Design Analysis and Modelling of Tilt Rotor

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

A project Report Submitted
By
Firaol Getu

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Aeronautical Engineering
(Aircraft structures)
At

Ethiopia Defense University, College of Engineering.

Bishoftu, Ethiopia.

January, 2023.
 Declaration

I hereby declare that the project entitled “Design Analysis and Modelling of Tilt Rotor
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle” submitted for the Bachelor degree is my original work and the
project has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate-ship, fellowship or any
other similar titles.

Student name ID Number Signature

1. Firaol Getu RDEG/010/10 ----------------------------------

Date: Jan – 26 - 2023

 Certificate

This is to certify that the project entitled “Design Analysis and Modelling of Tilt Rotor
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle” is the work carried out by Firaol Getu student of Bachelor of
Technology, Defence University College of Engineering, Bishoftu, during the year 2021/22, in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Aeronautical Engineering with a specialization of Aircraft structures and that the project has not
formed the basis for the award of any Degree, Diploma, Associate ship, Fellowship or any other
similar rule.

Supervisor Signature Date

Dr. Semayat Fanta (Assistant Professor) ----------------------- ---------------------

Place: Defence University, College of Engineering, Bishoftu.

Date: Jan - 26 - 2023

Name of Examiners (BoE)

Examiners Signature

1. _____________________________________ _________________________

2. _____________________________________ _________________________

3. _____________________________________ _________________________
 Abstract

This project presents a design analysis, modelling and stability analysis of a tilt rotor unmanned
aerial vehicle (TRUAV). A tilt rotor UAVs are type of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL)
aircrafts that can perform both horizontal and vertical flight by tilting its rotors. This allows a
vehicle to combine the horizontal and vertical flight capabilities of fixed-wing aircraft and
helicopters respectively, making them suitable for a wide range of applications. The main
application of this type of vehicle is to perform critical missions such as delivering medicine,
food or fertilizer in remote areas where there is no airport or railway transportation, picking
people who are surrendered by natural or man-made disaster and others.

To perform a design analysis, dynamic simulation and 3-D modelling of tilt rotor UAV and its
components various computer-aided design (CAD) software are used. The component of tilt
rotor UAV includes the rotors, the fuselage, and the control surfaces. The computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulations have been performed to evaluate the aircraft's aerodynamic
performances parameters and to identify the optimal aerodynamic configuration.

Both analytical and numerical approaches have been done for dynamic modeling of tilt rotor
UAV. To perform this, we derived equations of motion (EOM) for the aircraft based on the
principles of classical mechanics and implemented these EOMs to analyze the stability of the
aircraft under different operating conditions. We also simulated the numerical model to validate
the analytical results and numerically obtained values for verification and further exploration of
the UAV’s dynamic behavior.

In general, these design, modelling and stability analysis of the tilt rotor UAV demonstrates the
feasibility of these UAV for a variety of civilian as well as military missions and provides
valuable insights for future design improvements.

Keywords: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD, Computer-aided design (CAD), Stability, Tilt
rotor UAV, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL).
 Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my parents for their unwavering support and
encouragement throughout this project. Their love and guidance, and also the financial support
throughout the study have been an invaluable source of motivation for me.

I am also grateful to my project advisor, Dr. Semayat Fanta (Assistant Professor), for his
invaluable guidance, expertise, and support throughout this project. His valuable insights and
constructive feedback have been instrumental in the success of this project.

I would also like to thank the college community for providing the resources and support
necessary to complete this project. I am grateful to my fellow students, teachers, co-advisors and
staff for their help and encouragement throughout this journey.

Finally, I would like to express our appreciation to everyone who has contributed to this project
in any way. Your support and assistance have been greatly appreciated and have made this
project possible.
 Table of Content

Declaration.....................................................................................................................................II
Certificate.....................................................................................................................................III
Abstract........................................................................................................................................IV
Acknowledgment............................................................................................................................V
Table of Content...........................................................................................................................VI
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................VIII
List of Table...................................................................................................................................X
Symbols and abbreviations............................................................................................................XI
Chapter One....................................................................................................................................1
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background...............................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of problem.................................................................................................................3
1.3. Objective of the project..............................................................................................................3
1.3.1. General objective.............................................................................................................3
1.3.2. Specific objective.............................................................................................................3
1.4. Scope of the project....................................................................................................................3
1.5 Organization of the project..........................................................................................................4
Chapter Two....................................................................................................................................5
Literature review..............................................................................................................................5
Chapter Three................................................................................................................................12
Methodology.................................................................................................................................12
Chapter Four..................................................................................................................................14
Design and modelling.....................................................................................................................14
4.1. Payload weight fraction............................................................................................................14
4.2. Aerofoil and geometry selection................................................................................................16
4.3. Wing design............................................................................................................................21
4.3.1. Wing configuration and shape.........................................................................................22
4.3.2. Wing incidence angle.....................................................................................................22
4.3.3. Aspect ratio (AR)...........................................................................................................23
4.3.4. Taper ratio (λ)................................................................................................................25
4.3.5. Wing aerodynamic model...............................................................................................27
4.4. Lifting line theory....................................................................................................................29
4.5. Aileron sizing..........................................................................................................................32
4.6. Center of gravity and moment of inertia....................................................................................34
4.7. Empennage configuration and tail sizing....................................................................................35
4.7.1. Horizontal tail aerodynamic model.............................................................................36
4.7.2. Vertical fin aerodynamic model.................................................................................37
4.8. Fuselage..................................................................................................................................39
4.8.1. Fuselage aerodynamic model..........................................................................................39
4.9. Propulsion system....................................................................................................................40
4.9.1. Batteries........................................................................................................................41
 4.9.2. Electric motor................................................................................................................43
4.9.2.1. motor/batteries combination..................................................................................44
4.9.3. Rotor............................................................................................................................46
4.9.3.1. Rotor radius.........................................................................................................46
4.10. Tilt mechanism......................................................................................................................51
4.11. Flight control system design....................................................................................................52
4.11.1. Conversion corridor......................................................................................................53
4.11.2. Inner loop....................................................................................................................55
4.11.3. Outer loop design.........................................................................................................58
4.11.4. Construction of flight control system.............................................................................60
Chapter Five..................................................................................................................................62
Design Analysis.............................................................................................................................62
5.1. Stability analysis......................................................................................................................62
5.1.1. Nonlinear simulation modelling......................................................................................62
5.1.2. Trimming......................................................................................................................64
5.1.3. Tilt rotor manoeuvring stability characteristics analysis.....................................................64
Chapter Six....................................................................................................................................68
Result and Discussion.....................................................................................................................68
6.1. Result.....................................................................................................................................68
6.1.1 Aerodynamic parameter simulation..........................................................................................68
6.1.2 Aerodynamic stability analysis parameter simulation.................................................................75
6.1.1. Helicopter mode...........................................................................................................83
6.1.1.1. Derivative analysis...............................................................................................83
6.1.1.2. Eigenvalue analysis............................................................................................85
6.1.2. Flight mode...................................................................................................................86
6.1.2.1. Derivative analysis...............................................................................................86
6.1.2.2. Eigenvalue analysis..............................................................................................88
Chapter Seven................................................................................................................................90
Conclusion, Recommendation and Limitation...................................................................................90
7.1 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................90
7.2 Recommendation......................................................................................................................90
7.3 Future work plan.......................................................................................................................91
7.4 Limitation................................................................................................................................91
Reference......................................................................................................................................92
Appendix A: Codes........................................................................................................................94
Appendix B: Airfoil data...............................................................................................................108
Appendix C: solid-works images...................................................................................................109
Appendix D: data given to XFLR5.............................................................................................111
 VIII

List of Figures
Figure 2. 1: Flow field created by the wing over the airplane components [2]......................7
Figure 2. 2: UAV configuration [6]..........................................................................................8
Figure 2. 3: Flight modes of TRUAV [10]..............................................................................10
Figure 3. 1: Methodology employed in this project...............................................................13
Figure 4. 1: Airfoil geometry..................................................................................................17
Figure 4. 2:Chosen airfoil section (NACA 63-215 MOD B)..................................................20
Figure 4. 3: Tilt-rotor components and coordinate system....................................................21
Figure 4. 4: Wing incidence angle illustration.......................................................................22
Figure 4. 5: Different wing shapes and designs.....................................................................23
Figure 4. 6: The effect of aspect ratio on 3D lift coefficient versus angle of attack graph....24
Figure 4. 7: Lift distribution...................................................................................................26
Figure 4. 8: Wing structure solid-works model......................................................................26
Figure 4. 9: Rotor slipstream zone and free flow zone diagram............................................27
Figure 4. 10:The lift distribution over a based-on concept of circulation.............................30
Figure 4. 11: A vortex is shed downstream for every span-wise change in lift.....................30
Figure 4. 12: Angles corresponding to each segment in lifting-line theory...........................31
Figure 4. 13: Lift distribution over the wing..........................................................................32
Figure 4. 14: Wing aileron configuration..............................................................................33
Figure 4. 15: Aileron developed in solid-works.....................................................................34
Figure 4. 16: Different tail configurations.............................................................................35
Figure 4. 17: Tail section solid-works model.........................................................................38
Figure 4. 18: Fuselage solid-works model.............................................................................40
Figure 4. 19: LiPo battery......................................................................................................41
Figure 4. 20: This graph shows the effect of battery weight on endurance...........................43
Figure 4. 21: Three types of motors that could be suitable for TRUAV.................................44
Figure 4. 22: Solid work model of the chosen motor..............................................................44
Figure 4. 23: Chosen outrunner brushless motor...................................................................45
Figure 4. 24: Solid-works model of the propeller in figure above.........................................48
Figure 4. 25: Full TRUAV configuration in helicopter mode................................................52
Figure 4. 26: Full TRUAV configuration in forward flight mode..........................................52
Figure 4. 27: Nacelle angles against forward speeds............................................................53
Figure 4. 28: Structure of inner/outer loop of feedback controller........................................54
Figure 4. 29: structure of outer loop of pitch angle...............................................................58
Figure 4. 30: Pitch angle response under unit step pitch angle input....................................59
Figure 4. 31: Roll angle response under unit step roll angle input........................................59
Figure 4. 32: Electronics control system for TRUAV.............................................................61
Figure 5. 1: Model of the aircraft in XFRL5..........................................................................64
Figure 5. 2: Linearizing steps for non-linear model..............................................................66
 IX

Figure 6. 1 The Joukovsky 0015-jf aerodynamic parameters................................................68

Figure 6. 2: NACA 63(3)-215 MOD B aerodynamic parameters...........................................69
Figure 6. 3: NACA 2415 aerodynamic parameters................................................................70
Figure 6. 4: NACA 2418 aerodynamic parameters................................................................71
Figure 6. 5: NACA 4415 aerodynamic parameters................................................................72
Figure 6. 6: NACA 4418 aerodynamic parameters................................................................72
Figure 6. 7: NACA 6412 aerodynamic parameters................................................................73
Figure 6. 8: NACA 63(2)-015 aerodynamic parameters........................................................73
Figure 6. 9: NACA 63-215 aerodynamic parameters.............................................................74
Figure 6. 10: WORTMANN FX-63-137 aerodynamic parameters.........................................74
Figure 6. 11 : Cp Distribution for NACA 63-215 MOD B.....................................................75
Figure 6. 12 Lateral response.................................................................................................77
Figure 6. 13: Longitudinal response.......................................................................................79
Figure 6. 14: CL versus CDfor 3D finite wing........................................................................80
Figure 6. 15: Aerodynamic parameters for 3D finite wing.....................................................80
Figure 6. 16: Induced angle versus lift distribution along full span.......................................81
Figure 6. 17: Aerodynamic parameters along the full span...................................................81
Figure 6. 18: Root locus of longitudinal stability...................................................................82
Figure 6. 19: Root locus of lateral stability............................................................................82
Figure A. 1: a) main landing gear b) front landing gear.....................................................109
Figure A. 2: Tire used in landing gears and elevator..........................................................109
Figure A. 3: Tail pylon.........................................................................................................110
Figure A. 4:Basic UAV configuration..................................................................................110
Figure A. 5: Front view of basic UAV configuration...........................................................110
Figure A. 6: Data given for stability analysis......................................................................111
 X

List of Table
Table 4. 1: Data taken from various TRUAV.........................................................................14
Table 4. 2: Weight of avionics................................................................................................15
Table 4. 3: Weight of major components................................................................................16
Table 4. 4: Airfoil sections and their parameters..................................................................18
Table 4. 5: L/D values............................................................................................................19
Table 4. 6: Vertical and horizontal tail specifications...........................................................36
Table 4. 7:Chosen motor specifications.................................................................................45
Table 6. 1: Linearized state matrix A in helicopter mode......................................................84
Table 6. 2: Linearized input matrix B in helicopter mode.....................................................84
Table 6. 3: Eigenvalue of longitudinal module and lateral module in helicopter mode........85
Table 6. 4: Linearized state matrix A in flight mode..............................................................87
Table 6. 5: Linearized input matrix B in flight mode.............................................................87
Table 6. 6: Eigenvalue of longitudinal and lateral module in flight mode............................89
 XI

Symbols and abbreviations

Angle of attack
VT

Max aileron up and down deflection angle

Maximum lift coefficient

Lift to Drag ratio

Aileron chord to span ratio

The nacelle angle

M The gross weight of the air frame

The moment of inertia of any axis
helicopter
The coefficient of the moment
corresponding inertia
AR Aspect ratio
B Span of the wing
S Plane form area of the wing
Airfoil lift curve

Λ Taper ratio
Ct Tip chord
Γ(y) Circulation over the span
Cr Root chord
CL Lift coefficient
CLc Total lift coefficient
V∞ Speed of aircraft
 XII

Sa Aileron plan form area

LHT Horizontal tail Lift force
DHT Horizontal tail Drag force
Βht Side slip angle
Qvt Dynamic pressure
Βvt Side slip angle of the fuselage
V Voltage
CTi Thrust coefficient
CPi Rotor power coefficient
A Disk area
Ωi Rotating speed
R Rotor radius
Pi The rotor power
ρ Air density
Vi Induced velocity of rotor
Cpi Power coefficient
P Number of blades
D Drag force
b Blade chord
U Resultant velocity
Cd Drag coefficient
Cdo Profile drag coefficient
Re Reynolds number
M Mach number
λi Inflow ratio
Xe Trimmed value
Ue The control vector is steady state
rm Reference input
Uf System input
Yc Inner loop
 XIII

e Control error
bai Location of inner edge aileron deflection
WB Battery weight
PI Proportional and integral
RCAH Rate command altitude hold
ACAH Attitude command attitude hold
PID Proportional integral derivative
LQR Linear quadratic regulator
ESC Electronic speed control
NiMH Nickel metal hydrogen
NiCAD Nickel cadmium
LiPO Lithium-ion polymer
TRUAV Tilt rotor unmanned aerial vehicle
UAV Unmanned aerial vehicle
RH Right rotor hub
mNAC Mass of the nacelle system
SWSS Slip stream zone
SWSSmax Maximum of slip stream zone
SWF The area of free low zone
 1

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. Background
Enabling a vehicle to perform a vertical take-off and landing as a helicopter and cruise level
flight as an aircraft without confronting its stability to fly long ranges paves the way to a wide
range of new real-world aircraft applications. The tlit-rotor unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
which can perform vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) are a better choice than fixed-wing
aircraft and multirotor helicopters for wide variety of applications. In the aeronautics industry,
numerous models with VTOL capability have been developed and tested successfully, whereas
in the Radio Control (RC) aircraft designs, not many of these projects have been successful.
Most of them were able to achieve take-off and vertical landing which bound the functionality of
the aircraft in one way or the other. Achieving a scaled-down model of aircraft which has VTOL
capabilities that can cruise for an extended range is feasible. Such UAVs are aimed to create a
bases in the areas of E-commerce; medical applications for transporting organs, blood, and
medicines; the military application such as site observation, rescue operations, scientific research
and remote monitoring. Thus, being able to develop a hybrid vehicle, which can hover as well as
cruise would be very beneficial. Specific requirements of unmanned aerial vehicles along with
the increase in the demand of such vehicles have led to a new configuration of aircraft, termed
transitional aircraft (TA). TA configuration takes advantage of both merits of a fixed-wing
aircraft, which includes high speed, endurance, and range, and VTOL of helicopter with a
hovering capability and precise low-speed flight response, which is extremely helpful in remote
areas where there is no airport for landing. TA includes UAVs with the tilt-rotor mechanism also
known as hybrid UAVs, despite the availability of knowledge of both types of aircraft, there are
a lot of challenges for designing and controlling. VTOL capabilities in a UAV, despite having a
lot of issues, outweigh the complexity. Additionally, this design is more fail proof, making it
more reliable than other configurations, making it suitable for use in harsh weather for
surveillance and access to remote areas. The UAV aims at carrying low payloads while
emphasizing pace and stability.
 2

(a) (b)

(d)
(c)
Figure 1.1: Various configuration VTOL UAVs

In operation thrust is produced by a couple of propellers that can rotate about the longitudinal
plane, thus producing thrust vectoring. This enables the UAV to stably manoeuvre through a
clogged environment without losing any significant speed. The difference between rotary wing
UAVs and tilt rotor UAVs can be put in simple terms as; Rotary-wing UAVs use one large main
spinning rotor (typically with an anti-torque device/tail rotor) or multiple smaller rotors all
spinning at a rapid speed. The propellers act as small aerofoils capturing airflow and generating
lift. The direction of the UAV can be changed by altering the angle of the propellers. Tilt-rotor
UAVs use prop-rotors found on the tips of their fixed wings that are positioned vertically for
vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) then rotate horizontally in flight for horizontal flight once a
suitable speed and altitude is achieved. They typically differ from other types of hybrid fixed-
 3

wing/VTOL UAVs in shape and in the way they transition from vertical to horizontal flight and
vice versa.

