Prof. Dr. Nawazish Ali Shab | Vector and _ Tensor Analysis for Scientists and Engineers Third EditionVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS for Scientists and Engineers Prof. (Meritorious) Dr. Nawazish Ali Shah M‘Sc. (Pb); M.Sc. (U.K.); Ph.D. (U.K.) Chairman Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities, KSK Campus University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore - 54890 Ex-Dean Faculty of Natural Sciences, Humanities, & Islamic Studies University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore ~ 54890 Ex - Chairman Department of Mathematics University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore ~ 54890 A-ONE PUBLISHER AL-FAZAL MARKET URDU BAZAR, LAHORE. Ph: 37232276 — 37357177 — 37224655 Website: www.aonepublishers.com E-mail: aonepub @hotmail.comVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS a CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 1.1 Introduction... 1.2 Scalars and Vectors 13 Geometric Representation of a Vector 1.4 Fundamental Definitions Using Geometric Representation 1S Parallel Vectors 1.6 Rectangular Seas System in sees 1.7 Unit Vectors 7), k. 1.8 Components of a Vector. 1.9 Analytic Representation of a Vector 1.10 Position Vector... 1.11 Fundamental Definitions Using Analytic Represenestion: 1.12 Properties of Vector Additio 1.13 Properties of Scalar Multiplication. 1.14 Dot or Scalar Product .. 1.15 Dot Product of Unit Vectors.. 1.16 Dot Product in Terms of Components.. 1.17 Condition for Orthogonality . 1.18 Properties of Dot Product. 1.19 Direction Cosines of a Vector 1.20 Component and Projection of a Vector 1.21 Geometric Interpretation of Dot Produc 1.22 Application of Dot Product 1.23 Cross or Vector Product .. 1.24 Cross Product of Unit Vectors... 1.25 Cross Product in Terms of Components. 1.26 Geometrical Interpretation of the Magnitude of Cross Product 1.27 Condition for Parallelism..... 1.28 Properties of Cross Product. 1.29 Application of Cross Product 1.30 — Scalar Triple Product. 1.31 Scalar Triple Product in Terms of Components .. | eeuerebeeScalar Triple Products of Unit Vectors .. Geometrical Interpretation of Magnitude of A BX C.vsssnunneenen on u Condition for Coplanarity .. 32 Properties of Scalar Triple Product ... 32 Vector Triple Product... 34 Fundamental Identities for the Vector Triple Product 3 Scalar and Vector Products of Four Vectors 38 Linear Combination of Vectors... 39 40 Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors . CHAPTER 2: GEOMETRY OF VECTORS 21 22 23 24 25 2.6 27 28 Pi 2.10 2 2.12 2.13 Introduction... Application to Geometry. Vector Equation of a Straight Line..... Vector Equation of a Straight Line Through Two Points.. Distance From a Point to a Line In Space... Vector Equation of a Plane.. Plane Through Three Points... Distance from a Point to a Plane Angle Between Two Planes...... Angle Between a Line and a Plane. Vector Equation of a Sphere .... Solved Problems........ Exercise . CHAPTER 3: VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION 3.1 32 3.3 34 35 3.6 Introduction... Scalar and Vector Functions of One Variable. Domain and Range... Limit and Continuity of a Vector Function . Ordinary Derivative of a Vector Function. Geometrical Interpretation of Vector DerivativeVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS 37 Velocity and Acceleration 38 Differentiation Formulas .. 3.9 Space Curves. 3.10 Vector Functions of more than One Variable. 3.11 Partial Derivatives of a Vector Function. 3.12 Surfaces in Space....... 3.13 3.14 3.15 CHAPTER 4: GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE, AND CURL 41 Introduction .... 42 Scalar and Vector Fields. 43 Level Surfaces... 44 The Operator Del... 45 Gradient of a Scalar Point Function 4.6 Properties of the Gradient. 47 Geometrical Interpretation of Gradient .. 48 Directional Derivative .. 49 Normal Derivative 4.10 Alternative Definition of Gradient .. 4.11 Divergence of a Vector Point Function... 4.12 Properties of the Divergence 4.13 Physical Interpretation of the Divergence 4.14 Laplacian... 4.15 Curl of a Vector Point Function .. 4.16 — Properties of the Curl ... 4.17 Geometrical Interpretation of the Cut 4.18 Operations With V. 4.19 Vector Identities 4.20 Solved Problems. 