrich them with nitrogen. A few other
plants can form such symbioses. Nowadays, a very considerable portion of nitrogen is fixated in ammonia
chemical plants.

- The Carbon-Cycle
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.
The cycle is usually thought of as four major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange.
These reservoirs are:
(I) The atmosphere.
(II) The terrestrial biosphere, which is usually defined to include fresh water systems and non-living organic
material, such as soil carbon.
(III) The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota,
(IV) The sediments including fossil fuels.

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- The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect refers to the change in the steady state temperature of a planet or moon by the
presence of an atmosphere containing gas that absorbs and emits infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases,
which include water vapor, carbon dioxide and methane, warm the atmosphere by efficiently absorbing
thermal infrared radiation emitted by the earth’s surface, by the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. As a
result of its warmth, the atmosphere also radiates thermal infrared in all directions, including downward to
the Earth’s surface. Thus, greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. The
greenhouse effect is one of several factors that affect the temperature of the Earth.

- The Oxygen-Cycle

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The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within and between
its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the biosphere (living things), and the lithosphere (earth’s
crust). The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern
Earth's atmosphere and life.

- Energy Cycle
All the above mentioned cycle can be grouped or explained as energy cycle on this earth. In fact sun is the
main source of energy for every activity on earth. This energy facilitates the everlasting cycle of all
resources in the biosphere. This system ensures that whatever we take from earth and its atmosphere we
return it in some way or other. A living organism is made of Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and other elements.
All living organisms need regular dose of these elements to continue life. During lifetime all these things are
returned to the atmosphere in some way. For example we return oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide and
return water in the form of sweat or urine.
Ultimately when a living being dies, then the body gets decomposed by decomposers, like bacteria. These
decompose the body into basic elements out of which it was originally made. That is how the everlasting
cycle of life goes on.

- Ozone Layer
The ozone layer is a layer in earth’s atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone.
This layer absorbs 93-99% of the sun’s high frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging to life
on earth. Over 91% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is present here. It is mainly located in the lower
portion of the stratosphere from approximately 10 km to 50 km above Earth's surface, though the thickness
varies seasonally and geographically.
Because of heavy use of CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) in refrigerators and pressurized cans by human the
ozone layer has broken at some places. This has caused an alarming rise in ultraviolet radiation leading to
increased cases of skin cancers.

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ATOMS AND MOLECULES

All matter is made up of small particles called atoms and molecules. Different kinds of atoms and
molecules have different properties due to which different kinds of matter also show different
properties.

 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

There are three important law of chemical combination. These are :
1. Law of conservation of mass ( or matter)
2. Law of constant proportions, and
3. Law of multiple proportions. (not in NCERT)

 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

This law was given by Lavoisier in 1774. According to the law of conservation of mass : Matter is
neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
OR
The law of conservation of mass means that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is
equal to the total mass of reactants. There is no change in mass during a chemical reaction.
For example, when calcium carbonate is heated, a chemical reactions takes place to form calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide. It has been found by experiments that if 100gm of calcium carbonate
are decomposed completely then 56 grams of calcium oxide and 44 grams of carbon dioxide are
formed. This can be written as :

Calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

100g 56g 44g

56 + 44 = 100g

Sample problem.1 Sodium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium ethanoate, carbon
dioxide and water. In an experiment, 5.3g of sodium carbonate reacted with 6g of ethanoic acid to
form 8.2g of sodium ethanote, 2.2g of carbon dioxide and 0.9g of water. Show that this data
verifies the law of conservation of mass.

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 LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS

This law was given by Proust in 1779. According to the law of constant proportions : A chemical
compound always consists of the same elements combined together in the same proportion by
mass.
For example, water is a compound which always consists of the two elements, hydrogen and
oxygen, combined together in the same constant proportion of 1 : 8 by mass.

Sample problem.2 In an experiment, 1.288 g of copper oxide was obtained from 1.03 g of copper.
In another experiment, 3.672 g of copper oxide gave, on reduction, 2.938 g of copper. Show that
these figures verify the law of constant proportion.

 DALTON”S ATOMIC THEORY

The theory that “all matter is made up of very tiny invisible particles (atoms)” is called atomic
theory of matter. Dalton put forward his atomic theory of matter in 1808. The various postulates
(or assumption) of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter are as follows :
i. All the matter is made up of very small particles called “atoms’.
ii. Atoms cannot be divided.
iii. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
iv. Atoms are of various kinds. There are as many kinds of atoms as are elements.
v. All the atoms of a given element are identical in every respect, having the same mass, size and
chemical properties.
vi. Atoms of different elements differ in mass, size and chemical properties.

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vii. Chemical combination between two (or more) elements consists in the joining together of
atoms of these elements to form molecules of compounds.
viii. The “number” and “kind” of atoms in a given compound is fixed.
ix. During chemical combination, atoms of different elements combine in small whole numbers to
form compounds.
x. Atoms of the same elements can combine in more than one ratio to form more than one
compound.

 EXPLAINATION
a. The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory that “the elements consist of atoms and the atoms can
neither be created nor destroyed” can be used to explain the law of conservation of mass.
b. The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory that “the elements consist of atoms having fixed mass,
and that the number and kind of atoms of each element in a given compound is fixed” can be used
to explain the law of constant proportions.