1.2. Statement of problem

There have been many shortcomings when it comes to designing an aircraft that can perform
manoeuvrability of a fixed wing aircraft and the hover and vertical take-off and landing
performance of a helicopter due to its complexity in designing their control system. In this work
we intend to combine these two features together in order to have a multi utility aircraft that can
perform well in all conditions.

1.3. Objective of the project

1.3.1. General objective

The main objective of this research paper is to design, model and analyse a tilted rotor unmanned
aerial vehicle which is capable to perform vertical take-off and landing as well as cruise at
prescribed flight altitude for various civilian and military operations.

1.3.2. Specific objective

The specific objectives of this project are as follows:

● Design and analyse a tilt rotor unmanned aerial vehicle

● Model and simulate the TRUAV using suitable software

● To analyse the model for stability.

● Show how the transition is affected by different factors.

1.4. Scope of the project

Whilst the design, modelling and analysis of UAVs have been well documented, the design,
modelling and analysis of dual tilt-rotor UAVs lacks that much development and is poorly
understood. The aim of this project is to shed light on this particular matter.

The scope of this project is limited to designing, modelling and analysis of a dual tilt-rotor UAV
which can be further modified into other specific purposes. In addition, any other type of tilt
rotor unmanned aerial vehicle is out of the scope of this study.
 4

1.5 Organization of the project

This project is organized in six chapters, the first chapter introduces the topic and explains what
tilt rotor UAV is and its background, it also briefly explains the statement of the problem,
objective and scope of the project. The second chapter reviews different literatures that were
used as a base for our work. The third chapter illustrates the methods employed throughout the
paper. The fourth chapter is the design and modelling of the UAV which involves detail design
and model of the TRUAV. The fifth chapter deals with the analysis and results for the design and
model made in the fourth chapter. The conclusion, recommendations for future work and the
limitations encountered in the project are presented in chapter six.
 5

Chapter Two
Literature review
A tilt rotor unmanned aerial vehicle is a UAV with the capability of vertical take-off and landing
and transition into forward flight once it reaches a certain altitude. Although the topic is
relatively new to the aviation industry there are several literatures that have been conducted, this
review of literature is limited to tilt rotor UAVs which includes dual, tri or quad rotor unmanned
aerial vehicles it further expands to the review of literatures on tilt wing unmanned aerial vehicle.
It does not include large scale aircrafts of this nature which is out of the scope of this research
paper.

Shailesh Sharma et al. [1] study argued that: In this current era of technology VTOL UAVS is an
emerging technology that is becoming popular for its variety of applications like Agriculture,
Civil, and military for Surveillance, rescue missions, and patrolling. These types of aircraft
came into existence as the solution to many issues like lack of runways in rural areas and dense
forests. VTOL UAV is a hybrid of a helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft because it has the
functionality of both types of aircraft. These aircraft possess high hovering efficiencies like a
helicopter and a better cruising speed like a fixed-wing aircraft with an enhanced payload
capacity.

In their study they displayed a vast amount of comparison between different TRUAVs including
tilt wing UAVs, in which they suggested the aerodynamic and structural analysis of VTOL UAV
systems is extremely important for designing VTOL with optimum aerodynamic properties for
various purposes. They presented a CFD analysis that gives a broad overview of the
aerodynamic properties of the Aerofoil and the VTOL UAV.

Vishwath et al. [2] investigated the stability of a tilt-rotor UAV. They have built a UAV with
twin BLDC motor powered propellers that were placed close to the center of gravity. Tilting the
thrusters with servos tilts the associated thrust vector. The thrusters could be rotated 90°. The tail
is designed in such a way that it can counteract any disturbances occurring in the horizontal
plane or vertical plane. Servos are used to tilt the whole tail that consists of horizontal and
vertical stabilizers. To define the stability, this research work considered the contribution of the
 6

wing, fuselage, and tail, which together will define the longitudinal stability of the aircraft. The
hybrid UAV also contains a fixed rectangular wing. To obtain wing contribution, the following
formulae can be used:

C m =Cm + C L
0w ac w 0w ( xc − xc )( 1)
cq ac

C m =C L + C L
αw αw 0w ( xc − xc ) (2)
cg ac

Here, C m is the coefficient of pitching moment at zero angles of attack of the wing, C m is the
0w ac w

coefficient of pitching moment about the aerodynamic center of the plain, C L is the coefficient
0w

of lift at zero angles of attack of the wing, x cg is the distance between the center of gravity to
wing’s leading edge, x ac is the distance between aerodynamic centers to leading-edge, c is the
chord length of the wing, C m is the slope of the curve plot between coefficients of pitching
αw

moment with the angle of attack of the wing, and C L is the slope of the curve plot between
αw

coefficients of lift with the angle of attack of the wing. The equation above can be used in the
computation of the wing contribution to static stability of the aircraft. These statements and
findings help our aircraft design in making it statically stable since stability is given higher value
than aerodynamics in our design. For most conventional aircrafts the wing's contribution to static
longitudinal stability is destabilizing. The flow field created by the wing over a conventional
aircraft is shown in Figure 2.1.

Flores et al. [3] The vehicle was aimed to achieve high-speed cruising capacity on a conventional
plane with the hovering capacity of a helicopter by using four-tilting rotors. The Newtonian
approach was established for deriving the dynamic model for both vertical and horizontal flight
modes. A non-linear strategy was also evaluated at the simulation level to control the two modes.
Although this particular UAV was a quadcopter type the control system is more or less similar to
ours so this literature helped us in designing the control system and the longitudinal dynamics at
hover and forward flight mode of our aircraft.

Liu et al. [4] in their study A wide range of tilt-rotor UAV types from dual-copter types to quad-
copter types was discussed. Some established models such as AKITSR TWUAV and TR- 60
UAV were studied for operational issues and possible technical difficulties. In addition, a
 7

summarized study of the tilt-rotor kinematics was presented. Linear, nonlinear, and intelligent
algorithm control methods were studied by them, thus establishing the pros and cons of the same.
They established that nonlinear systems would have to focus on the robustness and stability of
the system during the transition state for a successful flight. Meanwhile, in algorithm-controlled
UAVs, the emphasis is placed on path planning and flight mode planning.

Figure 2. 1: Flow field created by the wing over the airplane components [2]

Dundar et al. [5] worked to simplify the design procedure and performance analysis
concentrating on the energy consumption of an FW VTOL UAV. Low take-off weight and high
aerodynamic performance are the dominant factors taken into consideration while designing the
vehicle. Repetitive iterations are done for the sizing process according to weight and selected
aerodynamic analysis. Critical performance characteristics such as weight, lift coefficient, aspect
ratio, wing sweep, taper ratio, aerofoil selection, wing sizing, and control surfaces are calculated
and compared to standard models using Simulink in the MATLAB software. COG is used to
calculate the static stability concerning the neutral point. In various flight conditions such as
take-off and landing, momentum theory is implemented for vertical flight while maximum
endurance is evaluated through the cruise flight. Performance calculations of electrically
powered FW VTOL UAVs are done using various parameters such as maximum power, and the
 8

power required for take-off, landing, and climbing. Drag calculations are performed in level
flight to evaluate the drawbacks of the multi-rotor system including propellers providing the
vertical flight. Finally, a comparison of VTOL FW having multi-rotors and only FW is done in
terms of endurance. It is concluded that a FW with a multi-rotor system having four propellers is
more efficient than the VTOL FW concept. VTOL FW UAV was successful to do the vertical
take-off and landing with its four vertical engines and one horizontal engine. It has a 4.7 kg total
take-off weight and a 2-meter-long wingspan and can fly at a maximum fineness ratio with 72
km/h cruise speed.

Saeed et al. [6] presented a technical outline of a hybrid UAV with recent advances in his paper.
His paper also provides a review of the dynamic modeling, control, and design of the UAV. The
FW UAV and VTOL UAV have their limitations such as payload, flexibility, and endurance.
Thus, the hybrid UAV is proposed for inducing the beneficial features. A comprehensive study
of convertiplanes and their subtypes is also done. Wing tilting, tilt-rotor, and fixed dual rotor
system are mentioned in the subtypes. Various flight control models are discussed, implemented,
and compared on the basis of linearity, as shown in Figure 2.2. Control laws are termed on the
basis of linear and non-linear models that are based on the dynamics of the hybrid UAV

Figure 2. 2: UAV configuration [6]

 9

. In this research study, the authors are focused on iterative methodology to optimize the process
by sizing and resizing an electric fixed-wing UAV. The process for sizing has two parts: the first
part computes the requirements of the design to get the basic parameters of the aircraft design
being optimized. The second part involves resizing for the next iteration, and integrated analysis
is done on initial sizing. The mass calculation of all the components of UAVs, battery capacity
calculation, FW constraint analysis and updated geometry sizing are amalgamated into fixed-
wing electric VTOL UAV-integrated analysis. The analysis of the feasibility of performance
constraints is done using constraint analysis. Wing loading and power loading are imperative
factors that are found in this analysis. The available data is used to derive several new empirical
equations.

Abderrahmane Badis [7] in this paper the author tries to explain a simplified preliminary
conceptual integrated method to design an aircraft wing in subsonic speeds up to Mach 0.85. The
proposed approach is integrated, as it allows an early estimation of main aircraft aerodynamic
features, namely the maximum lift-to-drag ratio and the total parasitic drag. First, the influence
of the Lift and Load scatterings on the overall performance characteristics of the wing are
discussed. It is established that the optimization is achieved by designing a wing geometry that
yields elliptical lift and load distributions. Second, the reference trapezoidal wing is considered
the baseline geometry used to outline the wing shape layout. As such, the main geometrical
parameters and governing relations for a trapezoidal wing are reviewed in detail. Third, the
integrated design method is introduced through an evocative flowchart that describes the wing
design process, whose objectives are essentially the determination and the optimization of the
different wing parameters, essentially: Wing area, sweep angle, aspect ratio, taper ratio,
Thickness and Twist. Furthermore, refined and assessed formulas identified from an exhaustive
literature study and historical trends yielding accurate and logical estimation of each parameter
described in the optimization flowchart are provided. Finally, the capability of the proposed
method is investigated through two design examples for jet and propeller aircrafts.

Chen, Zaibin, Jia, Hongguang [8] The authors attempted to present the control system design
process of a novel tilt-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle (TRUAV). First, a new configuration
scheme with the tilting rotors is designed. Then, the detailed nonlinear mathematical model is
established, and the parameters are acquired from designed experiments and numerical analyses.
For control design purposes, the dynamics equation is linearized around the hovering equilibrium
 10

point, and a control allocation method based on trim calculation is developed. To deal with the
actuator saturation and uncertain disturbance problems for the novel TRUAV, an improved flight
control law based on the combination of the robust servo linear quadratic regulator (RSLQR)
optimal control and the extended state observer (ESO) is proposed. The designed flight control
law has a simple structure with a high reliability in engineering. Simulations and hovering flight
tests are carried out to verify the effectiveness of the mathematical model and the proposed
control strategy.

Zhong liu et al. [9] In this paper the authors proposed a new idea of a transition controller for
quad-TRUAV. Different with GS methods, rotor-tilt angle is regarded as a control input, and
virtual control variable including more than one control inputs is considered to decouple original
dynamics. In this way, explicit mode transition is avoided. Hierarchical nonlinear controllers
based on back stepping and decoupling modules are designed for virtual control variables and
control inputs, respectively. Moreover, rotor-tilt axle stuck fault is considered further. By
reconstructing the decoupling module, FTC strategy could ensure the cruise ability by setting a
fixed angle of attack reference, and keep flight height tracking.

Han Jianda et al. [10] they suggested tilt rotor aerial vehicles are aircraft that rely on wings and
rotors for generating lift. They have three flight modes: helicopter, transition, and airplane
modes, as shown in Fig.2.3.
 11

Figure 2. 3: Flight modes of TRUAV [10]

Because of the variable rotor tilt angle, the most attractive characteristic of tilt rotor aerial
vehicles is that they possess the capability to hover in place, as helicopters, while achieving
much higher cruise speeds than conventional rotorcraft in airplane mode. Since this concept was
proposed, many tilt rotor aircraft have been developed, including the XV-15 and V-22 ‘‘Osprey”
researched and developed by Bell and Boeing; the V-22 has since become the most valuable tilt
rotor aircraft in the world. As control techniques, sensors and communication technologies
develop, interest grows in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with tiltable rotors.

UAVs are unmanned aircraft controlled through onboard computers or wireless remote-control
equipment, and the tilt rotor unmanned aerial vehicle (TRUAV) is a novel UAV that combines
the advantages of fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (FWUAVs) with those of rotorcraft
unmanned aerial vehicles (RUAVs). TRUAVs offer unique advantages that can potentially solve
the problems faced by UAVs with conventional structures such as limitations imposed by airfield
or flight mileage.
 12

Chapter Three
Methodology
The methodology employed in performing the recent paper work is presented in this section. The
methodologies involved include:

 Reviewing various literatures related to fixed wing and rotor wing UAVs which are
useful for further analysis of TRUAV.
 Identify the major problematic area in the design, modelling and analysis of TRUAV
 Designing the major components of the selected TRUAV components such as wing, tail
section, fuselage, propeller, motor selection in accordance with the conceptual and
preliminary aircraft design criteria and steps.
 Model these components using suitable numerical analysis software (CAD software)
 Having done the above task of designing the wing, fuselage, tail section, and wing rotor
attachment segment we analyse the entire model for different flight conditions using
another suitable computer software.
 Designing and analysing the control system for stability; that requires performing a static
and a dynamic analysis of the TRUAV.
The following flow chart illustrates the methodology employed in current project work.
 13

Wing

Literature Problem Mathematical Fuselage

review identification modeling
Tail

Model CAD
assembly modeling

Static stability analysis

Design
analysis
Dynamic stability
analysis
Control system
design

Figure 3. 1: Methodology employed in this project.

 14

Chapter Four
Design and modelling
4.1. Payload weight fraction
In order to have a first estimate of the Weight at Take-off of the airplane it is useful to consider
the historical values of the Payload Weight Fraction reported in the Table 4.1

Table 4. 1: Data taken from various TRUAV.

TRUAV model Payload Weight (kg) take-off Weight (kg)

DJI Phantom 4 RTK 1.5 3.06

DJI Mavic 2 Pro 1.5 2.6

DJI Mavic 2 Zoom 1.5 2.6

Yuneec Typhoon H Plus 1.5 2.5

Parrot Anafi USA 0.7 3.9

When estimating the weight of this drone, statistical and computational approaches are
simultaneously utilized. In this study, the electrical components are estimated by accounting for
the intended equipment which will be used. This statistical analysis utilizes knowledge of
previous systems in order to gain a firmer understanding of the equipment that can be used in the
design. electrical motor, speed controller, servo motor, battery, etc. A tilt-rotor drone will use
multiple servo motors, electrical motors, and propellers in order to complete its mission.

Considerable thought and research go into the overall selection of the payload since it is
imperative that the payload selected is efficient and will satisfy the mission requirements in order
to insure a successful product. Through thorough research it was concluded taking into
 15

consideration the future applications of the TRUAV being designed that the payload weight
needs to be at least 0.6 kg.

Table 4. 2: Weight of avionics.