4.21 Exercise...... CHAPTER 5: LINE , SURFACE , AND VOLUME INTEGRALS AND RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS 5. Introduction 5.2 Tangential Line Integral .xvi 53 54 55 5.6 5.7 58 59 5.10 SM 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 Line Integral Dependent on Path ( Same End Points )... Line Integral Independent of Path ( or Conservative Field Theorems on Line Integrals Independent of Path...» Normal Surface Integral... Evaluation of the Surface Integral Volume Integral... Simply and Multiply Connected Regions. Green's Theorem in the Plane..... Green's Theorem in the Plane in Vector Notatior Stokes’ Theorem. Gauss’ Divergence Theorem The Gradient Theorem ‘The Curl Theorem Exercise. CHAPTER 6: CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 6.1 6.2 63 64 65 6.6 67 68 69 6.10 611 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 Introduction .. Transformation of Coordinates Coordinate Surfaces and Coordinate Curves..... Unit Vectors in Curvilinear Coordinate System. Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinate System. Expressions for Arc Length , Area , and Volume Elements in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates... Expression for Jacobian in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates. Gradient , Divergence , Curl , and Laplacian in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates... Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates Expressions for Arc Length , Area, and Volume Elements in Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates. Expression for Jacobian in Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates Expressions for Gradient , Divergence , Curl , and Laplacian in Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates... Cylinderical Polar Coordinates .. Cylinderical Coordinates in Terms of Cartesian Coordi Unit Vectors in Cylinderical Coordinate System......VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS xvii 6.16 Orthogonality of Cylinderical Coordinate System... 0.0» : 339 6.17 Relationships Among Unit Vectors in Cylinderical System 339 6.18 Cartesian Unit Vectors in Terms of Cylinderical Unit Vectors... in 40 6.19 Position Vector in Cylinderical Coordinate System...... 2 31 6.20 Relationships Between Cartesian and Cylinderical Components of a Vector aowsce Ad 6.21 Expressions for Arc Length , Area , and Volume Elements in Cylinderical Polar Coordinates cre 342 6.22 Expression for Jacobian in Cylinderical Polar Coordinates...» 343 343 5 2. 22. 6.23 Expressions for Ox’ ay’ 2 in Cylinderical Coordinates ........+.0ss::sewaeen 6.24 Expressions for Gradient , Divergence , Curl , and Laplacian in Cylinderical Polar Coordinates 6.25, Alternative Method Using Transformation Equations .. 6.26 Spherical Polar Coordinates 6.27 Equations Expressing Spherical Coordinates in Terms of Cartesian Coordinates .. 6.28 — Unit Vectors in Spherical Coordinates System .. . 6.29 — Orthogonality of Spherical Coordinate System. 630 Relationships Among Unit Vectors in Spherical System. 6.31 Cartesian Unit Vectors in Terms of Spherical Unit Vectors 6.32 Position Vector in Spherical Coordinate System ... 6.33 Relationships Between Cartesian and Spherical Components of a Vector .. 6.34 Expressions for Arc Length , Area , and Volume Elements in Spherical Polar Coordinates... 6.35 Expression for Jacobian in Spherical Polar Coordinates Oe or 4 6.36 Expressions For 2. Fy: dz i Spherical Coordinates... 637 Expressions for Gradient , Divergence , Curl , and Laplacian in Spherical Polar Coordinates... 638 Alternative Method Using Transformation Equations 639 Transformation Equations From Cylinderical to Spherical Systems ... 640 Relationships Between the Unit Vectors of Cylinderical and Spherical Coordinate System: 641 — Solved Problems 6.42 Exercis CHAPTER 7: CARTESIAN TENSORS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Summation Convention..xviii 396 7.3 Double Sums oa 7.4 Substitutions me 7.5 Algebra and the Summation Convention . ne 7.6 The Kronecker Delta 8; 26 7.7 Rectangular Coordinate System 78 Direction Cosines 7.9 Orthogonal Rotation of Axes.. 7.10 Proper and Improper Transformations .. 7.11 Transformation Equations . 7.12 Orthonormality Conditions. 7.13, Translation and Rotation .... 7.14 Invariance with Respect to Rotation of Axes. 7.15 Scalar Invariant Operators. 7.16 The Alternating Symbol € jjx 7.17 Tensors.... 7.18 Algebra of Tensors.. 7.19 Contraction of Tensors. 7.20 (Inner) Multiplication of Tensors. 7.2Y Quotient Theorem. 7.22 Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Tensors 7.23 Invariance of Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Property of a Tensor 7.24 Fundamental Property of Tensor Equations... 7.25 Isotropic Tensors 7.26 — Tensor Calculus... 