 DRAWBACKS OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

1. One of the major drawbacks of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter is that atoms were thought to be
indivisible. We know that under special circumstances, atoms can be further divided into still
smaller particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.
2. Dalton’s atomic theory says that all the atoms of an element have exactly the same mass. It is
however, now known that atoms of the same element can have slightly different masses.
3. Dalton’s atomic theory said that atoms of different elements have different masses. It is, however,
now known that even atoms of different elements can have the same mass.

 ATOMS
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. Atoms
are very, very small in size. An idea of the extremely small size of atoms can be had from the fact
that 35,000,000 copper atoms arranged end to end in a line would cover a distance of about 1
centimetre. The size of an atom is indicated by its radius which is called ‘atomic radius’ (radius of
atom). Atomic radius is measured in ‘nanometres’ (which is a very, very small unit of measuring
length). The symbol of a nanometer nm.
1 nanometre = 1 metre
109
Or 1 nm = 1 m
109
Or 1 nm = 10-9 m
Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom of all. Atoms are so small that we cannot see them even
under the most powerful optical microscope. The scanning tunneling microscope enables us to see
atoms, though indirectly.

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 SYMBOL OF ELEMENTS
Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols to represent the elements in a short way.
Element Dalton’s Element Dalton’s
symbol symbol
Hydrogen iron
Carbon Copper
Oxygen Silver
Phosphorus Gold
Sulphur Lead
Platinum Mercury
Dalton’s symbols for elements were difficult to draw and inconvenient to use. So, Dalton’s symbols
are only of historical importance. They are not used at all.
It was J.J Berzelius of Sweden who proposed that the first letter (or the first letter and
another letter) of the name of an element be used as its symbol. This idea led to the modern
symbols of elements.
Modern symbols of elements
The symbol of an element is the “first letter” or the “first letter and another letter” of the English
name or Latin name of the element. For example,
The symbol of Hydrogen is H (first letter of name)
The symbol of oxygen is O (first letter of name)
The symbol of Chlorine is Cl (first and third letter of name)
The symbol of copper is Cu (first and second letter of its Latin name Cuprum)

Symbols derived from English names of the Elements

English name of Symbol English name of Symbol
the element the element
1. Hydrogen H 14. Sulphur S
2. Helium He 15. Chlorine Cl
3. Lithium Li 16. Argon Ar
4. Boron B 17. Calcium Ca
5. Carbon C 18. Manganese Mn
6. Nitrogen N 19. Nickel Ni
7. Oxygen O 20. Zinc Zn
8. Fluorine F 21. Bromine Br
9. Neon Ne 22. Krypton Kr
10. Magnesium Mg 23. Iodine I
11. Aluminum Al 24. Barium Ba
12. Silicon Si 25. Cobalt Co
13. Phosphorus P 26. Uranium U

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Symbols derived from Latin Names of the Elements
English name of the Symbol Latin name of the
element element
1. Sodium Na Natrium
2. Potassium K Kalium
3. Iron Fe Ferrum
4. Copper Cu Cuprum
5. silver Ag Argentum
6. Gold Au Aurum
7. Mercury Hg Hydragyrum
8. Lead Pb Plumbum
9. Tin Sn Stannum

 ATOMIC MASS OF AN ELEMENT

Actual masses of the atom of the elements are very, very small . for example, one atom of
hydrogen (H) has a mass of 1.673 X 10-24 gram. It is not convenient to use such small and
complicated figures in our calculations, therefore, it was necessary to define atomic masses in
such a way that we get simple figures from them.
Carbon-12 atom has been assigned an atomic mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(Atomic mass unit was earlier written in short as ‘amu’ but these days atomic mass unit is denoted
by the letter ‘u’).
૚
Atomic mass unit = ૚૛ the mass of a carbon – 12 atom
ଵ
1u = ଵଶ the mass of a carbon – 12 atom
One atomic mass unit (1 u) is defined as exactly one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon – 12.
For example, the atomic mass of magnesium is 24 u which indicates that one atom of magnesium
ଵ
is 24 times heavier than ଵଶ of carbon- 12 atom.

Atomic Masses of Some common elements

Elements Symbol Atomic Elements Symbol Atomic
Mass Mass
1. Hydrogen H 1u 8. Phosphorus P 31 u
2. Carbon C 12 u 9. sulphur S 32 u
3. Nitrogen N 14 u 10. chlorine Cl 35.5 u
4. Oxygen O 16 u 11. Potassium K 39 u
5. Sodium Na 23 u 12. Calcium Ca 40 u
6. Magnesium Mg 24 u 13. Iron Fe 56 u
7. Aluminium Al 27 u 14. Copper Cu 63.5 u

Significance of the symbol of an element

1. Symbol represents name of the element.
2. Symbol represents one atom of the element.

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3. Symbol also represents one mole of atoms of the element. That is, symbol also represents
6.022 x 1023 atoms of the element.
4. Symbol represents definite mass of the element (equal to atomic mass expressed in grams).

 HOW DO ATOMS EXIST

Atoms usually exist in two ways :-
1. In the form of molecules, and
2. In the form of ions.