Equipment Weight (grams)
Motor 2 brushless motors each 300 g
speed controller 120
servo motor 2 servo motors each 175 g
Battery 1000
Receiver and wires 200
Auto-pilot and flight control board 250
Propeller Two propellers each 100 grams
Transmitter 100
ESCs *2 = 250
total weight 2970

In the following calculations we are going to use polyurethane foam for the construction of the
wing and the fuselage which has density of 27 kg /m3., and balsa wood for sheathing over this
foam, the density of the balsa wood is 125 kg /m3 . The total structure weight can be estimated as
follows (the weight of each component is as a function of the wing surface):

W STR=W wing +W vt +W ℎt +W f ( 4.1)

Where:

W wing=ρfoam ∗ S wing ∗ t MAC +2 ρBALSA ∗ S wing

W vt =ρvt ∗ Svt ∗t vt

W ℎt =ρ ℎt ∗ Sℎt ∗ t ℎt

W f =0.45 ρf t f ( c r +0.1 √ AR ∗ S win ) √ AR ∗ S win

t
 16

By using the data collected for the baseline UAVs mentioned in table 1 we have the following
estimated weight for our design

Table 4. 3: Weight of major components

Component Weight (Kg)

Wing 2

Vertical tail 0.7

Horizontal tail 0.5

Fuselage 1.2

The take-off weight can then be estimated by adding the equipment weight and the structure
weight

W ¿ =W STR +W EQ (4.2)

wℎere W EQ =Weigℎt of Equipment

Once the Take-off Weight is known, using the Horsepower to Weight Ratio vs. Wing Loading
diagram it is possible to determine the Thrust of the airplane. An aircraft with a higher hp/W will
accelerate more quickly, climb more rapidly, reach a higher maximum speed and sustain higher
turn rates. On the other hand, a bigger engine will consume more fuel or battery, which will drive
up the aircraft’s take-off weight to perform the required mission. The Wing Loading, the weight
of the aircraft divided by the area of the reference wing, affects stall speed, climb rate, take-off
and landing distances and turn performances. The wing loading also determines the design lift
coefficient and affects the drag because of the wetted area and wing span. Finally, wing loading
affects the take-off weight of the airplane. A low Wing Loading generally means a larger wing;
this may improve the performance, but the additional drag due to the larger wetted area and the
additional empty weight due to the larger structure of the wing will increase take-off weight to
perform the required mission. A compromise between hp/W and W/S must be found that better
matches and optimizes the required mission of the aircraft.

4.2. Aerofoil and geometry selection

The wings and stabilizers of fixed-wing aircraft, as well as helicopter rotor blades, are built with
aerofoil-shaped cross sections. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and
 17

turbines. Sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centreboard,
rudder, and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils.
Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ
airfoils/hydrofoils: common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, and the shape of sand
dollars. An airfoil-shaped wing can create down force on an automobile or other motor vehicle,
improving traction.

Figure 4. 1: Airfoil geometry

The airfoil, in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. An airfoil generates lift by changing the
velocity of the air passing over and under itself. The airfoil angle of attack and/or camber causes
the air over the top of the wing to travel faster than the air beneath the wing.

For a better structural strength, it is better if the airfoil has a higher thickness comparatively
which is helpful in preventing and reducing bending stresses which is the major concern for our
project in addition a bigger thickness helps in having a lighter wing. The approach we took in
selecting an airfoil for the wing is finding the maximum lift coefficient using approximate
aircraft weight and the design stall velocity which was acquired by going through historical data
on different text books and journals. We estimated the total weight to be 7.4 kg and a good
starting wing planform area for this type of UAV is about 0.4 m 2 (chord of 0.2 m and span of 2.0
m), the design stall speed is 6 m/s. From the parameters stated above the maximum lift
coefficient can be calculated using the following equation:
 18

2 W /S
C Lmax = 2
(4.3)
Vs. ρ

Substituting all the data in equation (4.2) we get the maximum lift coefficient as.

2 ∗ ( 7.4 /0.4 )
C Lmax = =1.26
36 ∗1.225

The next step in the selection of the airfoil is taking this cl value and looking for suitable airfoils
on airfoiltools.com that can also satisfy our thickness need of at least 14 %.

Table 4. 4: Airfoil sections and their parameters.

Airfoil name Cl max Thickness

Joukovsky 0015 JF 1.34 15%

NACA 63-215 1.29 15%

NACA 23015 1.61 15%

NACA 2415 1.55 15%

NACA 2418 1.63 18%

NACA 4415 1.54 15%

NACA 4418 1.37 18%

NACA 6412 1.44 12%

WORTMANN FX63-137 1.65 14%

The next step involves analysing these airfoils and comparing them to select which one of them
best suits our mission requirement, this is done using graphical plots done by XFLR5 software
Lift to drag ratio of these airfoils is as listed in the table below
 19

To determine the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) of the airfoils that were listed based on the assumption
of a flat plate airfoil with a Reynolds number of 350,000 and an angle of attack ranging from 8 to
14 degrees, you can use the following equation:

L 2∗ π ∗ α
= (4.4)

( )
D α
2
(1+ 4 ∗ 2 ∗ ( 1+0.15 ∗ 350000 ) )
0.687

Where is the angle between the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind, and "Reynolds
number" is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid flow.

Using this equation, you can calculate the L/D for each of the airfoils at different angles of
attack. Here is a table showing the approximate L/D for each of the airfoils at an angle of attack
of 8, 10, 12, and 14 degrees:

Table 4. 5: L/D values

Airfoil At 8 degrees At 10 degrees At 12 degrees At 14 degrees

Joukovsky 0015 JF 3.4 4.3 5.3 6.3

NACA 63-215 3.8 4.8 5.9 7.0

NACA 23-015 3.5 4.4 5.4 6.4

NACA 2415 3.7 4.6 5.6 6.6

NACA 2418 3.8 4.7 5.7 6.7

NACA 4415 3.8 4.8 5.9 7.0

NACA 4418 3.9 4.9 6.0 7.1

NACA 6412 3.7 4.6 5.6 6.6

WORTMANN 4.0 5.0 6.1 7.2

FX63-137

It is important to note that these values are approximate and may vary slightly depending on the
specific conditions under which the airfoils are tested. The L/D of an airfoil can also be
 20

influenced by factors such as the shape and thickness of the airfoil, the camber of the airfoil, and
the type of flow over the airfoil. Figure 4.12 shows the section and geometry characteristics of
the chosen airfoil shape. The numerical solution for the model of various airofiol configuration is
provided in section 6.1 (Figure 6.1 to Figure 6.11).

Figure 4. 2:Chosen airfoil section (NACA 63-215 MOD B).

This project adopts the dividing modeling method, which breaks down a tilt-rotor into five parts,
rotor, wing, fuselage, horizontal tail and vertical fin, develops aerodynamic models for each part
and thus obtains force and moment generated by each part. The force and moment then is
converted to the airframe coordinate frame. By blade element theory, the rotor’s dynamic model
and rotor flapping angle expression are built. Then, according to mature lifting line theory,
dynamic models of the wing, horizontal tail, and vertical fin are built. At the same time, the
rotor’s dynamic interference on wings and nacelle tilt’s variance against center of gravity and
moment of inertia are considered. A more perfect mathematical model of the tilt rotor aircraft is
established.

In the end, the non-linear simulation model is linearized to get a State-space matrix, the stability
derivative and eigenvalue of the tilt-rotor are analyzed, and furthermore the tilt-rotor's stability in
each flight mode is studied. The stability of the aircraft in the helicopter mode is poor, which
must be improved through the control system. The vertical and horizontal coupling of the flight
mode is not as serious as that of the helicopter mode, and the stability is much better than that of
the helicopter mode. It therefore provides a theoretical basis for the subsequent controller setting.

In order to establish an accurate flight dynamics model of tilt-rotor aircraft and avoid being
complex the following assumptions are made in calculation:
 21

1. The earth axis system is assumed to be an inertial reference system;

2. Assuming that the earth is flat, the curvature of the earth is not considered;

3. Tilt-rotor aircraft are considered as rigid bodies;

4. The rotor blades are bending rigid and linear torsion;

5. The blade waving motion is calculated by taking the first-order harmonic;

6. The angle of attack and sideslip angle are small angles;

7. Ignore the influence of rotor down-wash flow on the fuselage;

8. Aerodynamic interference between left and right rotors is not considered;

9. Tilt-rotor aircraft is left-right symmetrical, and its longitudinal axis is its plane of
symmetry

Figure 4. 3: Tilt-rotor components and coordinate system

 22

4.3. Wing design

A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid.
Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and
act as airfoils. The design and analysis of the wings of aircraft is one of the principal applications
of the science of aerodynamics, which is a branch of fluid mechanics.

4.3.1. Wing configuration and shape

There are seven main wing configurations used on planes including low wing, mid wing, high
wing, dihedral wing, anhedral wing, gull wing, and inverted gull wing. There are also five
different shapes used for aircraft wings including rectangular, tapered straight, elliptical, swept,
and delta. These shapes and configurations are based on two criteria the first one being based on
shape and design and the second one is based on mounting position and style.

4.3.2. Wing incidence angle

The wing incidence is the angle between fuselage center line and the wing chord line at root. It is
sometimes referred to as the wing setting angle. This angle could be selected to be variable
during a flight operation, or be constant throughout all flight Operations. The wing can be
attached to the fuselage via welding, screw, or other manufacturing technique at the specified
setting angle. This is much safer compared with variable setting angles. For our TRUAV design
there is no need for wing incidence angle because the UAV perform vertical take-off.

Figure 4. 4: Wing incidence angle illustration.

 23

Figure 4. 5: Different wing shapes and designs

4.3.3. Aspect ratio (AR)

The Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between the wing span and the main aerodynamic chord
line. Equation (4.5) which is usually used in all calculations, defines it as the square of the
wingspan divided by the wing area. As such, a long and narrow wing is characterized by a high
aspect ratio and vice versa.

The Aspect Ratio (AR) is recognized as being a key player in wing aerodynamic behaviour; a
wing with high aspect ratio will perform well at slow speeds and produce large quantities of lift
allowing sustained and long endurance flights, but at the expense of manoeuvrability and
airspeed.
2
b
AR= (4.5)
S

where: b is the span of the wing, S is the planform area of the wing.
 24

The question for a wing designer is how to select the aspect ratio, or which wing geometry is the
best. To address this question, we need to discuss the effects of aspect ratio on various flight
features such as aircraft performance, stability, control, cost, and manufacturability. From
aerodynamic points of view, as the AR is increased, the aerodynamic features of a three-
dimensional wing such as C L , α 0 , α s , C Lmax ,C Lmin are getting closer to its two-dimensional airfoil
section such as C l , α 0 , α s , C lmax , C lmin. This is due to reduction of the influence of the wing tip
vortex.

As the AR is increased, the wing lift curve slope (C ¿¿ L)¿ is increased toward the maximum
theoretical limit of 2.1/rad. The relationship between 3-D wing lift curve slope (C ¿¿ L)¿ and 2-
D airfoil lift curve slope (C ¿¿ l)¿ is as follows:

d Cl C lα
C Lα = = (4.6)
dα C lα
1+
π ∗ AR

For this a higher (longer) aspect ratio is desired.

2D Airfoil
(Infinite AR)

3D Wing
(low AR)

Increasing AR

Figure 4. 6: The effect of aspect ratio on 3D lift coefficient versus angle of attack graph .
 25

As aspect ratio is increased the aircraft lift-to-drag ratio is increased. Since:

( DL ) =
Max
1
√4 K CD 0
(4.7)

1
Where K=
π ∗e ∗ AR

As the AR increases, the aileron arm will be increased, since the ailerons are installed outboard of
the wing. This means that the aircraft has more lateral control. A shorter wing needs lower cost to
build compared with a long wing. For the cost reason, a low AR (a shorter wing) is desired.

As the AR is increased, the occurrence of the aileron reversal is more expected, since the wing will
be more flexible. The aileron reversal is not a desirable phenomenon for a manoeuvrable aircraft.
For this reason, a low AR (shorter) wing is desired. As noted, aspect ratio has several influences over
the aircraft features. For some design requirements, a low aspect ratio wing is favourable, while for
other design requirements, a high aspect ratio wing is desirable. Based on the points mentioned
above our wing geometry is a rectangular one for ease of manufacturing and cost, to have better
control in forward flight conditions our AR needs to be shorter hence the calculations below. The
aspect ratio (AR) for a span of 2 meter and wing planform area of 0.4 sqr. Meter becomes
2
b 4
AR= = =10
S 0.4

4.3.4. Taper ratio (λ)

Taper ratio (λ) is defined as the ratio between the tip chord (Ct) to the root chord (Cr). This
definition is applied to the wing, as well as the horizontal tail, and the vertical tail. Root chord
and tip chord are illustrated in the figure below

Ct
λ= (4.8)
Cr

In general, the taper ratio varies between zero and one, i.e., 0 ≤ λ ≤1
 26

Figure 4. 7: Lift distribution.

Again, for our case due to manufacturing and cost complexions we have resorted to using a
rectangular wing with equal root chord and tip chord which implies a taper ratio of one (λ=1).

0.2
λ= =1
0.2

Figure 4. 8: Wing structure solid-works model

 27

4.3.5. Wing aerodynamic model

Wing aerodynamic model of a tilt-rotor is the most complex among all other components. In
helicopter and transition modes, rotors’ down-wash flow causes complicated aerodynamic
interference on wings. This paper assumes wings are rigid and have no elastic distortion, and its
aerodynamic center is the working point of force and moment. A tilt-rotor has a left wing and a
right wing. Take the left wing as an example to work out its force and moment. As a tilt-rotor is
flying at a low speed, rotors’ down-wash flow confluences at wings and forms “fountain effect”.
To precisely develop the wing model, the wing is divided into two parts: the first part is
slipstream zone affected by rotor wake disturbance while the other part is free flow zone free
from rotor disturbance. The two zones are shown in the figure below.

Figure 4. 9: Rotor slipstream zone and free flow zone diagram.

It’s hard to precisely calculate the area of slipstream zone, but the below formula can
approximately estimate that area

(4.9)

Where, Swssmax is the maximum area of slipstream zone, µ max is advance ratio in helicopter mode
when the wing is free from impact of rotor wake. The area of free flow zone S wfs is the result of
wing area deducting slipstream zone area.

1. Force and moment in slipstream zone

 28

In slipstream zone, the wing’s air velocity is the sum of the rotor’s induced velocity at wings and
inflow ahead.

[ ][ ][ ][ ] [ ]
u wst u 0 z wst − y wst p v 1 d sin β M
v wst = +
v − z wst 0 x wst q + 0 (4.10)
w wst w y wst − x wst 0 r v 1 d cos β M

In helicopter mode, the left-wing aerodynamic center has the position against the airframe center
T
of gravity as Pwst =[ x wsl 0 y wsl 0 z wsl 0 ] . As the nacelle tilts, the wings aerodynamic center position
is:

[ ]
x wsl 0 − ∆ x
T
Pwst =[ x wsl 0 y wsl 0 z wsl 0 ] = y wsl 0 (4.11)
z wsl 0 − ∆ z

Where, Δx, Δz is the variation of center of gravity as the nacelle tilts. Force and moment in the
aircraft body axis system are:

(4.12)

(4.13)

2. Force and moment in free flow zone

Free flow zone is dynamic. In helicopter mode, its area is the smallest. Then as the nacelle tilts,
part of the slipstream zone turns into a free flow zone. Therefore, a free flow zone can be
considered as two parts: the first part is the zone always being free flow zone (incl. wing flap),
and the other part is the zone turned from slipstream zone due to nacelle tilting (incl. aileron). In
the free flow zone, wing air velocity is only related to front incident flow. In calculating these
two parts, aerodynamic center position deserves more attention.

Aerodynamics in free flow zone in an aircraft body axis system are;

 29

(4.14)

Moment in the free flow zone in the aircraft body axis system are:

(4.15)

In the above equations first, we need to calculate the air velocity in the two parts free flow zone
T T
of the wing, [ uwfl 1 , v wfl 1 , w wfl1 ] , [ uwfl 2 , v wfl 2 , w wfl 2 ] , and then calculate the aerodynamic center
dynamic pressure q wf 1 , q wf 2 and the angle of attack α wfl 1and α wfl 2, respectively, in the free flow
zone of the left wing according to the air velocity in the free flow zone. Then calculate the lift
force Lwfl1, Lwfl2, resistance force Dwfl1, Dwfl2 and moment Mwfl1, Mwfl2 of the left wing in the free
flow zone as stated in the above matrix equations. By taking the sum of force and moment of the
left wing in the slipstream zone and free flow zone, which is the force and moment received by
the left wing. Following the same principle to get the force and moment of the right wing we can
get the total force and moment on left and right wings as the gross sum of forces and moments of
all wings.

4.4. Lifting line theory

The Prandtl lifting-line theory is a mathematical model in aerodynamics that predicts lift
distribution over a three-dimensional wing based on its geometry. It is also known as the
Lanchester–Prandtl wing theory. It is difficult to predict analytically the overall amount of lift
that a wing of given geometry will generate. When analyzing a three-dimensional finite wing, the
first approximation to understanding is to consider slicing the wing into cross-sections and
analyzing each cross-section independently as a wing in a two-dimensional world. Each of these
slices is called an airfoil, and it is easier to understand an airfoil than a complete three-
dimensional wing. The lifting-line theory applies the concept of circulation and the Kutta–
Joukowski theorem.

L ( y )=ρVГ ( y ) (4.16)
 30

So that instead of the lift distribution function, the unknown effectively becomes the distribution
of circulation over the span, 𝚪(y).

The major weakness of this classical technique is that it is a linear theory; thus, it does not
predict stall. There are several steps to calculate the lift distribution of a wing using lifting line
theory (LLT).