1.21 Application to Vector Analysi 7.28, Integral Theorems in Tensor Form... 7.29 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a Second Order Tensor. 7.30 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a Second Order Real Symmetric Tensor 7.31 Principal Axes and Principal Directions.... 7.32 Invariants of a Tensor. 7.33 Deviators .. 7.34 Solved Problems.. 735 Exercise CHAPTER 8: GENERAL TENSORS 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 n— Dimensional Space 8.3 Coordinate Transformations...89 8.10 SL 8.12 8.13 8.4 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.36 8.37 8.38 The Kronecker Delta 8) Tensor Form of the Transformation Equations Between Cartesian Coordinates and Polar , Cylinderical , and Spherical Coordinates....... Tensor Notation for Matrices Zeroth - Order Tensors ( or Scalars First Order Tensors..... Invariance of Symmetric and Skew ~ Symmetric Properties of a Tensor Fundamental Property of Tensor Equations. The Line Element and Metric Tensor... Metric Tensor in Cylinderical and Spherical Polar Coordinates Conjugate or Reciprocal Tensors . Conjugate Metric Tensor in Cylinderical and Spherical Polar Coordinat Associated Tensors Christoffel Symbols Transformation Laws of Christoffel’s Symbols8.39 8.40 8.41 8.42 8.43 8.44 8.45 8.46 8.47 8.48 8.49 8.50 8.51 8.67 8.68 8.69 Magnitude or Length of a Vector Unit Vector Angle Between Two Vectors... Divergence in Cylinderical and Spherical Coordinates: Laplacian in Cylinderical And Spherical Coordinates .. Integral Theorems in Tensor Form. Riemann — Christoffel Tensor .. Covariant Curvature Tensor Bianchi's Second Identity Flat and Non — Flat Riemannian Spaces.. Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Metric: Ricci Tensor .. Scalar Curvature. Cyclic Ricci Tensor Codazzi Type Tensor. Einstein Space ... Space of Constant Curvature Einstein Tensor.. The Intrinsic or Absolute Derivatives Rules for Intrinsic Derivatives. Tensor Form of Velocity and Acceleration Relative and Absolute Tensors. Algebra of Relative Tensors Covariant Derivatives Of Relative Tensors. Permutation Symbols and Permutation Tensors. A Result From Calculus of Variations ... Geodesic , Geodesic Coordinates , and Geodesic Coordinate System... Differential Equations for the Geodesics in Cylinderical and Spherical Coordinates.. Bianchi’s Second Identity Solved Problems. Exercise...yECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS Chapter 1 ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 11 INTRODUCTION In this chapter , we shall discuss the basic algebraic operations with vectors in three-dimensional space . Since forces , velocities , and various other quantities are vectors , therefore , the algebra of vectors is of great importance in mathematics , physics , and engineering 1.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS SCALAR ‘A quantity which has only magnitude but no direction is called a scalar . For example , mass , density , volume , length , time , temperature , speed and any real number , say r ,-/2,, ete. The value of a scalar is a single real number with an appropriate unit of measurement such as cm , ft > deg , or sec . Operations with scalars follow the same rules as in elementary algebra . VECTOR ‘A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector . For example , displacement , velocity , acceleration , force , and momentum , etc 'A vector has two different natures , one geometric and the other algebraic ( or analytic). To study the applications of vectors , we need an understanding of both aspects 13. GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR Geometrically , a vector is represented by a directed line P segment (i.e. an arrow ) OP whose direction is that of a vector and f;: whose length represents the magnitude of the vector . The tail end O A i in or i int of the vector , and the of the arrow is called the origin or initial point of the vector , an ie eeen ny head P is called the terminal point . ‘Analytically , a vector is represented by a letter with an arrow over it as A.. The magnitude of the vector A is denoted by 1A | or simply A and is equal to the length OP as shown in figure (1.1) - The magnitude is also called the length or norm of the vector . When the initial point of a vector is fixed , itis called fixed or localized vector . If the initial point is not fixed . itis called a free or non-localized vector .a 2 ALGEBRA OF VECTORS: 14 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS USING GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION EQUAL VECTORS Two vectors