 MOLECULES
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two (or more) atoms chemically bonded together. A
molecule is the smallest particle of a substance (element or compound) which has the properties
of that substance and can exist in the free state.

1. Molecules of elements
The molecule of an element contains two (or more) similar atoms chemically combined together.

Hydrogen molecule nitrogen molecule

The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called its atomicity.
The atomicity of noble gases is 1. The atomicity of metal elements like sodium (Na), magnesium
(Mg), aluminium (Al) Copper (Cu) and iron (Fe), etc., is also taken to be 1.
Ozone (O3) has 3 atoms in its molecule, so the atomicity of Ozone is 3.
Phosphorus (P4) has 4 atoms in its molecule, so the atomicity of phosphorus is 4.
Solid sulphur (S8) has 8 atoms in its molecule, so the atomicity of sulphur is 8.

2. Molecules of compounds
The molecule of a compound contains two (or more) different types of atoms chemically
combined together.

HCl molecule H2O molecule

- Chemical Formulae
A chemical formula represents the composition of a molecule of the substance in terms of the
symbols of the elements present in the molecule.

- Formulae of Elements
The chemical formula of an element is a statement of the composition of its molecule in which
symbol tells us the element and the subscript (lower figure) tells us how many atoms are present
in one molecule.
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Molecular formulae of some common elements
Element formula Element Formula
Hydrogen H2 Bromine Br2
Nitrogen N2 Iodine I2
Oxygen O2 Phosphorus P4
chlorine Cl2 sulphur S8

- Formulae of Compounds
The chemical formula of a compound is a statement of its composition in which the chemical
symbols tell us which elements are present and the subscripts (lower figures) tell us how many
atoms of each element are present in one molecule of the compound.
Name Formula Elements present
1. Water H2O H and O
2. Carbon dioxide CO2 C and O
3. Sulphur dioxide SO2 S and O
4. Ammonia NH3 N and H
5. Methane CH4 C and H
6. Ethanol (Alcohol) C2H5OH C, H and O
7. Hydrogen Chloride HCl H and Cl
8. Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 C and Cl
(tetrachloromethene)
9. Hydrogen sulphide H2S H and S
10. Carbon disulphide CS2 C and S

- Molecular mass
The molecular mass of the substance is the relative mass of its molecule as compared with the
mass of a carbon – 12 atom taken as 12 units.

- Calculation of molecular mass

The molecular mass is equal to sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule
of the substance. For example, one molecule of water (H2O) contains 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1
atom of oxygen. So, the molecular mass of water will be equal to the sum of the masses of 2
hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. Knowing that the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 u and that of
oxygen is 16 u, the molecular mass of water can be calculated as follows :
Mass of H atom = 1 u
Mass of 2H atoms = 2 X 1
=2u
Mass of O atom = 16 u
Now, molecular mass of H2O = Mass of 2H atoms + mass of O atom
= 2 + 16
= 18 u
Thus, the molecular mass of water (H2O) is 18 u.

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Significance of the formula of a substance
1. Formula represents the name of the substance.
2. Formula represents one molecule of the substance.
3. Formula also represents one mole of molecules of the substance. That is, formula also represents
6.022 X 1023 .
4. Formula gives the names of all the elements present in the molecule.
5. Formula gives the number of atoms of each element present in one molecule.
6. Formula represents a definite mass of the substance (equal to molecular mass expressed in
grams).

Every atom normally contains an equal number of ‘negative electrons’ and ‘positive protons’
which balance the charges in the atom and make an atom electrically neutral.
i. If an atom has less electrons than normal, then it gets positive charge.
ii. And if an atom has more electrons than normal, then it gets negative charge.

 IONS
An ion is a positive or negatively charged atom (or group of atoms).
1. A positively charged ion is known as cation. A cation is formed by the loss of one or more
electrons by an atom. For example, sodium atom loses electron to form a sodium ion, Na +, which
is a cation :
-1 electron
Na Na+
Sodium atom sodium ion (a cation)
Since a cation is formed by the removal of electrons from an atom, therefore a cation contains less
electrons than a normal atom. The ions of all the metal elements are cations.
2. A negatively charged ion is known as anion. An anion is formed by the gain of one or more
electrons by an atom. For example, a chlorine atom gains (accepts) 1 electron to form a chloride
ion, Cl -, which is an anion :
+1 electron
Cl Cl –
Chlorine atom chloride ion (an anion)
An anion contains more electrons than a normal atom. The anions of all the non metals elements
are anions (except hydrogen ion and ammonium ion)

Simple Ions and Compound Ions (Polyatomic Ions)

i. Those ions which are formed from single atoms are called simple ions. For example, sodium ion,
Na+ is a simple ion because it is formed from a single sodium atom, Na. similarly, magnesium ion
Mg2+, Aluminium ion Al3+, oxide ion O2-, chloride ion Cl -, etc., are all simple ions. Simple ions are
also known as monoatomic ions.
ii. Those ions which are which are formed from groups of joined atoms are called compound ions
(or polyatomic ions). For example, ammonium ion NH4+, is compound ion which is made up of two
types of atoms joined together, nitrogen and hydrogen. Similarly, carbonate ion CO 32-, sulphate
ion SO42-, nitrate ion, NO3 – and hydroxide ion OH-, etc., are all compound ions. Compound ions are
also known as polyatomic ions.