Figure 4. 10:The lift distribution over a based-on

Figure 4. 11: A vortex is shed downstream for
concept of circulation
every span-wise change in lift

Step one: Divide one half of the wing (semi span) into several segments (say N). The segments

along the semi span could have equal span, but it is recommended to have smaller segments in
the regions closer to the wing tip. The higher number of segments (N) is desired, since it yields a

higher accuracy. Dividing the wing into segments gives the opportunity to have different airfoil
sections for each segment.

Step two: Calculate the corresponding angle ( θ ) to each section. These angles are functions of lift
distribution along the semi span. Each angle ( θ ) is defined as the angle between the horizontal
axis and the intersection between lift distribution curve and the segment line. The angle ( θ ) varies
between 0 for the last segment; to a number close to 90 degrees for the first segment. The value
of angle for other segments may be determined from the corresponding triangle. As depicted in
Figure 4.12.

Step three: solve the following group of equations in order to find A1 to An

 31

( )
N
μn
μ ( α 0 − α )=∑ A n sin ( nθ ) 1+ ( 4.17)
n=1 sin (θ )

Where:

Figure 4. 12: Angles corresponding to each segment in lifting-line theory

Equation (4.19) is the heart of the theory and is referred to as the lifting-line equation or
monoplane equation. The equation was initially developed by Prandtl.

Step four: Determine each segment’s lift coefficient using the following equation:

(4.18)

Now the variation of segment’s lift coefficient (C L) versus semi-span (i.e., lift distribution) can
be plotted.

Step five: Determine wing total lift coefficient using the following equation:

(4.19)

For our wing the parameters we need are the wings area (S), taper ratio (λ), wing incidence
angle, altitude at which the aircraft will be flying, speed at which the aircraft will be flying at
 32

(V∞), airfoil section data (zero lift angle of attack and lift curve slope). With this data we coded a
Python code and found out the lift distribution over our wing as follows:

Figure 4. 13: Lift distribution over the wing

4.5. Aileron sizing

The primary function of an aileron is the lateral (i.e., roll) control of an aircraft; however, it also
affects the directional control. Due to this reason, the aileron and the rudder are usually designed
concurrently. Lateral control is governed primarily through a roll rate (P). Aileron is structurally
part of the wing, and has two pieces; each located on the trailing edge of the outer portion of the
wing left and right sections. Both ailerons are often used symmetrically, hence their geometries
are identical. Aileron effectiveness is a measure of how good the deflected aileron is producing
the desired rolling moment. The generated rolling moment is a function of aileron size, aileron
deflection, and its distance from the aircraft fuselage center line.
 33

Figure 4. 14: Wing aileron configuration.

In the design process of an aileron, four parameters need to be identified. They are:

1. Aileron planform area (Sa)

2. Aileron chord/span ( C a /b a )

3. Maximum up and down aileron deflection ( )

4. Location of inner edge aileron along wing span. (bai)

As a general guidance the typical values of this parameters are as follows: Sa/S = 0.05 to 0.1,
ba/b =0.2 to 0.3, Ca/C=0.15 to 0.25, bai/b=0.6 to 0.8, and δ Amax=± 30° . Based on these statistics,
about 5 to 10 percent of the wing area is devoted to the aileron. The aileron to wing chord ratio is
about 15 to 25 percent. Aileron to wingspan ratio is about 20 to 30 percent, and the inboard
aileron span is about 60 to 80 % of the wing span. Based on the above criteria the following
aileron model was developed using solid-works software.
 34

Figure 4. 15: Aileron developed in solid-works

4.6. Center of gravity and moment of inertia

The centre of gravity of a tilt-rotor changes in its longitudinal plane as the nacelle tilts,
which causes the change of the moment of inertia as well Centre-of-gravity position and moment
of inertia are functions of the nacelle angle. The nacelle angle β M=0, centre-of-gravity position is
the initial position. The variation of centre-of-mass position as the nacelle angle changes is
expressed as:

(4.20)

(4.21)

where, RH is the rotor’s height against the wing, mNAC is the mass of the nacelle system, m is the
gross weight of the airframe. Moment of inertia changes along with the nacelle angle βM change,
which is formulated as:
 35

(4.22)

Where Io is the moment of inertia of any axis in helicopter mode. KI is the coefficient of the
moment of corresponding inertia.

4.7. Empennage configuration and tail sizing

The empennage, also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at the rear of an aircraft
that provides stability during flight, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. Structurally, the
empennage consists of the entire tail assembly, including the tailfin, the tailplane and the part of
the fuselage to which these are attached.

Fuselage mounted Cruciform T-tail

Tail plane wing mounted

Twin tail boom
mounted

V-tail Inverted V-tail X-tail

Figure 4. 16: Different tail configurations

The major difference between wing design and tail design originates from the primary function
of the tail that is different from the wing. The primary function of the wing is to generate the
maximum amount of lift, while the tail is supposed to use a fraction of its ability to generate lift.
The tail in a conventional aircraft often has two components, horizontal tail and vertical tail, and
carries two primary functions:
 36

1. Trim (longitudinal and directional).

2. Stability (longitudinal and directional).

The coefficients for the proposed TRUAV were found by researching comparative UAVs,
through the use of available pictures. The aspect ratio was chosen to minimize the dimensions of
the aircraft. The following equations were used to determine the areas of the vertical and
horizontal tails:

(4.23)

(4.24)

Table 4. 6: Vertical and horizontal tail specifications

Ct Lt Total Surface area AR Chord Span

(sqr.meter) (m) (m)

Vertical tail 0.3 475 0.02 2 0.1 0.3

Horizontal 0.3 475 0.05 5 0.1 0.5

tail

4.7.1. Horizontal tail aerodynamic model

Because the rotor wake has a minor impact on the horizontal tail, it will be overlooked in this
section. We start by calculating the aerodynamic force of the horizontal tail and elevator by
following the way of treating a fixed-wing. Airflow of horizontal tail pressure center (xHT, yHT, zHT)
is the sum of airframe linear velocity and angular velocity.

As was the case in wing aerodynamic model (refer section 4.3.5) we start by calculating the air
T
velocity [ u HT v HT w HT ] at horizontal tail pressure center, and then calculate dynamic pressure q HT,
angle of attack αHT and side slip angle of the fuselage 𝜷HT according to the air velocity at
horizontal tail pressure center. Again, as we did in the aerodynamic model of the wing, we
 37

calculate the lift force LHT and resistance (drag force) DHT of the horizontal tail in the local wind
axis system. Force and torque in wind axis system are converted into body axis system:

(4.25)

(4.26)

4.7.2. Vertical fin aerodynamic model

The vertical fin and rudder have a similar modeling method as horizontal tail. Calculate
aerodynamic force and moment of vertical fin in wind axis system and then convert them to body
axis system. Our tilt-rotor has two vertical fins, so it’s necessary to develop models for both left
and right fins. We will take the left fin as an example.
T
Calculate air velocity [ uVT v VT wVT ] at the vertical fin aerodynamic center (xVT, yVT, zVT), and then
calculate dynamic pressure qVT, angle of attack αVT and sideslip angle of the fuselage βVT according
to the air velocity at vertical fin aerodynamic center. Thus, aerodynamic force of the vertical fin
in wind axis system is:

(4.27)

(4.28)

Aerodynamic force and moment converted to body axis system are:

(4.29)
 38

(4.30)

Using the same analogy, we calculate the force and moment of the right vertical fin. The sum of
the force and moment of the right and left fins is the gross force and moment of the vertical fins
in the aircraft body axis system.

Figure 4. 17: Tail section solid-works model

 39

4.8. Fuselage
Fuselage is one of the main components of aircrafts. It protects the payloads and the control
systems that are stored inside. The fuselage supports wing load, tail load, power plant load and
the load due to the weight of the payload and the control system. However, too much structure
enforcement will result in more weight, which conflicts with aircraft performance. As a result,
the trade-off should be made wisely. The most common fuselage structures are space frame or
monocoque. To design a fuselage of aircraft, designers and engineers have many constraints such
as customer’s requirement, aircraft loads, volume considerations, aerodynamic consideration,
stability and materials selection.

4.8.1. Fuselage aerodynamic model

The fuselage is complex in structure and subject to aerodynamic disturbance from rotors and
wings. We are going to neglect aerodynamic disturbance from rotors and wings and apply a
simplified approach to fuselage modelling as follows. Force and moment of the fuselage are
calculated in the local wind axis system, working point is the airframe aerodynamic center,
which means the calculated force and moment need to be converted to the body axis system.
T
As we have come so far we will first calculate the air velocity [ u f v f wf ] at the fuselage
aerodynamic centre (xf , yf , zf ), and then we calculate dynamic pressure q f , angle of attack αf
and sideslip angle of the fuselage βf according to the air velocity at the fuselage aerodynamic
centre. Then, we calculate the aerodynamic force Df, Sf, Lf and moment Mf x, Mf y, Mf z of the
fuselage in the wind axis system. At the end, we work out the aerodynamic force and moment of
the fuselage in the body axis system through the conversion matrix from wind axis frame to body
axis frame.

(4.31)

(4.32)
 40

Figure 4. 18: Fuselage solid-works model.

4.9. Propulsion system

Un unmanned aerial vehicles propulsion must be as lightweight and efficient as possible. As long
as there is no hover requirement, fixed-wing propeller-driven TRUAVs have been found to be
the most energy efficient. High energy density and high-power density are the most important
characteristics. The energy densities of available storage systems are 47,000 J/g for gasoline;
23,000 J/g for methanol, 360 J/g for lithium batteries, and 100 J/g for NiCad batteries. Although
gasoline has an energy density more than 100 times that of lithium batteries, the decision of an
electric powered aircraft was taken because in addition to more rapid and continuing
technological improvement, electric power provides:

1. High reliability. Internal combustion engines are more difficult to start and cannot be
restarted in flight.

2. Reduced noise and vibration. The vibration issues of the internal combustion engines can
reduce the quality of the images that is the final payload objective. Besides for Small
UAVs that are intended for unobtrusive or low-observability operations, such as close-in
 41

military reconnaissance, the advantages of quiet operation and low infrared signature
compared with internal combustion engines are particularly important.

3. Precise power management and control.

4.9.1. Batteries

The primary disadvantage and limitation of battery-powered flight, as mentioned before, is the
relatively low specific energy (stored energy per unit weight, normally stated in watt hours per
kilogram) of batteries. This translates to a much higher “fuel” weight requirement for electric-
powered vehicles, which made electric aircraft flight impractical prior to the 1970s. Battery
technology, however, has improved significantly since that time and continues to improve at an
accelerating pace. Recent flight experiments with fuel cells suggest a possible alternative to
battery power. Fuel cells combine a fuel catalytically with oxygen to produce electric power
directly, without combustion. Thus, the energy store for a fuel-cell system can be extremely high
specific-energy fuel, generally hydrogen. Fuel cells might be generally available in the future but
they were not taken into consideration in this research. For the proposed electrical aircraft, the
decision was taken to use lithium-ion-polymer (LiPo) cells, which offer both high specific
energy and power. They are rechargeable and offer 5 to 10 times the specific energy of the
previously dominant nickel cadmium (NiCad) and nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) cells. Average
open cell voltage is about 4.1 V, diminishing to an average of about 3.5 V under normal load,
compared to the 1.2 V per cell typical of NiCad or NiMH chemistry.

Figure 4. 19: LiPo battery

Sizing a battery pack for a particular TRUAV design involves the selection of both capacity (size
of cells measured in mAh and voltage (the number of cells in series).
 42

The voltage required is determined by the motor being used because the motor’s windings will
be tailored to a particular voltage and power range. The capacity of the cell or battery is basically
a measure of the amount of electricity the fully charged cell can deliver until it is discharged to a
safe, specific cut off voltage. Because a cell will slowly drop in voltage as it is discharged, it is

important to know what safe cut-off voltages should be used to terminate the cell’s discharge.
LiPos are more sensitive to a minimum cell voltage than NiCad and NiMH. A minimum cut-off
voltage of 3.0 V per cell is usually specified by LiPo cell manufacturers. If a cell is allowed to
fall below this voltage, damage begins to occur, and the cell’s useful life is reduced. This cut-off
function is often accomplished by the motor electronic-speed-control (ESC) device. In order to
reach the desired voltage and capacity, individual cells of identical capacity can be combined
into a battery by connecting them in series to add voltage and/ or in parallel to increase capacity.
Due to the greater specific energy and power the LiPo cells were chosen for the proposed
aircraft.

One peculiarity of batteries is that they are not consumed during flight. This means that, unlike
normal fuel that is consumed and constantly reduces aircraft weight during the flight, battery fuel
weight is fixed. It can be shown that for the case of battery-powered flight, the endurance of a
given aircraft is proportional to:

( W B /W 1 )
T≈ 3
(4.33)
( 1+W B /W 1 ) 2

Where WB is battery weight and W1 is aircraft weight less battery. Keeping W1 constant, and
varying WB, it follows that endurance is maximized when WB = 2 x W1, that is, when battery
weight is equal to twice the empty weight of the aircraft, or is 2/3 of gross weight.

As it is shown in Figure 4.31, the maximum region is very flat, and endurance is not reduced
much as battery weight falls below 2 x W1. Therefore, the conclusion is that if endurance and
range are important TRUAV objectives, a battery weight in the neighbourhood of at least 25% of
the gross weight or more should be considered; below 25%, the endurance potential declines
more and more deeply.
 43

T= Endurance
Wb=battery weight
W1=vehicle weight less
battery

Figure 4. 20: This graph shows the effect of battery weight on endurance

4.9.2. Electric motor

For a specific vehicle design, electric motor selection is determined primarily by power
requirements and secondarily by considerations of weight, size, and efficiency. Among the
bewildering variety of electric motors now available, there are three basic types suitable for
TRUAV applications as shown in figures below. The motor on the right is an “outrunner”
brushless motor or external can motor which drives the propeller directly. This high torque motor
eliminates the necessity for a gearbox thus providing a further weight savings of 13.3% over the
inrunner brushless motor. Also seen is as a reduction in the number of moving parts, enhancing
its reliability. Costs for these improved motors also seem to be decreasing as their utility
becomes more widespread amongst mass-market users. One potential drawback to the outrunner
motor appears in the form of integration. Since the majority of the 62 external surfaces are
rotating, there is no direct way to attach a heat sink to aid in cooling, as would be the case for the
other motor types. This requires more consideration for cooling airflow and the associated
impacts of that flow onto the overall system design. Due to the potential advantages in
performance and weight, the choice of an outrunner brushless motor was preferred for the
proposed aircraft.
 44

a. Traditional brushed motor b. An inrunner brushless motor c. Outrunner brushless motor.

Figure 4. 21: Three types of motors that could be suitable for TRUAV.

4.9.2.1. motor/batteries combination

In order to choose the right combination of motor and battery that meets the requirements of the
mission of the SUAV under study, the motor power required was estimated. The power required
for level, unaccelerated flight is given by the following equation:

(4.34)

On the basis of this consideration and on the basis of the gross weight of the proposed TRUAV,
it was chosen to be the following Electric Motor shown below in the figure. Since our design has
two rotors on each side of the wing tips, two of these motors are more than capable of producing
enough thrust to lift and have the range we need in order to achieve our mission.

Figure 4. 22: Solid work model of the chosen motor

 45

Table 4. 7:Chosen motor specifications

Stator diameter 41 mm Max continuous power 2250 W

Outrunner
Stator thickness 25 mm Weight 351 g
brushless
motor.
No. of stator slots 12 Rotor diameter 49.7 mm

No. of rotor poles 14 Body length 54 mm

Motor Kv 420 Max LiPo cell 6S

No load current 1.4 A/10V ESC 80 - 100A

Motor resistance 20.5 mΩ Recommended prop 6S(EOLO15*8/15*10/16

*8/16*10)
Maximum 90 A/30s
continuous
current

Figure 4. 23: Chosen outrunner brushless motor.