A and B are said to be equal, written A = B, if they have the same magnitude and the same direction regardless of the A position of their initial points as shown in figure (1.2) . Thus a vector may be shifted from one location to another , provided neither the Figure (1.2) magnitude nor direction is changed . NEGATIVE OF A VECTOR ‘A vector having the same magnitude as that of A , but with A ate direction opposite to that of A , is defined as the negative of A and is denoted by — A as shown in figure (1.3) . Figure (1.3) UNIT VECTOR 'A vector with unit magnitude is called the unit vector ( or direction vector ) . The unit vector in the dicectionof a non-zero vector A denoted by 4 is defined as * . Thus Aldo o A=Aa which shows that any vector A. can be represented as the product of the magnitude of A and the unit vector 4 in the direction of A . Note that to emphasize the fact that a particular vector is a unit vector , we put ahat ora caret over it like @, n, ete. ZERO OR NULL VECTOR ‘A vector which has zero magnitude and no specific direction is called the zero or null vector and is denoted by 0 . Geometrically , a null vector is represented by a point . It is the only vector we cannot represent as an arrow . A vector which is not null is called a proper vector . ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS ‘The operations of addition and subtraction familiar in the algebra of real numbers ( scalars ) are capable of extension to an algebra of vectors with suitable defi ADDITION an hy t s = - The sum or resultant of two vectors A and B ea denoted by A+B is avector © formed by placing the A initial point of B on the terminal point of A and then a Figure (1.4)VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS ‘ joining the intial point of A. to the terminal point of B * as shown in figure (1.4) . This description of vector addition is called the triangle law of addition . It is also sometimes called the parallelogram law of addition because © = A+B is given by the diagonal of the llogram PQRS determined by A and B as ? x > shown in figure (1.5) . Figure (1.5) SUBTRACTION a ‘The difference of two vectors A and B denoted by ; K-B isavector © andis defined as the sum of A and -B A-B ~B ie. a = A-B = A+(-B) ‘Thus to subtract B from A , we reverse the direction of Band Figure (1.6) add it to A as shown in figure (1.6) . POLYGON LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION Let Ay, Azs.u+Aq be n vectors. To find their sum , put all the vectors tip to nail ic. initial point of Kia on the terminal point of A; and complete a polygon of vectors . The sum is then the vector from initial point of A, to the terminal point of A, and is written as Ayt Apt n+ Aq. [See figure (1.7) ] If this polygon is closed i.e. the terminal point of re coincides with the initial point of A, , then the sum is zero . Figure (1.7) SCALAR MULTIPLICATION Let X be any vector and m any scalar, Then the vector m A called the scalar multiple of A , is defined as follows : ‘The magnitude of mA is |mIA. If m> 0 and A # 0 «then the direction of m A is that of A . If m <0 and A # 0 , then the direction of m A is opposite to that of A . If m= 0 or A = 0 (orboth), then mA = 04 Graphically , the result of multiplying a given vector by a scalar is a vector Figure (1.8) shows the multiplication of a vector A_by scalars @ the vector A i) mAform=2 ‘g Gi) mA for m=4 a x (iv) mA for m=-1 @) mA form=-3 9 o 15 PARALLEL VECTORS ALGEBRA OF VECTogs parallel to the given vector = “24 a Co) “ Figure (1.8) Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be parallel if and only if B = m A , where m iss scalar being positive or negative according as they have the same or opposite senses vectors are parallel if and only if they are scalar multiples of one another . Since O In other words , two 0 A, where A is an arbitrary vector , therefore 0 is parallel to any vector A. If A and B are not parallel , they determine a plane . 16 RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM IN SPACE ‘Three mutually perpendicular intersecting lines Ox, Oy, and Oz with the same scale of measurement are said to constitute rectangular coordinate system in three- dimensions [ See figure (1.9) }] The lines Ox , Oy, and Oz are called the rectangular coordinate axes and are referred to as x ~ axis , y - axis , and z ~ axis respectively . Their point of intersection , O , is called the origin . The coordinate axes determine three mutually perpendicular planes called the xy. yz, and zx ~ planes . These planes are called the coordinate planes . 