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- Ionic Compounds
The compounds which are made up of ions are known as ionic are known as ionic compounds. In
ionic compound, the positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) are
held together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

Some ionic compounds

Name Formula Ions present
1. sodium chloride NaCl Na+ and Cl-
2. Potassium Chloride KCl K+ and Cl-
3. Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl NH4+ and Cl-
4. Magnesium Chloride MgCl2 Mg2+ and Cl-
5. Calcium Chloride Cacl2 Ca2+ and Cl-
6. Magnesium oxide MgO Mg2+ and O2-
7. Calcium Oxide CaO Ca2+ and O2-
8. Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Al3+ and O2-
9. Sodium hydroxide NaOh Na+ and OH-
10. Copper sulphate CuSO4 Cu2+ and SO42-
11. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 Ca2+ and NO3-

Formula unit of ionic compounds

The simplest combination of ions that produces an electrically neutral unit, is called a ‘formula
unit’ of the ionic compound. The ‘formula unit’ of an ionic compound can be thought of as the
smallest unit of that compound, it is the equivalent of a ‘molecule’ of the compound. The formula
unit of sodium chloride compound is NaCl (which consists of one Na + ion and one Cl ion)

 CHEMICAL FORMULAE
The chemical formula of a compound represents the composition of a molecule of the compound
in terms of the symbols of the elements present in it.

WRITING OF FORMULAE OF MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

If we know the valencies of elements, then we can work out the formulae of then compounds by
balancing the valencies of the different atoms which occur in the compound.
1. We first write the symbols of the elements which form the compound.
2. Below the symbol of each element, we write down its valency.
3. Finally, we cross-over the valencies of the combining atoms. That is, with first atom we write
the valency of second atom (as a subscript); and with the second atom we write the valency of
first atom (as subscript). This will give us the required formula.

Sample problem.3 work out the formula of carbon dioxide.

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Sample problem.4 Work out the formula of hydrogen chloride.

- VALENCY OF IONS
The valency of ion is equal to the charge on the ion.

Monovalent Cations (Cations Having a Valency of 1+)

Monovalent cations means cations having a valency of 1+. In other words, monovalent
cations means positive ions having a valency of 1+ (one plus). Some of the important monovalent
cations or monovalent positive ions are given below :
1. Hydrogen ion, H+ 6. Silver ion, Ag+
2. Lithium ion, Li+ 7. Copper (I) ion Cu+
3. Sodium ion, Na+ [ cuprous ion]
4. Potassium ion, K+ 8. Mercury (I) ion, Hg+
5. Ammonium ion, NH4 + [ Mercurous ion]

Divalent cations (Cations Having a valency of 2+)

1. Magnesium ion, Mg2+ 5. Barium ion, Ba2+
2. Calcium ion, Ca2+ 6. Copper (II) ion Cu2+
3. Zinc ion, Zn2+ [Cupric Ion]
4. Iron (II) ion, Fe2+ 7. Mercury (II) ion, Hg2+
[Ferrous ion] [Mercuric ion]

Trivalent cations (cations having a valency of 3+)

1. Aluminium ion, Al3+ 2. Iron (III) ion, Fe3+
[Ferric ion]

Monovalent Anions (Anions Having a Valency of 1-)

-
1. Hydride ion, H- 6. Nitrite ion, NO2
2. Fluoride ion, F- 7. Nitrate ion, NO3-
3. Chloride ion, Cl - 8. Hydroxide ion, OH-
4. bromide ion, Br - 9. Hydrogencarbonate ion, HCO3-
5. iodide ion, I- [Bicarbonate ion]

Divalent Anions (Anions Having a valency of 2-)

1. Oxide ion, O2- 3. Sulphate ion, SO42-
2. Sulphide ion, S2- 4. Carbonate ion, CO32-
5. Sulphite ion, SO32-

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Trivalent Anions (Anions having a valency of 3-)
1. Nitride ion, N3- 3. Phosphate ion, PO43-
2. Phosphide ion, P3-

 GRAM ATOMIC MASS AND GRAM MOLECULAR MASS

Gram atomic mass

The amount of a substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its atomic mass, is
called gram atomic mass of that substance.

Gram Molecular Mass

The amount of a substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular
mass, is called gram molecular mass of that substance.

 MOLE CONCEPT
Mole is a link between the mass of atoms (or molecules) and the number of atoms (or molecules).
A group of 6.022 X 1023 particles (atoms, molecules or ions) of a substance is called a mole
of that substance.
Thus, 1 mole of atoms = 6.022 X 1023 atoms
And, 1 mole of molecules = 6.022 X 1023 molecules
It is obvious that we can have a mole of atoms or a mole of molecules of a substance. For
example, oxygen atom is O and oxygen molecule is O2. So we can have a mole of oxygen atoms or
a mole of oxygen molecules.
1 mole of oxygen atoms (O) = 6.022 X 1023 oxygen atoms
And, 1 mole of oxygen molecules (O2) = 6.022 X 1023 oxygen molecules
Thus number of 6.022 X 1023, which represents a mole, is known as Avogadro number (L).