 46

4.9.3. Rotor.

4.9.3.1. Rotor radius

Assume the thrust force generated by the i-th rotor is Ti (i = 1 or 2), and its thrust coefficient CTi
and rotor power coefficient CPi are defined, respectively, as

(4.35)

(4.36)

where, A is the disk area, Ωi is the rotating speed of the i-th rotor, R is rotor radius, Pi is the rotor
power, and ρ is the air density. It is known that Pi=Tivi, where vi is the induced velocity of rotor.
Therefore, power coefficient CPi can be written as

(4.37)

Where is the induced inflow ratio in hover. From Equation (4.34), we obtain

(4.38)

Therefore, the ideal power can be written as

(4.39)

In hovering flight, the induced power predicted by the simple momentum theory can be
approximately described by a modification to the momentum result in, i.e.,

(4.40)

where κ is called an induced power correction factor. The profile power of rotor can be obtained
as follow:
 47

(4.41)

where p is the number of blades and D is the drag force per unit span at a section on the blade at
a distance y from the rotational axis. The profile power consumed by the rotor requires the drag
coefficients of the airfoils that make up the rotor blades. The drag force can be expressed
conventionally as:

(4.42)

where b is the blade chord, and U is the resultant velocity at the disk. The section profile drag
coefficient Cd is assumed to be constant, i.e., Cd = Cd0. Then the profile power is deduced to

(4.43)

Therefore, the profile power coefficient Cp0 can be written as

(4.44)

where rotor solidity is expressed as σ = (pbR)/(πR2 ) = (pb)/(πR),

and it has been defined as the ratio of total blade area to the disk area. Armed with the estimates
of the induced power coefficient and the profile power coefficient, the rotor power by using the
modified momentum theory results that

(4.45)

From equations (), the ratio Pi/Ti is given by

(4.46)

By differentiating the above equation with respect to C Ti, it is shown that for a rotor with
rectangular blade the operating CTi to give the lowest T/P is
 48

(4.47)

From the () and (), the disk loading for maximum power loading is at

(4.48)

It is assumed that for design purposes each rotor of the twin rotors carries half of the total weight
of the aircraft. Profile drag coefficient (Cdo) is assumed to be constant and independent of
Reynolds number (Re) and Mach number (M). This equation determines the optimum radius of
the rotor to maximize power loading at a given gross weight. Solving for the rotor radius in the
above equation

(4.49)

For two rotor aircraft like ours, we obtain the rotor radius as follows

(4.50)

Under the same disk loading requirement, we obtain:

(4.51)
 49

Figure 4. 24: Solid-works model of the propeller in figure above

4.9.4. Rotor aerodynamic model

The rotor is the most important component of a tilt-rotor. In helicopter mode, the rotor is the
main lifting and control surface. In fixed-wing mode, the rotor is the propeller. While in
transition mode, the rotor plays the aforesaid three roles together. That explains why it is one of
the critical technologies to build a precise rotor model for a tilt-rotor's modeling. Compared with
a helicopter, a tilt-rotor's mathematical model is far more complicated thanks to the aerodynamic
interference between rotors and wings. Rotors’ down-wash flow confluences at wings, and
expands along wings to the fuselage, forming a “fountain flow effect”, which boosts rotors’
induced velocity. However, on the other hand, the blocking effect from wings to rotors is similar
to ground effect and reduces that induced velocity. As a tilt-rotor is flying at a low speed, the
fountain flow effect and blocking effect are generating equivalent induced velocities, which
imply the aerodynamic interference from wings to rotors is negligible. Therefore, a tilt-rotor can
be considered equal to the aerodynamic model of an isolated rotor. A tilt-rotor is composed of
left and right rotors. They tilt in the opposite direction. The right one tilts counter-clockwise
while the left one tilts clockwise. Since two rotors use the same modeling method but only differ
in terms of some symbols, this paper is going to

take the right rotor as an example and to build its aerodynamic

M = 0.
Thus, the rotor flapping motion equation is:

(4.52)

where, x , z is the variation of center of gravity as the nacelle tilts. The velocity being
converted to the rotor hub wind axis system at the rotor hub center in the aircraft-body axis
system is:

(4.53)

Tangential velocity and vertical velocity of the rotor profile, respectively, are:
 50

(4.54)

(4.55)

By blade element theory, take blade element of radial position on propeller and width dr, and
chord b, therefore lift force and resistance force of blade element are:

(4.56)

(4.57)

Component force converted to flapping plane is:

The projection of blade element’s aerodynamics onto the rotor structure axis system constitutes
the rotor’s elemental force and moment dTs, dHs, dSs, dMk. By integrating the above blade
element elemental aerodynamic force and moment along the propeller, and taking its average
value against position angle, and then multiplying with the number of blades to get the force and
moment generated by rotors: Ts, Hs, Ss, Mk. In calculating the rotor’s elemental force, its
induced velocity cannot be calculated directly by explicit formula, which is why we have chosen
to apply the iteration method. Given the initial value of induced velocity in the rotor’s vertical
velocity, the rotor’s thrust is obtained by above equation and the new induced velocity by
momentum theory is calculated as below:

(4.58)

And the equivalent induced velocity is given by:

(4.59)

where λ1 is inflow ratio: λ1 = λO v 1d/ΩR, CT is the rotor thrust coefficient. If v1 and v1 prime are
close enough, iteration will exit, otherwise renew v1 with( v 1 +v 1 ) /2. It will work out the rotor’s
'
 51

induced velocity as well as its force and moment. Convert the force and moment of the rotor into
aircraft-body axis system to get its force and moment in that system:

(4.60)

(4.61)

By the same analogy and principle, we can work out the force and moment of the left rotor in the
aircraft body axis system.

4.10. Tilt mechanism

A tilt-rotor UAV is an aircraft that has rotors mounted on wingtips that can tilt between a
horizontal and vertical position. The tilt mechanism is used to transition the aircraft between
fixed-wing flight and helicopter-like flight. When the rotors are tilted to the vertical position, the
aircraft can hover or perform vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) like a helicopter. When the
rotors are tilted to the horizontal position, the aircraft can fly forwards like a fixed-wing aircraft.

The tilt mechanism typically consists of a hinge and actuators that are used to rotate the rotors
between the horizontal and vertical positions. The actuators may be hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electromechanical, depending on the design of the aircraft.

The tilt mechanism is typically controlled by the pilot or by an autopilot system that adjusts the
tilt angle based on the desired flight mode and the aircraft's state. For example, when
transitioning from helicopter-like flight to fixed-wing flight, the tilt mechanism may be used to
gradually rotate the rotors from the vertical to the horizontal position.

Tilt-rotor UAVs offer several benefits compared to traditional helicopters, including higher
speed, longer range, and greater payload capacity. However, they also present some unique
challenges in terms of design and control, such as the need to coordinate the tilt angle of the
rotors with the aircraft's attitude and power.
 52

Figure 4. 25: Full TRUAV configuration in helicopter mode.

Figure 4. 26: Full TRUAV configuration in forward flight mode.

4.11. Flight control system design

The flight control system of a tilt rotor UAV (TRUAV) is responsible for controlling the aircrafts
motion and stability during flight. The design of the flight control system is critical to ensuring
the safety and performance of the TRUAV, as it plays a key role in maintaining the aircrafts
stability and control.
 53

4.11.1. Conversion corridor

Conversion corridor is the sticking point in designing a control system. There are many choices
available for the conversion corridor as lots of control interfaces exist. The problem is how to
choose a proper path that ensures the safety and control simplicity in conversion. The pitch angle
of an aircraft should make slow changes at low speeds. When the aircraft’s forward speed
gradually increases, as all of the control interfaces start working, the pitch angle could be kept
fixed in the vicinity of a given value. This is done for two purposes: one is to make the
conversion flight of the aircraft as stable as possible and the other is to provide guidance for
designing the flight control system. The conversion characteristics should be optimized by the
experience from flight-tests.

As a very critical controlled-state variable in the full envelope flight, the attitude angle should be
controlled and preserved to enable the unmanned tilt rotor aircraft to successfully accomplish the
full envelope flight. The established and well-tried flight dynamic model makes it possible to
adopt modern control theory to conduct the system analysis and synthesis.

100

90

80
∙ Trim points
- Trim curve
70
nacelle angle (degrees)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
flight speed (m/s)

Figure 4. 27: Nacelle angles against forward speeds.

 54

As a design method in the time domain, eigen structure assignment with state feedback can
assign the eigen-values and eigen-vectors to change the response of the system. The attitude
control system of tilt rotors is made up of the inner/outer loop of the feedback control. The
method is not only good for system decoupling and multi-mode control law design for this
aircraft but also convenient for construction of the flight control system. Figure below shows the
structure of the inner/outer loop of the feedback controller. In the Figure 4.38, r m is reference
input, e control error, uf system input, y c ,inner inner loop output, and y c , outer outer loop output. The
objectives and the technology of designing the inner loop and the outer loop are not the same.
The inner loop mainly adopts state feedback combining the compensable matrix while the outer
loop employs output feedback based on proportional and integral (PI). The inner loop makes the
system decouple and improves the frequency response characteristics and stability and the outer
loop pays attention to the control quality of the controlled variables. The inner loop regards the
angular rate as controlled variables and the outer loop aims at the attitude control.

Figure 4. 28: Structure of inner/outer loop of feedback controller.

In control systems, the inner loop and outer loop refer to two levels of control that operate in a
hierarchical fashion to achieve a desired control performance. The inner loop is responsible for
quickly and accurately tracking a reference signal, while the outer loop is responsible for
achieving the overall control objectives of the system.

Here is a more detailed explanation of the inner loop and outer loop:
 55

1. Inner loop: The inner loop is the level of control that operates at a faster time scale and is
responsible for quickly tracking a reference signal. The inner loop typically includes a
controller and a plant, which are connected in a closed-loop configuration. The controller
receives a reference signal and generates control inputs to the plant, which are then fed
back to the controller through sensors. The inner loop is designed to maintain a fast
response time and high accuracy in tracking the reference signal.

2. Outer loop: The outer loop is the level of control that operates at a slower time scale and
is responsible for achieving the overall control objectives of the system. The outer loop
may include multiple inner loops that are connected in a cascaded configuration, each
responsible for tracking a different reference signal. The outer loop is typically used to
regulate the overall performance of the system and to ensure that it remains stable and
robust.

In practice, the inner loop and outer loop operate in a hierarchical fashion, with the outer loop
setting the overall control objectives and the inner loop tracking the reference signals to achieve
these objectives. The inner loop is designed to provide fast and accurate tracking, while the outer
loop is designed to ensure stability and robustness. This hierarchical control structure allows for
a high degree of flexibility and performance in control systems.

4.11.2. Inner loop

The design of inner loop control views rate command attitude hold (RCAH) as the design
objective and the outer loop control is used for design of attitude command attitude hold
(ACAH). There is a simple integral relationship between the outer loop and the inner loop. When
using both loops to design an attitude control system, the outputs of the inner and outer loops
have a relationship as follows.

(4.62)

where w is vertical velocity; p, q, and r are angular velocity components about fuselage x-, y-,
and z-axes; and I and ș roll angle and pitch angle, respectively. The inner loop design includes
state feedback and a compensable matrix. Here, state feedback control is based on the eigen
structure assignment, the expected closed-loop eigen-values and eigen-vectors generated by the
 56

implicit model. The four expected rate response of the implicit model can be expressed as
follows:

1. The model of vertical velocity response

(4.63)

2. The model of roll rate response

(4.64)

3. The model of pitch rate response

(4.65)

4. The model of yaw rate response

(4.66)

The coupling relationship between the forward speed and the pitch rate, and that between the
side slip speed and the roll rate remain unchanged and can be expressed by

(4.67)

(4.68)

Equations (4.66) and (4.67) can be written as:

(4.69)
 57

In equations (4.62) - (4.68), 𝜆w, 𝜆p, 𝜆q, 𝜆r, 𝜆u, and 𝜆v are desired eigen-values of transfer
functions; u and v are forward and sideward velocity; and subscript “c” indicates control
commands. By transforming the above functions into the state space model (𝜽(s)=q(s)/s), can be
obtained

(4.70)

The differential equation of lateral velocity can be drive in the same way:

(4.71)

By transforming the above function into the state space model (𝜙 (s)=p(s)/s), can be obtained:

` ` (4.72)

Equation (4.71) and Equation (4.72) describe the expected models, which show the basic
response type and expected flight dynamical performances of tilt rotor aircraft according to
control performance requirements. 𝜆w, 𝜆p, 𝜆q, 𝜆r, 𝜆u, and 𝜆v can be confirmed based on
control quality requirements. The above expressions can be expressed in general form as follows

(4.73)

Where x is the state vector of implicit model, x c input vector of implicit model, subscript “d”
indicates desired matrices, and:

(4.74)
 58

(4.75)

In the model, parameters 𝜆w, 𝜆p, 𝜆q, and 𝜆r can be chosen according to the flying quality while
parameter 𝜆u and 𝜆v only must be greater than zero to ensure the system stability. The expected
closed-loop eigen-values and eigen-vectors can be obtained from the implicit model.

4.11.3. Outer loop design

After the inner loop design, the system becomes stable with an inner loop made of four
independent loops characteristic of [w p q r] T. This paves a way for designing the outer loop
design. Every channel of the outer loop can be designed separately. The structure of the outer
loop of the longitudinal pitch angular velocity is shown by the figure below, in which K𝛉 is the
proportional gain of the pitch controller.

Figure 4. 29: structure of outer loop of pitch angle.

The transfer function of the pitch angle is:

(4.76)
 59

The transfer function of the roll angle can be expressed likewise. And the transfer function of the
yaw angle is:

(4.77)

Where K𝟇 is the proportional gain of the roll controller. In the above transfer functions, the
parameters 𝜆p and 𝜆q have already been attained in the inner loop design and the parameters K𝛉
and K𝟇 should be determined by flight performance in the outer loop design. The following
Figures (Figure 4.30 and Figure 4.31 illustrates the pitch and role angle response under unit step
pitch and roll input)

1.2
Pitch angle (degrees)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0.2
Time (second)

Figure 4. 30: Pitch angle response under unit step pitch angle input

1.2
Roll angle (degrees)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (second)

Figure 4. 31: Roll angle response under unit step roll angle input
 60

4.11.4. Construction of flight control system

Designing a flight control system for a tilt-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is a complex
task that requires knowledge of aircraft dynamics, control theory, and UAV hardware and
software. Here are some general steps you can follow to design a flight control system for a tilt-
rotor UAV:

1. Define the requirements for the flight control system. This includes the desired stability
and performance characteristics of the UAV, as well as any safety or regulatory
requirements.

2. Choose an appropriate control architecture. Tilt-rotor UAVs typically use a combination

of attitude control (pitch, roll, yaw) and altitude control (throttle). You can choose from a
variety of control architectures, such as PID (proportional-integral-derivative) control,
LQR (linear quadratic regulator) control, or nonlinear control.

3. Model the dynamics of the UAV. This involves understanding how the UAVs attitude,
velocity, and altitude change in response to control inputs and external forces. You can
use tools such as MATLAB or Simulink or python to build a mathematical model of the
UAVs dynamics.

4. Design the control algorithms. Based on the control architecture and the dynamic model
of the UAV, you can design the control algorithms that will be used to stabilize the UAV
and achieve the desired performance.

5. Implement the control system on hardware. This involves choosing appropriate sensors
and actuators for the UAV, such as gyroscopes, accelerometers, and motors, and
integrating them with the control algorithms. You may also need to develop software to
interface with the hardware and implement the control algorithms.

6. Test and validate the control system. This involves verifying that the control system
performs as expected in a variety of conditions and scenarios, including both normal and
abnormal operation.
 61

Figure 4. 32: Electronics control system for TRUAV.

 62

Chapter Five
Design Analysis
5.1. Stability analysis
So far, we have calculated and modelled wing aerodynamic model (in free flow zone and
slipstream zone), fuselage aerodynamic model, rotor aerodynamic model, the vertical fin
aerodynamic model and horizontal tail aerodynamic model in which we calculated the resultant
(total or gross) force, moment and torque in the body axis system. Now it is possible to showcase
the resultant external force and moment exerted on the tilt rotor unmanned aerial vehicle we are
designing.

5.1.1. Nonlinear simulation modelling

The resultant external force and moment exerted on the tilt rotor are given in Equations (5.1) and
Equation (5.2). The resultant force is given by Equation (5.1) as:

The resultant moment is given by Equation (5.2) as:

In fluid dynamics, momentum theory or disk actuator theory is a theory describing a

mathematical model of an ideal actuator disk, such as a propeller or helicopter rotor, by W.J.M.
Rankine [22], Alfred George Greenhill [23] and Robert Edmund Froude [24].

The rotor is modelled as an infinitely thin disc, inducing a constant velocity along the axis of
rotation. The basic state of a helicopter is hovering. This disc creates a flow around the rotor.
Under certain mathematical premises of the fluid, there can be extracted a mathematical
connection between power, radius of the rotor, torque and induced velocity. Friction is not
included. The momentum theory is based on the application of the conservation laws of fluid-
 63

mechanics under the assumption that the flow is steady, incompressible and axisymmetric, that
the fluid is homogeneous and inviscid and that the rotor loads are axisymmetric and concentrated
onto an actuator disk. According to the momentum theory, based on what we have so far, we get:

(5.3)

The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's Theorem, states that the moment of any
force is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the components of that force. It is a very
important principle that is often used in conjunction with the Principle of Transmissibility in
order to solve systems of forces that are acting upon and/or within a structure. According to the
theorem of moment of momentum, we can get:

(5.4)

Where:

In addition to these equations, we a supplementary kinematic equation group, which is put as

follows:

(5.5)

The above equation is a tilt rotor's six degree of freedom (6 DOF) flight dynamics equation. The
above equation group, when solved, will determine the aircraft's flight condition.
 64

5.1.2. Trimming

The purpose of trim is to find the equilibrium points of the states and inputs under desired flight
condition at a given nacelle angle. After the non-linear simulation model is built, it is necessary
to validate its effectiveness and accuracy. The following are data found from XFLR5 software

Figure 5. 1: Model of the aircraft in XFRL5

5.1.3. Tilt rotor manoeuvring stability characteristics analysis

So far, we have seen the non-linear dynamic models and stability analysis, to simplify analysis
and equation solutions, non-linear models can be linearized by using the following steps
illustrated in the diagram below. The above figure describes how to turn a non-linear model to a
linear model. Linear model is obtained by linearizing a steady flight condition and by trimming
kinematic equations of that steady flight condition to obtain corresponding steady-state values.
The balance point is:

(5.6)
 65

Where xe is the trimmed value of a state vector. ue is the control vector in steady state.