7 17 unr vectors i,3,h Consider the rectangular coordinate system in three- dimensions . Take the points A(1.0,0), B(0,1,0) and €(0,0,1) onthe x,y, and 2~axis respectively. We denote the a aan vectors OA, OB, OC by the symbols 7,),f and call them the unit vectors ( or base vectors ) in the directions of x,y, 2 — axis respectively as shown in figure (1.10) . z e yz-plane 9 y xy-plane x Figure (19) z c: A k 9 y a8 oe Figure (1.10)VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS 1.8 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR Let A be a three~dimensional vector with p(x) .¥1+21) asthe initial point and Q(x), y,,25)as the terminal point as shown in figure (1.11). ‘Then the numbers (scalars) Ay = X2-%14 Ar = ya~y,, Ay = Za-%, are called the rectangular components or simply components of K inthex,y, and z directions respectively 4 4 a The vectors Ai1,A2j,Ask are called the rectangular component vectors or simply component vectors of A. in the x,y, and z directions respectively 19 | ANALYTIC REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR Let the initial point of an arbitrary vector A. in three-dimensions be at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system. Let (Ay, A2, A) be the coordinates of the terminal point of vector A as shown in figure (1.12). Then the vectors Aj, i,A2j,A3k are the component vectors of A in the x,y,z directions respectively ee = ‘The sum or resultant of A; 1,A2},Ayk isthe vector A using the polygon law of vector addition , so that we can wnte : Figure (1.12) Ay f+Aap+Aak a Equation (1) is called the analytic representation of A. in terms of components . MAGNITUDE OF A =A, 1+Ai}+Ask From the above figure , we have by Pythagorean theorem (OP)? = (0Q)?+(QP)* @) where OP denotes the magnitude of the vector OP , etc. Similarly (0Q)? = (OR)? +(RQ)? ) From equations (2) and (3) (OP)? = (OR)?+(RQ)?+(QP)? 4 re or A? =A, +A2+A) or AslAl=VAt+As+Aa> ALGEBRA OF VECTony a MAGNITUDES OF UNIT vecToRS /, 3, Ita liteofeokl = yCyrecoy oy = 1 l= lotsij+okl = Vy) +O) =! Il =lot+of+ikl = Vloyecoy +) = 1.10 POSITION VECTOR If we choose the initial point of a vector to be the origin and terminal point any point P(x , y , 2) in space , then its components are equal to the coordinates of the terminal point and the vector is then called the position vector or radius vector and is denoted by T as shown in figure (1.13) . Thus in terms of components , the position vector T is written as To =xieyjezk Figure (1.13) ln Vteyteat. Note that this is the distance of the point P from the origin O. The magnitude of the position vector is given by 1.11 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS USING ANALYTIC REPRESENTATION EQUAL VECTORS Two vectors A and B are said to be equal, if and only if their corresponding components at = ees aS equal. Thusif A = A,i+A2)+AjK and B = B,i+B.}+ByQ, then A = B implies that A, = By, Az = Bz, As = Bs. NEGATIVE OF A VECTOR The negative of a vector A denoted by — A is obtained by multiplying each component of A by minus sign . Thus if A = A,1+A2}+A5K, then ~Ra (ATH Arash) = -astiasfiagh UNIT VECTOR A vector with unit magitde i cle the ont Vector . The unit vector in the direction of * non-zero vector A denoted by & is obtained by dividing each component of A. by its magnitude owt K a Aled Ash etoninna F alia fitcaten * 1tAz 3 Awat Peagteak Ars ay x on A A+R p+AagVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS. The unit vector in the direction of the position vector denoted by ¢ is given by nF _xisyjazk oe r Yara ~ Spier atk where cal ble yatoy or? ZERO VECTOR ‘The zero or null vector denoted by 0. is a vector whose components are all zero. Thus ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS ADDITION The sum or resultant of two vectors A and B denoted by A+B isa vector © obtained by adding the corresponding components of A and B . Thus if eS ie Aaa A=A,i+Az}+Ask and B =B,i+B,}+Byk, then Ca AB = (A THA. S+Ash) + (Bil 4 Bs} +Bsk) = (Ap+Bi)14(Ar+Bi)) #(As+Bs)k SUBTRACTION The difference of two vectors A and B denoted by A - B is a vector C obtained by subtracting the components of B_ from the corresponding components of A . ie. GaA-B = (Af+a,}+Ask)-(B,i4+B.)+B3k) * fi ‘ = (A,-B,)1+(A2-Bz)j +(As~Ba)k. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION Let A be any vector and m any scalar. Then the product m A called the scalar multiple of A is the vector obtained by multiplying each component of A by m. Thusif A = A,i+A2}+Ajk, then < one . ’ a mA = m(A,i+A2j+Ask) = (mA,)i+(mAz)j +(mMA;)k The magnitude of the vector mA is givenby ImAl=ImiA since I(mA,)1+(mA2)} +¢mAs)RI VimA P+ (mA) (MAS)? = Vit fAT+Ar+A3 = Imi Al = ImiAa ImalALGEBRA OF VECTOg, 8 Forexample,if m=-2 and A =-3i+6)+ IRL = Saya cey aay? = Wor seed = VB =7 ee and 1-2 Al =1(-2)(-37+6)+2k)I = Ioi-125-4kl = V6) +(- 12)" +(-4) = 36+ 144416 = V196 = 451-2172 1miIlAl = Ima EXAMPLE (1): Determine the vector having initial point P (x1, ¥1,+21) and terminal point Q(x2,y2,Z2) and find its magnitude . SOLUTION: Let T, and T2 be the position z vectors of the points P and Q., respectively as shown in P(X, v4, 21) figure (1.14). Then Fy exittysj+aik and Fy = xattys}+zak Now by the triangle law of vector addition , we have Ti+PQ= Tr Figure (1.14) or pire PQ = =r x = (aan Ee (yay) + (as 2s Magnitude of PQ = IPQ! = V(x2-%1)"+(y2-y1) (2321) Note that this is the distance between the points P and Q. EXAMPLE (2): Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector from P(1,0,1) to Q(3,2,0). SOLUTION: The vector joining the points P and Q is PQ = (3-1)14(2-0)} 400-1) = aheat_e IPQI = V2) (2)#(-1)' = avay wing A a ‘Then the unit vector a in the direction of PQ is given byVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS EXAMPLE (3): Let A = 27-3944 and B= f42}+K, find © A+B (i) A-B SOLUTION: From the definitions of the vector sum and the vector difference , we have >t 0 +B = (20-3) 44k) +(Feapeky) = (241) b4(-342)F4C4e Ik = atefast @ A-B = (29-39 44h)-(142948) = (2-1) f4(-3-2)f+ (4-1) ha tesfeak EXAMPLE (4): Determine the condition under which two non-zero vectors Aecasi+asj+ask and B=B,1+B.}+Byh willbe parallel. SOLUTION: Ifthe vectors A and B are to be parallel , there must be a scalar m such that BemA or By 1+ Ba} +Byk = m(A,1+A.)+A3k) = (mA, )P+(mAz)} +(MAS)K Equating the corresponding components , we get B, = mA,, By = mAp, and By = mA; _ forthe same scalar m B 2m 3 BB So the required condition is AL =AGF or Av: Az: A; = Bi: Br: By In other words , the corresponding components are proportional . 1.12 PROPERTIES OF VECTOR ADDITION THEOREM (1.1): If A, B, and C are any three vectors , then prove that @ (Commutative law for vector addition ) (iy (A+B)+C (Associative law for vector addition ) iy (0 is the identity for vector addition ) (iv) (-A4 isthe inverse for A ) PROOF: () GEOMETRICAL PROOF From the figure (1.15), we have OP + PQ = OQor Also. or From equations (1) and (2) we have Gi) From equations (1) and(2) A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C ALGEBRA OF VECTop, A Aep-6 oO) 5 Q OR+RQ = 0Q B+A=C Q) oO my Pp A+B=B+A Figure (1.15) ANALYTICAL PROOF Let A= Ayi+Arf+Ask and B = B,f+B2)+Byk then >I = Rn Rea +B = (Ay 1+Aa)+Ask)+ (Bit +B2)+Bok) * s ‘ = (A, +B,)i+(A2+Bz)j+(AstBs)k * “ = (Bi +Ai)1+(BatAa)} +(Bs+ Ask = (By t4B,f+Bsk)+(Arh+Ac) +Ask) GEOMETRICAL PROOF From the figure (1.16), wehave OP +PQ = 0Q = (A+B) A+(B+C)=D a 09+ QR = OR (A+B)+€=D @ R Figure (1.16) ANALYTICAL PROOF z A ake Ben ee La A=At+Ajeask, B=Bilessjease, So cfacyfecsh, ten A+(B+C)= (Arte Ard +Ask)+[(Bit+BsF 4B R)e(C, Teer fecok)] = (Arie Ard+Ask) + [Bit Ciy be (Bi ecs yf 4(By4ca kl 2 s+Cs [Ar+(Bi+Cr)]f+[Ar4(B A A 2#C2))f+[As+(By4c,)]kVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [0A,+Bi) +, ]f4+[0A,+B2)+Cr 1) #[(As#Bs) +, JE ” [(Ar# Bit +(Ar+Ba)) +(As+ Bs kJ +0, 140.5 +c k] [(Art+ Aaa} +Ask) + (By 14Bi34Byk) )+#(C,14C,) +058) = (A+B)+e The proofs of (ii) and (iv) are obvious 1.13. PROPERTIES OF SCALAR MULTIPLICATION THEOREM (1.2): If A and B are vectors and m and n are scalars, then @ mA=Am (Commutative law for scalar multiplication ) i) m(nA) =(mn)A ( Associative law for scalar multiplication ) ii) (m+n) A =mA4nA_ (Distributive law for scalar multiplication ) (iv) m(A+B)=mA+mB (Distributive law for scalar multiplication ) PROOF: (i) mA = m(Ai!+A2}+Ask) = (mA,)i4(mA2)} +(mAs)k = (Aym)i+(Arm)}+(Asm)k = (Ay +A.f+Ask) m= Am i) m(nA) = m[n(Astear +ask)] = m(nAii+nA2j} +n Ajk) = mnA,i#mnAij+mnAgk = mn(Aii+A2}+Ask) = (mn) A (ii) (m+n) A = (men) (AVP HALF +ARR) = (m+n) Ayi+(m+n) Az} +(men) Ask = (mA) +nA,)1+(mAz#nA3)}+(mA;+nAy)k (mat+marj+mAsk)+(nAyfenArs nash) = m(AT+Arp+Ask)en(Asiearp+ ask) = mAsnd (ivy m(A+B)= m[(AT+A.S+Ask)+(Bii+B,}4B,e)]ALGEBRA OF VECTORS = m[(Ap# By) 14 (A2#B2)) + A0 BODE 2 n(Ay#B,)t#m(Ap+Bs)) #m(Ar+ Bs) (mAvemB,)1+(mAz¢mBs) eC Art MBSE = (mAyfemAs}+mask)¢(mB,i+mBs)+mBk) mA+mB m(A,T+Ag} +Ank) +m(Bi Sap ]+Bok) = equations in the same way as ordinary algebraic equations NOTE: These laws enable us to treat vector EXAMPLE (5): Gree st aie Fpeateaj-ah, Fae -fezds2k, fea) LPitFattal