Mole of atoms
1 mole of atoms of an element has a mass equal to the gram atomic mass of the element.
1 mole of atoms of an element = Gram atomic mass of the element
Now, the atomic mass of oxygen (O) is 16 u, so gram atomic mass of oxygen will be 6 grams. Thus,
1 mole of oxygen atoms = Gram atomic mass of oxygen
= 16 grams
It should be noted that the symbol of an element represents 1 mole of atoms of that element.
For example,
Symbol O represents 1 mole of oxygen atoms
And 2 O represents 2 moles of oxygen atoms

Mole of molecules
1 mole of molecules of a substance has a mass equal to the gram molecular mass of the
substance. That is,
1 mole of molecules of a substance = Gram molecular mass of the substance
Now, the molecular mass of oxygen (O2) is 32 u, so the gram molecular mass of oxygen is 32
grams. Thus,

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1 mole of oxygen molecules = Gram molecular mass of oxygen
= 32 grams
It should be noted that the molecular formula of a substance represents 1 mole of molecules of
that substance. For example;
i. Formula O2 represents 1 mole of oxygen molecules
And 2O2 represent 2 moles of oxygen molecules

PROBLEMS BASED ON MOLES OF ATOMS

We have just studied that :
1 mole of atoms of an element = Gram atomic mass of the element = 6.022 X 10 23
atoms
This gives us three relations :
i. The first relation is :
1 mole of atoms = Gram atomic mass
This relation is used to convert the moles of atoms into mass in grams, and also to convert mass in
grams into moles of atoms.

ii. The second relation is :

1 mole of atoms = 6.022 X 1023 atoms
By using this relation we can convert the moles of atoms into number of atoms, and the
number of atoms into moles of atoms.
iii. The third relation is :
Gram atomic mass = 6.022 X 1023 atoms

Sample problem.5 how many moles are 5 grams of calcium? (Atomic mass of calcium = 40u)

Sample problem.6 What is the mass of 4 moles of aluminium atoms? (Atomic mass of Al = 27u)

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Sample prolem.7 calculate the number of atoms in 0.2 mole of sodium (Na)

PROBLEMS BASED ON MOLES OF MOLECULES

We have just studied that :
1 mole of molecules of a substance = Gram molecular mass of the substance = 6.022 X 1023
molecules
This gives us three relations :
i. The first relation is :
1 mole of molecules = Gram molecular mass
ii The second relation is :
1 mole of molecules = 6.022 X 1023 molecules
iii. The third relation is :
Gram molecular mass = 6.022 X 1023 molecules

Sample problem.8 convert 22 g of carbon dioxide (Co2) into moles. (Atomic masses : C = 12 u : O
= 16 u)

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WHY DO WE FALL ILL

1. The significance of health: The word health gives us an idea of ͆being well͇. Health is a state
of physical, mental and social well being.

2. Distinction between ͆Healthy͇ and ͆Disease-free͇ condition : The word disease literally
means being uncomfortable due to a particular cause. Poor health does not always mean that we
are suffering from a particular disease. Our health is affected by our physical, mental and social
condition. But every disease has a particular cause. There are various organ systems in our body
which is made of organs that carry out specific functions.

In case of any disease, the functioning or appearance of one or more systems of the body changes
which give, rise to symptoms of the disease.

Q. Explain what is a good health for a dancer?

(i) Acute diseases: Disease that last for only very short period of time is called acute disease. These
diseases do not our body that much. e.g. Common cold.

(ii) Chronic diseases: The diseases which last for a long time as much as lifetime are chronic
disease. These diseases harm our body to a large scale. e.g. Elephantiasis.

- Immediate causes of disease are of two types:

(i) Infectious causes: These include microbes or micro-organisms. Diseases where microbes are
immediate causes are called infectious diseases,

(ii) Non infectious causes: The immediate causes of disease is not external (microbes). The causes
are internal and non-infectious. Such diseases are called non-infectious diseases, e.g. Cancer is
caused due to genetic abnormalities.

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The method of treatment is different for infectious and non-infectious diseases.

There are more two types of diseases on the basis of inheritance

1. Acquired Diseases: These type of diseases are acquired by the surroundings after the birth.
Example, common cold, tooth decay, etc.

2. Inherited Diseases: These type of diseases are inherited from parents to their offspring.
Example, HIV AIDS, blood cancer etc.

On the basis of communicability, diseases are of two types:

1. Communicable Disease: Diseases which can be transferred from one body to another are called
communicable diseases. Example, Malaria, Dengue, Small pox etc.

2. Non Communicable Disease: Diseases which cannot be transferred from one body to another
are called non communicable diseases. Example, tooth decay, brain fever, skin cancer etc.

Means of spread : Infectious diseases are also called communicable diseases. Disease causing
microbes could spread through air, water, sexual contact, casual physical contact (like handshakes,
hugs, wrestling etc), blood-to-blood contact, and from infected mother to her baby. On all these
basis means of transports are:

1. water borne diseases:

2. air borne diseases:

3. diseases by sexual contact:

4. by direct contact:

- Food poisoning:

It is the conditions produced by micro-organisms, due to which they transfer harmful microbes to
the food we eat and hence make food inappropriate to eat. Is the particular food is eaten it may
cause harmful effects like vomiting, dysentery etc.