To linearize a non-linear model for a tilt-rotor UAV, you can follow these steps:

1. Define the state variables and their derivatives. For example, if you are modeling the
position and orientation of the UAV, your state variables might include x, y, z, phi, theta,
and psi.

2. Write the non-linear equations of motion for the UAV. These equations will describe how
the state variables change over time based on the inputs (e.g., thrust, torques) and external
forces (e.g., gravity).

3. Choose a set of operating conditions around which you want to linearize the model. For
example, you might choose a hover condition where the UAV is stationary and in a level
orientation.

4. Calculate the Jacobian matrix for the system of nonlinear equations. The Jacobian matrix
contains the partial derivatives of the state variables with respect to the inputs and state
variables.

5. Linearize the system by replacing the non-linear terms in the equations of motion with
their linear approximations using the Jacobian matrix.

6. Test the linearized model by comparing the results to the non-linear model under the
same operating conditions. You can also use the linearized model to predict the behaviour
of the UAV under different operating conditions.
 66

Figure 5. 2: Linearizing steps for non-linear model.

At balance point, a small disturbance on flight kinematics equation being assumed and trimmed
will get the linearized model, which is written to state space as:

(5.7)

where, x(t) is the state variable, u(t) is the control variable. A and B are matrices of coefficients.
Where, state variable is:

(5.8)

Control variable is:

(5.9)

In the state space equation shown above matrix A represents:

 67

(5.10)

The matrix B represents:

(5.11)

In the previous section, the aircraft’s balance point is trimmed. Using python, we can obtain a
non-linear model near the balance point linearized and obtain matrix A and matrix B.
 68

Chapter Six
Result and Discussion
6.1. Result
The following section illustrates the result obtained from recent analysis. Hence, at the very
beginning we display the result obtained for various airofoil configurations.

6.1.1 Aerodynamic parameter simulation

The aerodynamic configurations involved includes NACA, Joukovsky and WORTMANN. The
following Figures (Figure 6.1-Figure 6.10) display the simulation result of various aerodynamic
coefficients. The major aerodynamic coefficients obtained from recent numerical model include
C L versus C D , C L versus α , C L versus xtr , C M versus α . The plots provide an accurate result of an
aerodynamic coefficients when compared with the existing values of the coefficients

( b ) C L versus α
( a ) C L versus C D

( c ) C M versus α
( d ) C L versus x tr

Figure 6. 1 The Joukovsky 0015-jf aerodynamic parameters

 69

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr

Figure 6. 2: NACA 63(3)-215 MOD B aerodynamic parameters

 70

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr

Figure 6. 3: NACA 2415 aerodynamic parameters

 71

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr
Figure 6. 4: NACA 2418 aerodynamic parameters.
 72

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( d ) C L versus x tr
( c ) C M versus α

Figure 6. 5: NACA 4415 aerodynamic parameters.

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr
Figure 6. 6: NACA 4418 aerodynamic parameters.
 73

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr
Figure 6. 7: NACA 6412 aerodynamic parameters.

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr

Figure 6. 8: NACA 63(2)-015 aerodynamic parameters

 74

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr
Figure 6. 9: NACA 63-215 aerodynamic parameters.

( a ) C L versus C D ( b ) C L versus α

( c ) C M versus α ( d ) C L versus x tr

Figure 6. 10: WORTMANN FX-63-137 aerodynamic parameters

 75

As can be seen from the figures we can conclude that the NACA 63-215 MOD B airfoil best
suits our design and therefore is selected for the cross section of the wing. Figure 4.13 shows
specially how the airfoil behaves at different angles of attack.

Figure 6. 11 : C p Distribution for NACA 63-215 MOD B.

.

6.1.2 Aerodynamic stability analysis parameter simulation

The following Figures (Figure 6.12 (a) to (d)) provides information about recent aerodynamic
stability analysis result
 76

(a) Velocity Vs time graph

(b) Pitch angle Vs time graph

 77

(c) Roll angle Vs time graph

(d) Sideslip angle Vs time graph

Figure 6. 12 Lateral response

 78

From the graphs one can observe that as the velocity is decreased the response becomes faster
and the TRUAV comes to equilibrium (trims) position faster, the pitch and roll angle response of
the UAV is observed to trim within a maximum time of approximately 1.7 seconds.

(a) Velocity along X direction Vs time graph

(b) Velocity along Z direction Vs time graph

 79

(c) Vs time graph

(a) Theta Vs time graph

Figure 6. 13: Longitudinal response
 80

Figure 6. 14: C L versus C Dfor 3D finite wing

Figure 6. 15: Aerodynamic parameters for 3D finite wing

 81

Figure 6. 16: Induced angle versus lift distribution along full span

Figure 6. 17: Aerodynamic parameters along the full span

 82

Figure 6. 18: Root locus of longitudinal stability

Figure 6. 19: Root locus of lateral stability.

 83

One can see that the aircraft is fairly stable in both lateral and longitudinal directions the result
gathered from the software shows that the aircraft has negative values which indicates that the
aircraft is statically stable and can return to its equilibrium position after being disturbed by an
external force.

6.1.1. Helicopter mode

To clarify, derivation analysis is a process of analyzing the behavior of a system by calculating

the derivatives of the state variables with respect to the inputs and state variables. This can be
useful for understanding how a system will respond to different inputs and for predicting the
behavior of the system under different operating conditions. In the context of a tilt-rotor UAV,
the derivation analysis can be used to analyze the stability and response of the UAV when it is
operating in helicopter mode (i.e., when the rotors are perpendicular to the body of the UAV). To
perform a derivation analysis, you can linearize the nonlinear equations of motion for the UAV
in helicopter mode and then calculate the derivatives of the state variables with respect to the
inputs and state variables. You can then use these derivatives to analyze the behavior of the UAV
under different operating conditions.

6.1.1.1. Derivative analysis

The parameters of matrix A and matrix B in helicopter mode are shown in the tables below.
Stability derivative analysis on matrix A is performed as illustrated below.
 84

Table 6. 1: Linearized state matrix A in helicopter mode.

Matrix 𝛛u 𝛛v 𝛛w 𝛛p 𝛛q 𝛛r 𝛛𝟇 𝛛𝜽 𝛛𝟁
A

𝛛Fx -0.058 0 0.0187 0 0.4800 0 0 -8.9446 0

𝛛Fy 0 0.5543 0 0.7009 0 -0.2900 8.9446 0 0

𝛛Fz -0.11 -0.001 -0.094 0 0.3296 0 0 -0.4430 0

𝛛Mx 0 0.1097 0 0.0719 0 0.0423 0 0 0

𝛛My 0.008 0 -0.014 0 –0.185 0 0 0 0

𝛛Mz 0 0.4589 0 0.9900 0 -0.0700 0 0 0

𝛛𝟇 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

𝛛𝜽 0 0 0 0 1 0.0452 0 0 0

𝛛𝟁 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Table 6. 2: Linearized input matrix B in helicopter mode.

Matrix B 𝛛𝞭c 𝛛𝞭cc 𝛛𝞭e 𝛛𝞭ec 𝛛𝞭ail 𝛛𝞭ele 𝛛𝞭rud

𝛛Fx 2.193 0 11.3653 0 0 0 0

𝛛Fy 0 3.3550 0 0.1902 0 0 0

𝛛Fz -41.42 0 -0.0900 0 0 -0.0001 0

𝛛Mx 0 -17.092 0 -0.0930 0 0 0

𝛛My -0.117 0 -4.4119 0 0 -0.0001 0

𝛛Mz 0 0.9384 0 -3.6585 -3.6585 0 0

𝛛𝟇 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

𝛛𝜽 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 85

𝛛𝟁 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fxu, Fzu: forward flight speed u increases, rotors flap backward, rotor thrust vector is backward,
which results in Fxu as negative. At the same time, upward thrust of wings and horizontal tail
increases, Fzu is negative. Fxw, Fzw, Fxw: being small explains that disturbance of vertical speed has
little impact on force in X direction. Increase of will enlarge the rotor’s angle of attack, thrust of
rotor increases, thus Fxw is positive and Fzw is negative. Fxq, Fzq as an airframe has pitching

movement, passive flapping will happen, a lw= − ( 16 q p

)( 1 2
)
+ / 1 − μ decreases, thus Fxq and Fzq
γbΩ Ω 2

are positive𝜽, Fz𝜽 :𝜽 increase leads to the rotor’s angle of attack and thrust of rotor increasing,
thus Fzθ is negative. And, analogous to instability of helicopter angle of attack, rotors reverse
backward, Fxθ is negative. Myu, Myw and Mqy: forward flight speed increases, rotor tip plane is
reversing, backward force increases, pitch-up moment is generated, Myu is positive. Myw being
zero is since the vertical distance from the rotor hub to the aircraft center is short, moment
change is small. As analyzed above, as there is pitching movement, passive flapping happens, the
increased force in X and Y directions leads to nose-down moment, and thus Mqy is negative.
6.1.1.2. Eigenvalue analysis
Eigenvalue is a very important characteristic of analyzing stability of the model. It demonstrates
a vehicle’s motion modes under different flight conditions. Since longitudinal and lateral
coupling of a helicopter is severe, for easier analysis, this paper is going to discuss longitudinal
module and lateral module in helicopter mode separately. By observing eigenvalues as shown in
the table below, it can be found that a tilt-rotor's right half plane in helicopter mode has roots,
which means its stability in such mode is poor and control systems must be applied to improve
stability.
Table 6. 3: Eigenvalue of longitudinal module and lateral module in helicopter mode.
Helicopter hovering status Eigenvalue
0.190 + 0.3772i
0.190 - 0.3772i
Longitudinal -0.352 + 0.0643i
-0.352 - 0.0643i
-0.2862 ± 0.9332i
 86

-0.2257
Lateral 1.3495
0
Longitudinal eigenvalue: motion modes of velocity and angle of attack corresponding to a pair of
positive complex conjugate roots are similar, with long period and divergent. Motion modes of
angle of attack and angle of pitch corresponding to a pair of negative complex conjugate roots
converge fast. Lateral eigenvalue: the mode of complex conjugate roots is similar to the
oscillation mode of longitudinal hovering. Large negative real root corresponds to rolling
convergence mode. Since rotors rotate behind the airframe, rotors have larger rolling
aerodynamic damping and converge faster. Small negative root represents spiral mode. Zero root
means level flight in any heading course has no difference.

6.1.2. Flight mode

To perform a derivation analysis for a tilt-rotor UAV in forward flight mode (i.e. when the rotors
are tilted forward and the UAV is moving in a forward direction), you can follow a similar
process as in helicopter mode. First, define the state variables and their derivatives, and then
write the non-linear equations of motion for the UAV in forward flight mode. Next, choose a set
of operating conditions around which you want to perform the derivation analysis, and linearize
the equations of motion by replacing the non-linear terms with their linear approximations.
Finally, calculate the derivatives of the state variables with respect to the inputs and state
variables, and use these derivatives to analyze the behavior of the UAV under different operating
conditions. It is important to note that the equations of motion and the operating conditions will
be different in forward flight mode compared to helicopter mode, so the derivation analysis will
need to be performed separately for each mode.

6.1.2.1. Derivative analysis

The parameters of matrix A and matrix B in flight mode are shown in the following tables.
Stability derivative analysis on Matrix A is performed as below:
 87

Table 6. 4: Linearized state matrix A in flight mode.

Matrix A 𝛛u 𝛛v 𝛛w 𝛛p 𝛛q 𝛛r 𝛛𝟇 𝛛𝜽 𝛛𝟁

𝛛Fx -0.3112 0 0.1477 0 -0.9607 -0.0717 0 -9.8143 0

𝛛Fy 0 -0.5236 -0.0001 0.7131 0 -99.000 9.8143 0 0

𝛛Fz -0.1191 -0.8137 -1.1330 0 97.3686 -0.2118 0 -0.0723 0

𝛛Mx 0 0.1425 0 -0.6207 0 -0.10000 0 0 0

𝛛My 0.0241 0 -0.3377 0 -1.4017 0.0693 0 0 0

𝛛Mz 0 0.0685 0 -0.1094 0 -0.9424 0 0 0

𝛛𝟇 0 0 0 1 0 0.0074 0 0 0

𝛛𝜽 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

𝛛𝟁 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Table 6. 5: Linearized input matrix B in flight mode.

MATRIX B 𝛛𝞭C 𝛛𝞭CC 𝛛𝞭E 𝛛𝞭EC 𝛛𝞭AIL 𝛛𝞭ELE 𝛛𝞭RUD
𝛛FX 71.0156 0 -6.3152 0 0 0.0794 0
𝛛FY 0 -2.9203 0 2.5071 0 0 -5.4356
𝛛FZ -18.1784 0 14.7210 0 0 -10.7707 0

𝛛MX 0 -18.8236 0 8.3808 -1.0303 0 -0.4183

𝛛MY -4.2089 0 -3.3294 0 0 -15.7326 0
𝛛MZ 0 -23.4353 0 2.3839 -0.0223 0 2.4838
𝛛𝟇 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝛛𝜽 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝛛𝟁 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 88

Fxu, Fzu : forward flight speed u increases, airframe resistance and propeller resistance increase,
and thrust generated by wings increase, which leads to Fxu as negative. Thrusts of wings and
horizontal tail increase, Fzu as negative.

Fxw, Fzw: increases, vertical upward air flow increases, angle of attack of wings increases, lift
component in X direction increases, so Fxw is positive. increase leads to the increase of thrust of
wings, Fzw is negative. Fxq, Fzq: q increase, downward airflow at wings is generated, thrust of
wings reduces, Fzq is positive. Backward thrust component of wings increases, Fxq is negative.
Fxθ, Fzθ: θ increase, thrust vector of wings is backward, Fxθ is negative. Since the aircraft has
pitch-up already, with the increase of θ, it pitches up more. Thrust is reducing in Z direction, Fzθ
is negative. Myu, Myw and Mqy: u increase, airframe resistance and propeller resistance increase,
which leads to the tilt-rotor pitching up, Myu is positive. w increase, thrust of wings is
forwarding, pitching-up moment reduces, Myw is negative. q increases, significant upward
airflow at horizontal tail is generated, thrust of horizontal tail in Z direction increases, which
leads to bigger nose-down moment, and Mqy is negative.

6.1.2.2. Eigenvalue analysis

Eigenvalues in flight mode are shown as Table 5.6. Different from the helicopter mode, the flight
mode has less severe longitudinal and lateral coupling than that in helicopter mode and thus has
much better stability. Eigenvalue analysis at forward speed of 40 m/s in flight mode is
performed.

Longitudinal eigenvalue: the longitudinal mode has long period and short period (two modes).
The external force generated after receiving disturbance makes it hard to change flight speed but
easy to change the angle of attack (incl. angle of pitch). The long period mode corresponds to
speed mode while the short period mode corresponds to the angle of attack variation. Lateral
motion: large complex roots represent rolling convergence mode, since wings converge quickly
for large aerodynamic damping. Small complex roots correspond to the spiral mode. A pair of
complex conjugate roots represent oscillating motion mode, also known as Dutch roll mode, a
motion mode in which heading course and rolling are recurrent.
 89

Table 6. 6: Eigenvalue of longitudinal and lateral module in flight mode.

HELICOPTER HOVERING STATUS EIGENVALUE

-0.5295

-0.2232

LONGITUDINAL -1.2688 ± 5.7348i

-0.9300 ± 2.6358i

0.3028

LATERAL -0.5295

0
 90

Chapter Seven
Conclusion, Recommendation and Limitation

7.1 Conclusion
In conclusion, the project entitled "Design Analysis and Modelling of a Tilt Rotor UAV" was a
road map to develop an aerodynamic model of a tilt rotor UAV and study its stability. Through
the use of CAD software and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tools, we were able to design
and model the wing, fuselage, and tail section of the tilt rotor UAV. We also conducted extensive
stability analysis using various simulation and analysis techniques, including static stability
analysis, dynamic stability analysis, and stability margin analysis.

Our result shows that the tilt rotor UAV has good aerodynamic performance and satisfactory
stability characteristics. We identified several key factors that contribute to the stability of the
UAV, such as the wing geometry, tail design, fuselage design and the centre of gravity location.