i) [27,-372-8Fol SOLUTIO! ‘We have ® Tit Fatt = (ateapeRye(2i-ad-ab) (feat +28) = Gsezenptecea-daayfeci-ae2rk = ata} 0k Then Ie yaZae Fal = VEO HOD = V2 = 42 @) 0 2t-3 T2-S ts = a(ate2peRy-3(2t-4) 3h )-5(-P423 #28) = (6-645) h4(-44 12-109} +(249-10)k = st-2jrk Ist-2f+kl = VTA D eC): = 30 1.14 DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT teen 8 Fa-8 7 Fal The dot or scalar product (also called the inner product ) of two non-zero vectors A and B denoted by A . B is defined as A.B =ABcos@, 0S OS% 8 as the product of the magnitudes of 40) In words , A . B is defined as X and B and the cosine of the angle 6 between them as shown ~ Figure (1.17) in figure (1.17)YECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS B Note that A.B is a scalar quantity . From the definition of the dot product , the angle @ between Z and B can be expressed as A.B an o= @ = cos"! | A-B cos = “5 or 0 = cos (3 Two vectors A and B are perpendicular ( i. orthogonal ) to each other if the angle @ between them is aright angle (ic = : radian = 90° ) 115 DOT PRODUCT OF UNIT VECTORS THEOREM (1.3): If 7,],, and & are the unit vectors in the directions of x,y, and 2 ~ axis respectively , then prove that 4 4 4 i Re nan 4 Aaa i.i=j.j=k.k=1 and i,j =j.k=k.? PROOF: Since the unit vectors ,and & are mutually perpendicular as shown in figure (1.18) , we have 2 PP SIT IFL coso® = (1) (11) = RP = UPLIFT coso® = (1)(1)(1) = 1 Ef = IKI IRI cos? = (1)(1)(1) = 1 ad Pf = ITT LP bcos 90° = (1)(1)(0) = 0 R= IPT IEI cos 90° = (1)(1)(0) = 0 Figure (1.18) 7 = 1KT ITT cos 90° = (1)(1)(0) 116 DOT PRODUCT IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS THEOREM (1.4): Prove that if A = A,i+Az)+AsK, and B =B,i+B.}+Bsk , then A.B = A,B, +A2Bi+AsBs PROOF: We have = (Aste ag f+ ayk). (Bi t+ Bad +B k) Ah (a hepa} ebb) asd: -(B:t+Bal+Bak)oask. (3, 2+B.)+B sk) ATR sie fs AiBsi RrarBi}. FeA:Ba} P+ A2Bspek FASB RT +AsB2 Rep +AsByKoR = ALB, = AIBLEAs Bi +A3Bs Since 7,729.9 = R.£ = 1 and all other dot products are zero . Thus to find the dot product of (Wo vectors , we ee their corresponding components and add the results+f ALGEBRA OF VECTORS NOTE: Similarly we can prove To Pc atid ag BB a Bi = BABU =A? =A;+A2+A; and B.B = Bo = Bith? - A a a =F i. s z 2 2 EXAMPLE (6): If A = Ay 1+Az)+Ask, show that [AD 2B. Aw Are Aa ay, SOLUTION: We have (A)(A)e0s0° = (A)(ADC) = A= TAT i) >I Mie | KR Ca teagdeask).Carie assent) 24 AR+A3 Q) = (Ay) (At) (Az) (Aa) #(A3) (Aa) = At ARF 3 ‘Then from equations (1) and (2), we have ee IAP 2 A.A ate ale ad eve 3 : " NOTE: Taking the square root , we get |A| = A.A = VAT +A3+A3 as the magnitude of A. EXAMPLE(): If A =2%+4)+6k and B = f-3}+2k, find @ A.B WALA Gy BB SOLUTION: We have @ A.B= (2teafeok). (2-37 42k) = (2)(1)+(4)(-3)+(6)(2) = 2- 12412 = = (2tsa}+ok).(2ieap+ok) = (2)(2)+(4)(4)+(6)(6) = 4+ 16+36 = 56 >I >I di) o wl = (f-afe2k).(t-af+2k) = (1)(1)+(-3)(-3) +(2)(2) = 14944 = 14, i) EXAMPLE (8): Find the angle between A = 27+2}-K and B =6%-3}+2k. SOLUTION: If @ is the angle between A and B , then we know that a a 5) pees ( « Now A.B = (21+2}-k).(67-3}+2k) = (2)(6)#(2)(-3)#(-1)(2) = 12-6-2 = 4 aso A=lAl=l2t+2}-fl = V2) +Q) (m1) = Vaearl «3VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS . As p= 1Bl=l6i-3} +281 = Y(y"(-3)' say = Vaevoed = 7 ation (1), we get @ = “lots eas ° ‘Then from eq) gel cos" | yap J = 008 '() = 1.17 CONDITION FOR ORTHOGONALITY THEOREM (1.5): Prove that two non-zero vectors A and B are perpendicular to each other if and only if A.B PROOF: If A and B are perpendicular to each other then @=%, sothat A.B = ABcos 5 = 0 Conversely, if A.B = 0, then AB cos @ = 0 Since A # 0 and B # 0 thisimplies that cos@ = 0 or 0 = 35. Thus A and B are perpendicular to each other . NOTE: Since 0 .A = 0, therefore the null vector 0 is considered perpendicular to any vector Ae and conversely, A. is considered perpendicular to 0 . 2t43f-2% and B= i+2j+4k are EXAMPLE (9): Show that the vectors A perpendicular . SOLUTION: We know that A and B are perpendicular to each other if A. B=0 a Re Nowsince A.B = (2t43}-2k).(i+2344k) (2) (1) #(3) (2) +(-2)(4) = 24 6-8 = 0 the two vectors are perpendicular . 1.18 PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT THEOREM (1.6): If A,B, and © are three vectors, and m any scalar , then prove that (Commutative Law ) A > wh @ Be > ww a € (Distributive Law ) > 0) . (ii) (A.B) = (mA)-B K.