- Principles of prevention:

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Prevention of diseases is better than their cure. Two ways of prevention are general, and specific
ways of prevention.

(i) General ways:

1. For air-born microbes we can prevent exposure by avoiding overcrowded places.

2.For water- borne microbes we can prevent exposure by providing safe drinking water.

3.For vector-borne infections we can provide clean environment.

4.Our immune system also plays an important role in killing off microbes. So, proper nourishment
is necessary for better functioning of our immune system. This is also a kind of prevention.

(ii) Specific ways:

1. Immunization:

Suffering from a disease once is a means of preventing subsequent attacks by the same pathogen.
In case of any infection for the first time our immune system responds against it specifically. Next
time when the same microbe enters our body the immune system responds with greater vigour
which eliminates the infection more quickly than the first time. So, immunisation is done to
prevent diseases.

2.Vaccination:

Vaccines to prevent many diseases are now available for a whole range of diseases of the public
health programme of childhood immunisation for preventing infectious diseases is run by
government. Children are vaccinated against tetanus, diphtheria,

whooping cough, measles, polio etc.

The first antibiotic penicillin was extracted form fungi Penicillium notatum by Alexander Flemming
1944.

Q. What do mean by antibiotics or antibodies?

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Q. What do you mean by inflammation? How it is useful?

Diseases classified on the basis of their infectious agent:

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DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS

- CLASSIFICATION: - Classification of organisms may be defined as a system of arrangement of
organisms into different groups and sub-groups on the basis of their similarities, differences and
relationship.

- Classification of organisms is also known as taxonomy. It has the following advantages.

1. Classification makes the study of a wide variety of organisms convenient and easy.
2. It is not possible for man to know about all the organisms but the study of a few
representatives from each taxonomic group gives a general idea of all life forms at a glance.
3. Classification also reveals the interrelationship among different gr4oups of organisms.
4. Correct identification of an organism and its placement in a definite taxonomic group is the
basic requirement of various branches of biological sciences.
Thus, classification of organisms provides a base for the development of other biological
sciences.

- BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION:-

Classification can be done on the following basis.

1. Cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Organisms may be grouped into two broad categories on
the basis whether they possess prokaryotic cells or eukaryotic cells. In case of prokaryotic cells
the nuclei and other organelles are not clearly demarcated. The eukaryotic cells, on the other
hand, have membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.
2. Cells occur singly or in clusters. Many organisms are unicellular, i.e. made up of only one cell,
e.g. Amoeba. Others are multicellular, i.e., cells group together to form single organism (e.g.,
insect). In case of multicellular organisms the different groups of cells carry out specialized
functions
3. Organism is photosynthetic or takes food from outside. Green plants perform photosynthesis
an synthesis their own food. Animals cannot perform photosynthesis. They get food from
outside.
4. Organization of different body parts. Grouping of organisms may be done on the basis of
body organization. For example, plants possess stem, root and leaves. Similarly, the animals
possess specialized organs to perform different function. The characteristic based on body design
used for classification of plants is quite different when used for classifying animals.

- Systems of classification:-
R H whittaker in 1969, suggested five kingdom classification on the basis ofr (i) preence or
absence of a nucleus (ii) unicells or multicells and (iii) mode of nutrition.
He proposed five kingdoms:

1. Monera, 2. Protista, 3. Fungi, 4. Plantae and 5. Animalia.

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Monera: - these organisms do not have a defined nucleus or organelles, nor do any of them
show multi-cellullar body designs. They show diversity based on many other characteristics.
Some of organisms of this group are either autotrophic or heterotrophic. This group includes
bacteria, blue-green algae or cynobacteria and mycoplasma.

Protista:- This group includes many kinds of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Some of these
organisms use cilia or flagella for moving around. Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or
heterotrophic. Examples are unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans.

Fungi:- these are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms. They are saprophytes andthrive on
decaying organic material. They have cell-walls made of chitin. Examples are yeast and
mushrooms.

Plantae:- these are multi-cellular eukaryotes with cell walls. They are autotrophs and used
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. All plants are included in this group.

Animalia:- these includes all multi-cellular organisms. They are heterotrophs.

Various ranks used in classification (Hierarchy of classification).

In classification, the organisms that closely resemble one another are placed in a group. These
groups are further placed in large groups on the basis of close similarities. The larger groups are
again placed in still larger grouping levels or ranks in classification are known as categories. Each
category has its specific name.
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There are seven major categories:
1. Species 2. Genus 3. Family 4. Order 5. Class 6. Phylum (for animals)/division (for plants)
7.Kingdom.

1. Species. Species is the lowest category regarded as basic unit classification. It is a group of
similar individuals which resembles with each other in morphology, breed among themselves but
not with others and probably descended from a common ancestor.
2. Genus. A genus is a group of closely resembling species having a common ancestry. A;; the
species in a genus show similarities in broad features of their organization but differ in minor
details.
3. Family. A family represents a larger group of closely related genera. It is composed of one or
more genera.
4. Order. An order is a group of closely related families.
5. Class. A class is a group of related orders.
6. Phylum/Division. Phylum (in case of animals) or Division (in case of plants) is a group of related
classes.
7. Kingdom. Kingdom is the highest category in biological classification. It is group of phyla (in
case of animals) or divisions (in case of plants).