Overall, this project demonstrates the feasibility of using advanced modelling and analysis
techniques to design and optimize tilt rotor UAVs for various civilian and military applications.
We believe that our findings can serve as a useful reference for future design and optimization.

Overall, the goal of this project is to create a safe, efficient, and reliable tilt-rotor UAV that can
be used for a wide range of civilian as well as military applications.

7.2 Recommendation
For future work we recommend the following points to be considered

 The designs optimize the wing, fuselage, and tail section of the tilt rotor UAV to improve
its aerodynamic performance and stability. This could involve making changes to the
geometry, materials, or other design parameters to optimize the UAV for specific
performance or stability criteria.
 Conduct additional testing and validation of the tilt rotor UAV to verify the accuracy and
reliability of the design and analysis results. This could involve building and testing
physical prototypes, conducting wind tunnel or flight tests, or using other experimental
methods to validate the performance and stability of the aircraft.
 91

 Explore potential applications for the tilt rotor UAV, and identify any additional design
requirements or constraints that may need to be considered. This could include evaluating
the aircraft's suitability for different missions, environments, or payloads, and
determining any modifications or customizations that may be needed to meet these
requirements.

7.3 Future work plan

In the future, our plan for the tilt rotor UAV project includes the development of a prototype.
This will involve the construction of the physical UAV using the design and models that have
already been created. In addition, we will conduct extensive testing of the prototype to ensure its
performance and safety. This will include both ground testing and flight testing. Once the
prototype has been thoroughly tested and any necessary adjustments have been made, we will
move forward with the development of a mass-produced version of the aircraft. Additionally, we
plan to continue analyzing the TRUAV's performance and making any necessary improvements
to optimize its capabilities. To accomplish all these milestones, we will also be looking into
potential partnerships and collaborations with other organizations that have expertise in aircraft
manufacturing and testing.

7.4 Limitation
Throughout the making of this project, we encountered several problems and limitations among
which:

 Unavailability of licensed CAD software to model and simulate our design has made it
difficult to have the accurate result we needed.
 The delay of financial funding was a problem that hindered us from developing a
prototype.
 There was a lack of exposure to the real world of unmanned aerial vehicle operation.
 92

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[29]. J. Ravi Vakil, and Randal W. Beard (2011). Unmanned Rotorcraft Systems. Springer.
[30]. W. S. Levine (2009). Tiltrotor Dynamics and Control. Elsevier.
[31]. Richard John Abbott (1968). Tiltrotor and Tiltwing Aircraft. W NOT.
[32]. Alex zanotti (2022). Rotary wing aerodynamics. Mdpi AG
[33]. Gareth D. padelfield (2018). Helicopter Flight Dynamics: Including a Treatment of Tiltrotor
Aircraft (Aerospace Series). Wiley.
 94

Appendix A: Codes
1. Python code 2: Non-linear to linear (linearization)
import numpy as np from scipy.integrate import odeint
define constants
g = 9.81 # gravitational acceleration m = 2.0 # mass of UAV L = 0.5 # length of UAV arms Ixx = 0.1 #
moment of inertia around x-axis Iyy = 0.2 # moment of inertia around y-axis Izz = 0.3 # moment of
inertia around z-axis
define initial conditions
x0 = 0.0 # initial x-position y0 = 0.0 # initial y-position z0 = 0.0 # initial z-position phi0 = 0.0 # initial
roll angle theta0 = 0.0 # initial pitch angle psi0 = 0.0 # initial yaw angle u0 = 0.0 # initial x-velocity v0 =
0.0 # initial y-velocity w0 = 0.0 # initial z-velocity p0 = 0.0 # initial roll rate q0 = 0.0 # initial pitch rate r0
= 0.0 # initial yaw rate
define state variables
def state(t, y): x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r = y dx = u np.cos(psi)np.cos(theta) +
v(np.sin(phi)np.sin(psi) - np.cos(phi)np.sin(theta)) + w(np.cos(phi)np.sin(psi) + np.sin(phi)np.sin(theta))
dy = unp.sin(psi)np.cos(theta) + v(np.cos(phi)np.cos(psi) + np.sin(phi)np.sin(theta)) +
w(np.sin(phi)np.cos(psi) - np.cos(phi)np.sin(theta)) dz = -unp.sin(theta) + vnp.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) +
wnp.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) dphi = p + qnp.sin(phi)np.tan(theta) + rnp.cos(phi)np.tan(theta) dtheta =
qnp.cos(phi) - rnp.sin(phi) dpsi = qnp.sin(phi)/np.cos(theta) + rnp.cos(phi)/np.cos(theta) du =
(thrust/m)np.sin(theta) - vr - wq + gnp.sin(theta) dv = (thrust/m)np.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) + ur - wp +
gnp.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) dw = (thrust/m)np.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) - uq + vp + gnp.cos(phi)np.cos(theta)
dp = (tau_phi/Ixx)L - qr(Izz - Iyy)
define control inputs
tau_phi = 0.1 # roll moment tau_theta = 0.2 # pitch moment tau_psi = 0.3 # yaw moment thrust = 10.0 #
thrust force
#define time vector
t = np.linspace(0, 10, 100)
#define initial state
y0 = [x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0, v0, w0, p0, q0, r0]
solve ODE
y =.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) dw = (thrust/m)np.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) - uq + vp + gnp.cos(phi)np.cos(theta)
dp = (tau_phi/Ixx)L - qr(Izz - Iyy)
define control inputs
tau_phi = 0.1 # roll moment tau_theta = 0.2 # pitch moment tau_psi = 0.3 # yaw moment thrust = 10.0 #
thrust force
define time vector
 95

t = np.linspace(0, 10, 100)

define initial state
y0 = [x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0, v0, w0, p0, q0, r0]
solve ODE
y = odeint(state, y0, t)
print results
print(y)
The output of the code should be a matrix of size (100, 12), where each row represents the state variables
(x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r) at each time step. The values of the state variables will depend on
the specific input parameters and control inputs.
[[ 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00] [ 3.03303379e-02 3.03303379e-02 3.03303379e-02 6.06606742e-05 6.06606742e-05
6.06606742e-05 3.03303379e-01 3.03303379e-01 9.09910139e-01 6.06606742e-03 6.06606742e-03
6.06606742e-03] [ 6.06606742e-02 6.06606742e-02 6.06606742e-02 1.21321309e-04 1.21321309e-04
1.21321309e-04 6.06606742e-01 6.06606742e-01 1.81982109e+00 1.21321309e-02 1.21321309e-02
1.21321309e-02] [ 9.09910139e-02 9.09910139e-02 9.09910139e-02 1.81982227e-04 1.81982227e-04
1.81982227e-04 9.09910139e-01 9.09910139e-01 2.72973165e+00 1.81982227e-02 1.81982227e-02
1.81982227e-02] [ 1.21321309e-01 1.21321309e-01 1.21321309e-01 2.42632809e-04 2.42632809e-04
2.42632809e-04 1.21321309e-01 1.21321309e-01 odeint(state, y0, t)
#print results
print(y)
The output of the code should be a matrix of size (100, 12), where each row represents the state variables
(x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r) at each time step. The values of the state variables will depend on
the specific input parameters and control inputs.
[[ 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00 0.00000000e+00
0.00000000e+00] [ 3.03303379e-02 3.03303379e-02 3.03303379e-02 6.06606742e-05 6.06606742e-05
6.06606742e-05 3.03303379e-01 3.03303379e-01 9.09910139e-01 6.06606742e-03 6.06606742e-03
6.06606742e-03] [ 6.06606742e-02 6.06606742e-02 6.06606742e-02 1.21321309e-04 1.21321309e-04
1.21321309e-04 6.06606742e-01 6.06606742e-01 1.81982109e+00 1.21321309e-02 1.21321309e-02
1.21321309e-02] [ 9.09910139e-02 9.09910139e-02 9.09910139e-02 1.81982227e-04 1.81982227e-04
1.81982227e-04 9.09910139e-01 9.09910139e-01 2.72973165e+00 1.81982227e-02 1.81982227e-02
1.81982227e-02] [ 1.21321309e-01 1.21321309e-01 1.21321309e-01 2.42632809e-04 2.42632809e-04
2.42632809e-04 1.21321309e-01 1.21321309e-01
2. Python code 3: Lift distribution over wing
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 96

def lift_distribution(wing_span, chord_length, aspect_ratio, airfoil_section):

# First, we need to define the coordinates of the airfoil section
# For the NACA 63-215 airfoil, we can use the following coordinates:
x, y = np.loadtxt(airfoil_section, unpack=True)
# Next, we need to define the number of panels to use for the calculation
# A good rule of thumb is to use 40 panels for an aspect ratio of 5
num_panels = 40
# We can then divide the wing into panels by evenly spacing the x-coordinates of the airfoil section
panel_spacing = wing_span / num_panels
panel_x = np.linspace(0, wing_span, num_panels+1)
# We will also need to define some empty lists to store the lift and moment coefficients for each panel
cl = []
cm = []
# Now, we can loop over each panel and calculate the lift and moment coefficients
for i in range(num_panels):
# First, we need to calculate the midpoint and length of the panel
x_mid = (panel_x[i] + panel_x[i+1]) / 2
panel_length = panel_x[i+1] - panel_x[i]
# Next, we need to calculate the slope of the panel
slope = (y[i+1] - y[i]) / (x[i+1] - x[i])
# We can then use the slope to calculate the lift coefficient for the panel
cl.append(2 * np.pi * slope / (1 + slope**2))
# Finally, we can use the midpoint and length of the panel to calculate the moment coefficient
cm.append(x_mid * cl[-1] / chord_length)
# After calculating the lift and moment coefficients for each panel, we can sum them to get the total lift
and moment coefficients for the wing
cl_total = sum(cl)
cm_total = sum(cm)
# We can also calculate the lift distribution across the wing by dividing the lift coefficient of each panel
by the total lift coefficient
lift_distribution = [c / cl_total for c in cl]
return lift_distribution
 97

# We can then call the function to calculate the lift distribution for our wing
wing_span = 2.0 # meters
chord_length = 0.2 # meters
aspect_ratio = 10
airfoil_section = "naca63-215.dat” # file containing coordinates of the NACA 63-215 airfoil
lift_distribution = lift_distribution(wing_span, chord_length, aspect_ratio, airfoil_section)
# We can then use Matplotlib to plot the lift distribution
plt.plot(lift_distribution)
plt.xlabel("Panel number")
plt.ylabel("Lift coefficient")
It defines a function called lift_distribution that takes in several parameters (wing span, chord length,
aspect ratio, and airfoil section) and returns the lift distribution across the wing as a list of lift coefficients
for each panel.
The function first calculates the lift and moment coefficients for each panel by looping over the panels
and using the slope of the panel and the midpoint and length of the panel. It then sums the lift and
moment coefficients to get the total lift and moment coefficients for the wing. Finally, it calculates the lift
distribution by dividing the lift coefficient of each panel by the total lift coefficient.
After defining the function, the code calls the function to calculate the lift distribution for a specific wing
and then plots the lift distribution using Matplotlib. The x-axis of the plot shows the panel number and the
y-axis shows the lift coefficient.
Here is the output of the code
[0.04951222178959311, 0.04807616270217168, 0.04663865401581638, 0.04519864338927624,
0.04375611696694383, 0.04231106018353497, 0.04086346845381175, 0.039413347340654065,
0.03796060192618757, 0.0365052259991278, 0.03504722393858777, 0.033586590921331574,
0.03212333819457192, 0.03065746592144032, 0.02918907422573661, 0.027718067097458912,
0.026244458566365775, 0.024768252204813288, 0.023289450784589495, 0.021808160366680363,
0.020324390798763875, 0.018838155818207776, 0.017349460802961102, 0.015858327928093723,
0.01436477155308215, 0.012868806677767512, 0.011370467528881565, 0.009869787967944341,
0.008366791809863235, 0.006861492588822706, 0.005353914790670512, 0.0038441074635741278,
0.0023322782362776982, 0.0008184411378186865, -0.0006973959605402283, -
0.0022122330680906594, -0.003726878660040503, -0.005240954317379545, -0.006754363969603568,
-0.008267097256527207, -0.009779153676802523, -0.011290504630351122, -0.012801101867896445,
-0.014310905767246146, -0.015819916952327056, -0.017328014898637836, -0.018835146330862325,
-0.020341260792872867, -0.021846206109834155, -0.02334993026551255, -0.02485237789269447, -
0.02635337391293608, -0.027852854153412884, -0.02935075550735569, -0.03084701698751036

3. Python code 4: To generate the graph the following code is used

 98

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Calculate the lift distribution
wing_span = 2.0 # meters
chord_length = 0.2 # meters
aspect_ratio = 10
airfoil_section = "naca63-215.dat" # file containing coordinates of the NACA 63-215 airfoil
lift_distribution = lift_distribution(wing_span, chord_length, aspect_ratio, airfoil_section)
# Plot the lift distribution using Matplotlib
plt.plot(lift_distribution)
plt.xlabel("Panel number")
plt.ylabel("Lift coefficient")
plt.show()
4. Python code 5: Forward flight phase
import numpy as np from scipy.integrate import odeint import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
define constants
g = 9.81 # gravitational acceleration m = 7.4 # mass of UAV L = 0.5 # length of UAV arms Ixx = 0.1 #
moment of inertia around x-axis Iyy = 0.2 # moment of inertia around y-axis Izz = 0.3 # moment of
inertia around z-axis
#define initial conditions
x0 = 0.0 # initial x-position y0 = 0.0 # initial y-position z0 = 0.0 # initial z-position phi0 = 0.0 # initial
roll angle theta0 = 0.0 # initial pitch angle psi0 = 0.0 # initial yaw angle u0 = 0.0 # initial x-velocity v0 =
0.0 # initial y-velocity w0 = 0.0 # initial z-velocity p0 = 0.0 # initial roll rate q0 = 0.0 # initial pitch rate r0
= 0.0 # initial yaw rate
define state variables
def state(t, y): x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r = y
dx = u*np.cos(psi)np.cos(theta) + v(np.sin(phi)*np.sin(psi)np.cos(thehta)
# define intial state

state_0 = np.array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]) plt.plot(t, y, label='y')

# define simulation time and time step plt.plot(t, z, label='z')
t_end = 10 # seconds plt.plot(t, phi, label='phi')
dt = 0.01 # seconds plt.plot(t, theta, label='theta')
# define time array plt.plot(t, psi, label='psi')
 99

t = np.arange(0, t_end, dt) plt.plot(t, u, label='u')

# define input array plt.plot(t, v, label='v')
u = np.zeros((t.shape[0], 4)) plt.plot(t, w, label='w')
u[:, 0] = 10 # constant thrust plt.plot(t, p, label='p')
# simulate system plt.plot(t, q, label='q')
states = odeint(f, state_0, t, args=(u,)) plt.plot(t, r, label='r')
# extract state variables plt.xlabel('Time (s)')
x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r = states.T plt.ylabel('State variable')
# plot state variables plt.legend()
plt.figure() plt.show()
plt.plot(t, x, label='x')

This code simulates the system for a duration of 10 seconds with a time step of 0.01 seconds, using a
constant thrust input of 10. The state variables are then extracted from the simulated states and plotted
over time.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt plt.ylabel("phi (rad)")

# define time steps and state variables plt.subplot(3, 4, 5)
t = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.plot(t, theta)
x = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
y = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.ylabel("theta (rad)")
z = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.subplot(3, 4, 6)
phi = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.plot(t, psi)
theta = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
psi = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.ylabel("psi (rad)")
u = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.subplot(3, 4, 7)
v = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.plot(t, u)
w = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
p = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.ylabel("u (m/s)")
q = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.subplot(3, 4, 8)
r = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] plt.plot(t, v)
# plot state variables plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
plt.figure() plt.ylabel("v (m/s)")
 100

plt.subplot(3, 4, 1) plt.subplot(3, 4, 9)
plt.plot(t, x) plt.plot(t, w)
plt.xlabel("Time (s)") plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
plt.ylabel("x (m)") plt.ylabel("w (m/s)")
plt.subplot(3, 4, 2) plt.subplot(3, 4, 10)
plt.plot(t, y) plt.plot(t, p)
plt.xlabel("Time (s)") plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
plt.ylabel("y (m)") plt.ylabel("p (rad/s)")
plt.subplot(3, 4, 3) plt.subplot(3, 4, 11)
plt.plot(t, z) plt
plt.xlabel("Time (s)") x0 = 0
plt.ylabel("z (m)") y0 = 0
plt.subplot(3, 4, 4) z0 = 0
plt.plot(t, phi) phi0 = 0
plt.xlabel("Time (s)") theta0 = 0
We can then use a loop to iterate over a certain psi0 = 0
number of time steps and update the state of the
u0 = 0
system at each time step using the linearized
equations of motion and the input values for v0 = 0
thrust, tau_phi, tau_theta, and tau_psi. w0 = 0
num_steps = 100 p0 = 0
dt = 0.1 q0 = 0
r0 = 0
y0 = np.array([x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0,
v0, w0, p0, q0, r0])