- KINGDOM PLANTAE:-
Characteristics features of kingdom plantae.
i) They are made of eukaryotic cells.
ii) They are multicellular.
iii) The cells have wall made of cellulose.
iv) They store carbohydrates such as starch.
v) Some cells (except in some parasites) contain chloroplast.
vi) The organisms feed by photosynthesis.

- PLANT KINGDOM
According to the classification proposed by Eicher, plant kingdom is divided in to two
subkingdoms i.e crypotogamae and phanerogamae.

- CRYTOGAMAE:- These are known as lower plants. The flower/seed are absent and hence
these are considered to have hidden reproductive organs. It is categorized into 3 divisions.

1).THALLOPHYTA:- Thallophytes have a body which is not differentiated into stem, root and
leaves. This kind of undifferentiated body is called thallus, hence the name thallophytes.
It has the following characteristics.
(1) The plant body is thalloid i.e., cannot be differentiated into stem, root and leaves.
(2) The vascular system is absent in such plants.
(3) The reproductive organs are single called and there is no embryo formation.
(4) They are commonly known as algae.

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Note: LICHENS : They represent a symbiotic association of a fungus and a alga in which two
organisms are so closely associated with each other as to form a single plant. They are show
growing long lived plants. The commonly grow on leaves, tree trunks, old logs, soils and rocks.
Some lichens occur in extreme conditions of cold, humidity and drought. In these plants the algal
part prepares the food and the fungal part shows reproduction. Thus, their association is
mutualistic.

2). BRYOPHYTA:- Bryophytes are simple terrestrial plants.

They have over 25,000 species. They show the following characteristics:-
1. They lice in damp and sandy habitates hence they are called amphibians of the plant kingdom.
They are aften found to grow during rainy season forming green carpets or mats on damp soil,
rocks, walls, tree trunks etc.
2. The vascular tissues are absent.
3. The roots are absent and instead rhizoids are present. They may be unicellular or multicellular.
4. The reproduction takes place by vegetative or sexual methods.
5. The vegetative reproduction is quite common through fragmentation tubes, gemmae, buds,
adventitions branches etc.
6. They show distinct alternation of generation.
Example: Riccia, Marchantia, Funaria (Moss).

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(iii). PTERIODOPHYTA: - These are the oldest vascular plants this includes the forms. The
important characteristics are.
1. The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves.
2. The dominant phase or plant body is a sporophyte.
3. They are seedless vascular plants and hence called vascular cryptogams.
4. The gymetophyte is small or inconspious.
5. The sex organs are multicellular.
6. The fertilization requires water medium results in the formation of zygote.
7. They show distinct alternation of generation.
Example : Selaginella, Adiantum, Dryopteris.

PHANEROGAMAE: - They are seed bearing plants. The plants body is differentiated into ture
stem, leaves and root. A well developed vascular system is presents in phanerogames. Sex organs
are multicellular. On the basis of fruit formation, they are classified into two subdivisions.
(a) Gymnosperme and (b) Angiosperme

(a). GYMNOSPERME:- the term is made from two Greek words : gymo – means naked and
sperme means seed. The plants of this group bear naked seeds and are usually pereneal,
evergreen and woody. It has nearly 650 living species. They chief characteristics are:-
1. They have well developed vascular tissues but lack vessels. The ‘flowers’ compose two types of
sporophylls i.e., microsporophylls and megas[orohylls.
2. The pollination is anemophilous and the fertilization does not require water medium. There is
formation of pollen tube. (Siphonogamous)
3. The zygote develops into an embryo.
4. Since the ovules are not covered by a cattel there is no fruit formation. They are naked.
Example : Cycas, Pinus and Emphedra etc.

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(b). ANGIOSPERMAE:- The word is made from two Greek words: anger means covered and
sperma means seed. The seeds develop inside an organ which is modified to become a fruit.
These are also called flowering plants. They are most abundant and conspicuous plants with
about 2,00,000 species. The general characteristics are.
1. They are usually terrestrial plants. The plant body is sporophytic.
2. The plants may be herbaceous or woody. They may be annual, biennial or perennial.
3. A well developed vascular system is present in them. The xylem has vessels.
4. The angiosperms are characterized by the presence of the double fertilization forming a
zygote and the primary endosperm, the nutritive tissue.
5. During fertilization the nonflagellate male gametes are carried by a pollen tube (siphon
gamous).
6. Fertilized ovules ripens into seed thus the ovary is converted into a fruit.
Example : Brassica campestris (Mustard), Pisum santivum (pea) etc.

Angiosperms are divided into Monocots and Dicots.

i. Monocot:- monocots bear seeds which have a single cotyledon or seed leaf . the veins on their
leave are parallel to each other. Their vascular bundles are arranged in a complex manner.
Example : Palms, Bamboos, Sugar – can, rice etc.
ii. Dicot:- the seeds of dicot have two cotyledons. The veins on their leaves are like a network.
Their vascular bundles are arranged in a ring. Their root system consists of a man tap root with
smaller branches.

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KINGDOM ANIMALAE
Characteristics features of kingdom Animalae are:-
I. The organisms are made up of eukaryotic cells.
II. The body of animals is multicellular.
III. The cells do not contain cell wall, but contain only cell membrane.
IV. They do not perform photosynthesis but have heterotrophic nutrition.
V. They have the power of locomotion.
VI. They show increased sensitivity through the nervous system.

(1) PORIFERA:-
The word means organisms with hopes. These are non-motile animals attached to some solid
support. They have holes all over the body. These animals are covered with a hard outside layer
or skelton. They are commonly called sponges and are mainly found in marine habitats. Example:
Euplectelia; sycon etc.

(2) COELENTERATA:-
These are aquatic animals. They show body. The body is made of two layer of cells; one makes up
cells on the outside and the other makes the inner living body of the body. They have a gut cavity
with a single opening for food and waste material.
Example: hydra, Jellyfish.

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(3) PLATHELMINTHES:-
These are generally called flatworms they do not have a body cavity. The body is bilaterally
symmetrical. Some of them are free, living in water and soil, but most are parasites. There are
three layers of cells in them and thus are called triploblastic. They range from a few millimeters
to a few centimeters in size. Reproduction is mostly sexual. Example: Planarians, Liverflukes.

(4) NEMATODA:-
The organisms belonging to this group are mostly parasites having selender, elongated bodies.
Tapering at each end. There body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic. These cause
diseases such as elephantiasis etc. Example: Ascaris, Lumbricoides.

(5) ANNELIDA:- ‘Annelid’ means ringed. The annelids are worms with body appearing as if made
up of series of rings. Annnelids are a coelomates, triploblastic animals. There is extensive organ
differentiation. There body is segmented. Each segment posseses a similar pattern of organs.
These may be equatic or terristerials and some live in tubes. Example: Earthworms, leaches.

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(6) ARTHROPODA:- ‘Artho’ means joined and ‘pod’ means legs. Thus, arthopropoda means
jointed legs. These are triploblastic coelomates. They metamerically segmented. These have an
open circulatory system. The coelomic cavity is blood-filled. They possess a hard exoskeleton.
Sexes are usually separate. Example : Prawns, Butterflies, Hies, Crabs.

(7) Mollusca:- the mollusca are animals with a coelomate triploblastic body. There is bilateral
symmetry. They have an open circulatory system and kidney like organs for excretion. The body
is often protected by a shell. They a muscular foot to move. Sexes are separate or united.
Example: Snails, Mussels.

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(8) ECHINODERMATA:- ‘Echinos’ means hedgehog, and ‘derma’ means skin. These are spiny
skilled organisms. They are exclusively free-living marine animals. They are triploblastic and have
a coelomic cavity. They have peculiar features of regeneration of lost parts. Sexes are separate.
Example: Starfish and sea urching.

(9) PROTOCHORDATA:- these are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic coelomate animals.

Notochord is present at some stage at some stage of their life history. These are marine animals
they have a closed blood system, they have a post-anal tail.
Example: Herdemania, Amphioxus.

(10) VERTEBRATA:- these animals have a true vertebral column and internal skelton vertebrates
are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, Coelomic and segmented, with complex differentiated
of body tissues and organs.

(1). PISCES:- These are fish and live exclusively in water. Their skin is covered with scales. They
use oxygen dissolved in water by gills. They are cold – blooded and their health have only two
chambers. They lay eggs. The two important classes of fishes are cartilaginous fishes and
osteichthyes fishes. Example: sharks, Tuna, Rohu etc.

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(2). AMPHIBIANS:-Amphibians means ‘Amphi’ ‘double’ and bias ‘life’. They are partly
adapted to live on land, and partly in water. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water. These have
three chambered hearts. Example: Frogs, Toads and salamanders etc.

(3). REPTILES:- these animals can lively solely on land and are very less dependent on
water. These are cold blooded, have scales and breathe through lungs. These have three
chambered heart (except crocodiles). They lay eggs covered with waterproof shells. Their skin is
water proof and is covered with waterproof hornyscales. Example: Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles,
and Dinosaurs.

(4). AVES:- ‘AVIS’ means birds, evolved from reptiles and have many similarities with
them. These are warm-blooded and have a four chambered heart. They lay eggs. Birds are
distinguished because their bodies are covered with feathers, and two forelimbs modified for
flight. They breathe through lungs. Examples: Cuckoo, crow, Sparrow etc.

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(5). MAMMALIA:- Mammals are warm-blooded animals with four-chambered hearts.

They have mammary glands for the production of milk to nourish their young. Their skin has hairs
as well as sweet and oil glands. Most mammals give birth to their young their ones. Sexes are
separate. Example: Man, Tiger, At etc.

- NOMENCLATURE:-
Naming a correct scientific name to an organism or a taxon is called nomenclature. It involves the
principals governed by set rules formulated by internationals bodies so that a particular organism
or taxon is known by its specific name throughout the world.

- BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE:-
According to the binomial system of nomenclature, the scientific name of an organism consist of
two separate components – first on designates the genus (generic name) and the second one
designates the species (specific name). For example, the scientific binomial name of human species
is Homo sapiens, where first name Homo is generic and the second name sapiens is a specific.
Homo sapiens are
understood to mean humans all over the world. Since this system of naming organisms gives two
names to an organism, it is known as a binomial nomenclature.

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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

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