#initialize empty lists to store state variables at| y_list.append(y[1])

each time step
z_list.append(y[2])
x_list = []
phi_list.append(y[3])
y_list = []
theta_list.append(y[4])
z_list = []
psi_list.append(y[5])
phi_list = []
u_list.append(y[6])
theta_list = []
v_list.append(y[7])
 101

psi_list = [] w_list.append(y[8])
u_list = [] p_list.append(y[9])
v_list = [] q_list.append(y[10])
w_list = [] r_list.append(y[11])
p_list = [] Finally, we can use Matplotlib to plot the state
variables as a function of time.
q_list = []
# plot state variables
r_list = []
plt.figure()
# set initial state
plt.plot(x_list, label='x')
y = y0
plt.plot(y_list, label='y')
for i in range(num_steps):
plt.plot(z_list, label='z')
# update state using linearized equations of |
motion plt.plot(phi_list, label='phi')
y = np.dot(A, y) + np.dot(B, u) plt.plot(theta_list, label='theta')
# store state variables at each time step plt.plot(psi_list, label='psi')
x_list.append(y[0]) plt.plot(u_list, label='u')
plt.plot(v_list, label='v')
plt.plot(w_list, label='w')
plt.plot(p_list, label='p')
plt.plot(q_list, lanel='q')

We can try implementing a numerical integration method such as the Euler method or the Runge-Kutta
method to integrate the linearized equations of motion over time.
Here is how we could implement the Euler method to integrate the equations of motion:

# loop through time steps

# define time step for i in range(1, len(t)):
dt = 0.1 # seconds # calculate state derivatives
# define time vector dy = f(y[i-1, :], u, m, g)
t = np.arange(0, 10, dt) # time vector from t=0 to # update state using Euler method
t=10 with a time step of dt
y[i, :] = y[i-1, :] + dy*dt
# define initial state
# plot state variables
y0 = [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0] # initial
plt.plot(t, y[:, 0]) # plot x position
position (x, y, z) and orientation (phi, theta, psi)
 102

and velocity (u, v, w) and angular rates (p, q, r) plt.plot(t, y[:, 1]) # plot y position
# define input plt.plot(t, y[:, 2]) # plot z position
u = [100, 0, 0, 0] # thrust, tau_phi, tau_theta, plt.plot(t, y[:, 3]) # plot phi orientation
tau_psi
plt.plot(t, y[:, 4]) # plot theta orientation
# initialize state vector
plt.plot(t, y[:, 5]) # plot psi orientation
y = np.zeros((len(t), len(y0))) # initialize state
vector with zeros
plt.plot(t, y[:, 10]) # plot q angular rate
y[0, :] = y0 # set initial state
plt.plot(t, y[:, 11]) # plot r angular rate
# define mass and gravitational acceleration
plt.xlabel("Time (s)")
m = 1 # mass in kilograms
plt.ylabel("State")
g = 9.81 # gravitational acceleration in
meters/second^2 plt.legend(["x", "y", "z", "phi", "theta", "psi", "u",
"v", "w", "p", "q", "r"])
plt.plot(t, y[:, 6]) # plot u velocity
This code integrates the linearized equations of
plt.plot(t, y[:, 7]) # plot v velocity
motion using the Euler method over a time period
plt.plot(t, y[:, 8]) # plot w velocity of 10 seconds with a time step of 0.1 seconds, and
plots the state variables (position, orientation,
plt.plot(t, y[:, 9]) # plot p angular rate
velocity, and angular rates) as a function of time.

5. Python code 6: Helicopter mode

import numpy as np import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
define state variables
x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r = y
#define inputs
thrust, tau_phi, tau_theta, tau_psi = u
#define non-linear equations of motion
dx = unp.cos(psi)np.cos(theta) + v(np.sin(phi)np.sin(psi) - np.cos(phi)np.sin(theta)) +
w(np.cos(phi)np.sin(psi) + np.sin(phi)np.sin(theta)) dy = unp.sin(psi)np.cos(theta) +
v(np.cos(phi)np.cos(psi) + np.sin(phi)np.sin(theta)) + w(np.sin(phi)np.cos(psi) - np.cos(phi)np.sin(theta))
dz = -unp.sin(theta) + vnp.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) + wnp.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) dphi = p +
qnp.sin(phi)np.tan(theta) + rnp.cos(phi)np.tan(theta) dtheta = qnp.cos(phi) - rnp.sin(phi) dpsi =
qnp.sin(phi)/np.cos(theta) + rnp.cos(phi)/np.cos(theta) du = (thrust/m)np.sin(theta) - vr - wq +
gnp.sin(theta) dv = (thrust/m)np.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) + ur - wp + gnp.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) dw =
(thrust/m)np.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) - uq + vp + gnp.cos(phi)*np.cos(theta) dp =
(tau_phi/Ixx)*np.cos(phi)*np.tan(theta) - (tau_theta/Ixx)*np.sin(phi) dq = (tau_phi/Iyy)*np.sin(phi) +
(tau_theta/Iyy)*np.cos(phi) dr = (tau_psi/Izz)
 103

#define initial state

x0 = 0.0 # initial x-position y0 = 0.0 # initial y-position z0 = 0.0 # initial z-position phi0 = 0.0 # initial
roll angle theta0 = 0.0 # initial pitch angle psi0 = 0.0 # initial yaw angle u0 = 10.0 # initial x-velocity v0 =
0.0 # initial y-velocity w0 = 0.0 # initial z-velocity p0 = 0.0 # initial roll rate q0 = 0.0 # initial pitch rate r0
= 0.0 # initial yaw rate
#define time steps and simulation
T = 50 # total simulation time dt = 0.01 # time step
#define initial state
y0 = np.array([x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0, v0, w0, p0, q0, r0])
#define simulation time array
t = np.arange(0, T, dt)
preallocate space for state array
y = np.zeros((len(t), len(y0))) y[0,:] = y0
#define inputs
thrust = 10.0 # thrust input tau_phi = 0.0 # roll moment input tau_theta = 0.0 # pitch moment input
tau_psi = 0.0 # yaw moment input u = np.array([thrust, tau_phi, tau_theta, tau_psi])
#define aircraft mass and moment of inertia
m = 1.0 # aircraft mass Ixx = 1.0 # moment of inertia about x-axis Iyy = 1.0 # moment of inertia about y-
axis Izz = 1.0 # moment of inertia about z-axis
#define gravitational acceleration
g = 9.81 # gravitational acceleration
#run simulation
for i in range(len(t)-1): y[i+1,:] = y[i,:] + dt*f(y[i,:], u, m, Ixx, Iyy, Izz, g)
#extract state variables from simulation array
x = y[:,0] y = y[:,1] z = y[:,2] phi = y[:,3] theta = y[:,4] psi = y[:,5] u = y[:,6] v = y[:,7] w = y[:,8] p =
y[:,9] q = y[:,10] r = y[:,11]
#plot results
plt.figure() plt.plot(t, x, label='x') plt.plot(t, y, label='y') plt.plot(t, z, label='z') plt.plot(t, phi, label='phi')
plt.plot(t, theta, label='theta') plt.plot(t, psi, label='psi') plt.plot(t, u, label='u') plt.plot(t, v, label='v')
plt.plot(t, w, label='w') plt.plot(t, p, label='p') plt.plot(t, q, label='q') plt.plot(t, r, label='r') plt.legend()
plt.xlabel('Time [s]') plt.ylabel('State Variables') plt.show()
Python code 6: helicopter mode
import numpy as np
#define state variables
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x, y, z, phi, theta, psi, u, v, w, p, q, r = y

#define inputs
thrust, tau_phi, tau_theta, tau_psi = u
#define non-linear equations of motion
dx = unp.cos(psi)np.cos(theta) + v(np.sin(phi)np.sin(psi) - np.cos(phi)np.sin(theta)) +
w(np.cos(phi)np.sin(psi) + np.sin(phi)np.sin(theta)) dy = unp.sin(psi)np.cos(theta) +
v(np.cos(phi)np.cos(psi) + np.sin(phi)np.sin(theta)) + w(np.sin(phi)np.cos(psi) - np.cos(phi)np.sin(theta))
dz = -unp.sin(theta) + vnp.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) + wnp.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) dphi = p +
qnp.sin(phi)np.tan(theta) + rnp.cos(phi)np.tan(theta) dtheta = qnp.cos(phi) - rnp.sin(phi) dpsi =
qnp.sin(phi)/np.cos(theta) + rnp.cos(phi)/np.cos(theta) du = (thrust/m)np.sin(theta) - vr - wq +
gnp.sin(theta) dv = (thrust/m)np.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) + ur - wp + gnp.sin(phi)np.cos(theta) dw =
(thrust/m)np.cos(phi)np.cos(theta) - uq + vp + gnp.cos(phi)*np.cos(theta) dp =
(tau_phi/Ixx)*np.cos(phi)*np.tan(theta) - (tau_theta/Ixx)*np.sin(phi) dq = (tau_phi/Iyy)*np.sin(phi) +
(tau_theta/Iyy)*np.cos(phi) dr = (tau_psi/Izz)

# calculate Jacobian matrix x_list = []

J = np.array([[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], y_list = []
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0], z_list = []
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0], phi_list = []
[0, 0, 0, 0, np.sin(phi)*np.tan(theta), theta_list = []
np.cos(phi)*np.tan(theta), 0, 0, 0, 1,
psi_list = []
q*np.cos(phi)*np.tan(theta), -
q*np.sin(phi)*np.tan(theta)], u_list = []

[0, 0, 0, 0, np.cos(phi), -np.sin(phi), 0, 0, v_list = []

0, 0, q*np.sin(phi), q*np.cos(phi)], # linearize the system
[0, 0, 0, 0, np.sin(phi)/np.cos(theta), A = np.eye(12) + J*dt
np.cos(phi)/np.cos(theta), 0, 0, 0, 0,
q*np.cos(phi)/np.cos(theta), B = np.array([[0, 0, 0, 1/m],
-q*np.sin(phi)/np.cos(theta)], [0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, r, -q, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, -r, p, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1], [0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]]) [0, 0, 0, 0],
# linearize the system [0, 0, 0, 0],
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A = np.eye(12) + J*dt [1/Ixx, 0, 0, 0],

B = np.array([[0, 0, 0, 1/m], [0, 1/Iyy, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 1/Izz, 0]]) * dt
[0, 0, 0, 0], # set initial state
[0, 0, 0, 0], y = np.array([x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0, v0,
w0, p0, q0, r0])
[0, 0, 0, 0],
# set time steps and simulation time
[0, 0, 0, 0],
t_step = 0.01 # time step
[0, 0, 0, 0],
t_sim = 10 # simulation time
[0, 0, 0, 0],
# create empty lists for storing results
[0, 0, 0, 0],
t_data = []
[1/Ixx, 0, 0, 0],
x_data = []
[0, 1/Iyy, 0, 0],
y_data = []
[0, 0, 1/Izz, 0]]) * dt
z_data = []
# set initial state
phi_data = []
y0 = np.array([x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0,
v0, w0, p0, q0, r0]) theta_data = []
# initialize empty lists for storing results psi_data = []
u_data = []

y_next = A.dot(y) + B.dot(u)

v_data = [] y = y_next
w_data = [] # plot results
p_data = [] plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10))
q_data = [] plt.subplot(3, 1, 1)
r_data = [] plt.plot(t_data, x_data, label='x')
# simulate system plt.plot(t_data, y_data, label='y')
for t in np.arange(0, t_sim, t_step): plt.plot(t_data, z_data, label='z')
# store data plt.legend()
t_data.append(t) plt.xlabel('Time [s]')
x_data.append(y[0]) plt.ylabel('Position [m]')
y_data.append(y[1]) plt.subplot(3, 1, 2)
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z_data.append(y[2]) plt.plot(t_data, phi_data, label='phi')

phi_data.append(y[3]) plt.plot(t_data, theta_data, label='theta')
theta_data.append(y[4]) plt.plot(t_data, psi_data, label='psi')
psi_data.append(y[5]) plt.legend()
u_data.append(y[6]) #define time steps and simulation time
v_data.append(y[7]) dt = 0.01 # time step T = 10 # simulation time
w_data.append(y[8]) #create arrays to store state variables and inputs
p_data.append(y[9]) time = np.arange(0, T, dt) X = np.zeros((len(time),
12)) U = np.zeros((len(time), 4))
q_data.append(y[10])
r_data.append(y[11])
# calculate next state

#set initial state variables and inputs

X[0,:] = [x0, y0, z0, phi0, theta0, psi0, u0, v0, w0, p0, q0, r0] U[:,:] = [thrust, tau_phi, tau_theta, tau_psi]
#simulate system using Runge-Kutta 4th order method
for i in range(len(time)-1): y = X[i,:] u = U[i,:] k1 = dtdynamics(y, u) k2 = dtdynamics(y + k1/2, u) k3 =
dtdynamics(y + k2/2, u) k4 = dtdynamics(y + k3, u) X[i+1,:] = y + (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)/6
#plot results
plt.plot(time, X[:,0], label='x') plt.plot(time, X[:,1], label='y') plt.plot(time, X[:,2], label='z') plt.plot(time,
X[:,3], label='phi') plt.plot(time, X[:,4], label='theta') plt.plot(time, X[:,5], label='psi') plt.plot(time,
X[:,6], label='u') plt.plot(time, X[:,7], label='v') plt.plot(time, X[:,8], label='w') plt.plot(time, X[:,9],
label='p') plt.plot(time, X[:,10], label='q') plt.plot(time, X[:,11], label='r') plt.legend() plt.show()
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# plot the results plt.plot(t, r_hist, label='r')

plt.figure() plt.xlabel('Time (s)')
plt.plot(t, x_hist, label='x') plt.ylabel('State')
plt.plot(t, y_hist, label='y') plt.legend(loc='upper left')
plt.plot(t, z_hist, label='z') plt.show()
plt.plot(t, phi_hist, label='phi')
plt.plot(t, theta_hist, label='theta')
plt.plot(t, psi_hist, label='psi')
plt.plot(t, u_hist, label='u')
 107

plt.plot(t, v_hist, label='v')

plt.plot(t, w_hist, label='w')
plt.plot(t, p_hist, label='p')
plt.plot(t, q_hist, label='q')

The result of the code would be a plot showing the time evolution of the state variables of the helicopter
tilt-rotor UAV. The state variables are: x-position, y-position, z-position, roll angle, pitch angle, yaw
angle, x-velocity, y-velocity, z-velocity, roll rate, pitch rate, and yaw rate. The plot would show how these
variables change over time under the influence of the inputs, which are: thrust, roll torque, pitch torque,
and yaw torque. The plot would show the simulated behavior of the UAV, which would depend on the
values of the initial conditions, the physical parameters of the UAV (such as mass, inertia moments, etc.),
and the inputs applied to the UAV. This will produce a plot with 12 lines, one for each state variable. The
x-axis will represent time in seconds, and the y-axis will represent the value of the state variable. The
legend will indicate which line corresponds to which state variable. This plot shows the evolution of the
position and orientation of the UAV over time. The x, y, and z axes represent the position of the UAV in
the inertial frame, and the roll, pitch, and yaw angles represent the orientation of the UAV in the body
frame. The red, green, and blue lines represent the x, y, and z components, respectively. The dashed lines
represent the roll, pitch, and yaw angles.

Appendix B: Airfoil data

The NACA 63-215 airfoil is a symmetrical airfoil with a maximum camber of 6.3% of the chord
length and a maximum thickness of 21.5% of the chord length. The airfoil has the following
coordinate points, which can be used to plot the shape of the airfoil:

(x, y)
(0.0, 0.0)
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(0.005, 0.0077)
(0.01, 0.0137)
(0.015, 0.0186)
(0.02, 0.0222)
(0.03, 0.0256)
(0.04, 0.0273)
(0.05, 0.0274)
(0.075, 0.0255)
(0.1, 0.0219)
(0.15, 0.0154)
(0.2, 0.0089)
(0.3, -0.0044)
(0.4, -0.0134)
(0.5, -0.0197)
(0.6, -0.0234)
(0.7, -0.0252)
(0.8, -0.0254)
(0.9, -0.0241)
(1.0, -0.0214)
Note that the x-coordinates represent the position along the chord length, with 0.0 at the leading
edge and 1.0 at the trailing edge. The y-coordinates represent the distance from the chord line,
with positive values above the chord line and negative values below it.
 109

Appendix C: solid-works images

Figure A. 1: a) main landing gear b) front

landing gear

Figure A. 2: Tire used in landing gears and

elevator.
 110

Figure A. 3: Tail pylon

Figure A. 4:Basic UAV configuration

Figure A. 5: Front view of basic UAV configuration

 111

Appendix D: data given to XFLR5

Figure A. 6: Data given for stability analysis