(mB) = (A.B) m PROOF: ) A.B =B-A A Wehave A.B = ABcos@ = BAcos@= B.A16 ALGEBRA OF VECTORS ALTERNATIVE PROOF 4 a a = ’ a “ A, i+A,j)+Ajk and B= B,i+B2j+Bsk i >I t then A.B = A,B,)+A2B2+A;By = BiA+B2A2+ByAs = B di) = AL(B4+C)=A.BHA.C GEOMETRICAL PROOF From the figure (1.19) , we have PR = PQ+QR Comp, (B +C ) = Comp, B + Comp, C Let @ be a unit vector in the direction of A , then (B+C).a=B.aec.a : Muliplying both sides by A., we get Figure (1.19) (B+C).Aa=B.Aa+C.Aa o = (B+C).A=B.A+C.A ‘Then using the commutative law for dot products , we obtain A.(B+C)=A.BHA.C ANALYTICAL PROOF Let A =A, 1+A2}+Ask, B= Bi1+B.}+Byh, and G = Citscaf+cak B+C) = (Ayi+Asj+Ack).[(B)+C,)14(B.4C2)$ 4(By+Cy)k] = Ai(Bi+C1)+A2(Br+C2)+A3(B3+C3) = (AiBi+A2B2+A3B3)+(AiC,+A2C24+A3C;) i = A.B+A.C Thus the distributive law for the dot product holds . (mB) = (A.B) m (ii) ~=m(A.B) =(mA).B = Let A= Asi+Ar}+Ask and B= B,14+B.$4B,¢, then m(A.B) = m(A,B,+A2B2+A3B3) = mA,B,+mA;B2+mA3B, aVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS " = (MA1)B,+(mAs)By+(mA;)B, = (mA).B a Equation (1) can also be written as m(A.B) = Ai(mB,)+A3(mB,)+A,(mB,) = A.(mB) o We can also write equation (1) as, m(A.B) =(A,B,+A2B,+A3B3)m=(A.B)m (4) From equation (2) , (3), and (4) , the required result is proved . 119 DIRECTION COSINES OF A VECTOR If @,B,, and y are the angles which the position vector T = xt+y}+zK makes with the positive directions of the x, y, and z-axis respectively , then the three numbers cos a, cos B , and cosy are called the direction cosines of the vector T . For convenience , we write = cosa, m = cosB, and n = cosy Referring to the figure (1.20) , triangle OAP is a right angled triangle with right angle at A ; then x rll Similarly from the right-angled triangles OBP and OCP, cosa = and cosy respectively . Ir Rey +z", therefore x Figure (1.20) cosa =, cosB =», cosy=? from which o&, Band y can be obtained . = Ans Now fF = xit+yj+zk = reosat+rcosB} +rcos 7k ee, = cosa f+cosB} +cos 7h ast Therefore , a unit vector in the direction of is T= ee r att shel Also cos? a+ cos? B + cos” c or emten? = 1 e ‘Thos we have shown that the unit vector inthe direction of T has its components the direction cosines of T and thatthe sum of the squares of the direction cosines is unity . Essentially they fix the direction of the line segment 1.C) 1 ALGEBRA OF yp, Long 18 % : must satisfy equatic This shows thatthe direction cosines ofa vector are nat independent: Ine aaa ° cos 90" i.e. 1.0.0. s) NOTE: (i) The direction cosines ofthe x-axis are cos 0" 9890 © as axis are 0,0,1 direction cosines of the y - axis are 0, 1,0 and that for the 2 — axis (i) Any set of numbers [k £, km, kn] proportional to a set of Se ee tee alt Direction ratios ma called a set of direction ratios but the sum of their squares is not unity be omen f fu tar to direction cosines by dividing each direction ratio by the square root of the sum of the squares of 4, direction ratios . a Nn EXAMPLE (10): Find the direction cosines of the vector A = 31-6 j+2k. SOLUTION: Let a, B, and y be the angles which the vector A makes with the positive directions of x,y, and z axes respectively . Then A=1Al = 137-67 +281 = V3)'+(-6) + (2)! = V943644 = 49 =7 . (Gat-ofe2k).t 3 and A. =(A)(1) cosa or cosa = See a5 _, zt ehh Similarly, A.} = (A)(1)cosB or coop = Act. : out k) --$ and AR =(A)(1) cosy or cosy = 2 Thus the direction cosines ofthe given vector Aare given by 3, -$, ang IN 1.20 COMPONENT AND PROJECTION OF A VECTOR COMPONENT OF A VECTOR The component of a vector A in the direction of a non-zero vector denoted by Comp, A ‘ 3 isa scalar quantity ON determined by dropping a perpendicular from the terminal point of A onto B Thus Comp, A = ON = (Acos@) = A.6 wo where @ is the angle between A and B and $ is a unit vector in the directis B as shown figae (1.21) direction of B asyECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS a _ Figure (1.21) Ifthe angle @ between A and B is obtuse, we have Comp; A = ON = Acos(n-6) = ~Acos0 = -(A.6) where 6 is a unit vector in the direction of B Similarly , the component of a vector Bin the direction of a non-zero vector A , denoted by Comp - B is defined by Comp. B = ON = Bcos 0 = Bea) Figure (1.22) where @ is the angle between A and B and a isa unit vector in the direction of A as shown in figure (1.22) . PROJECTION OF A VECTOR The projection of a vector A onto anon —zero vector B denoted by Proj; Ais a vector quantity ON and is defined by = ON = (Acos 6) 6 = (A.8)6 Lusing equation (1) ] ) Where @ is the angle between A and B ,and 6 is unit vector in the direction of B as shown in figure (1.21) . Ifthe angle © between A and B is obtuse ,cos@<0 and Proj, A has length A cos @ and direction ~b as shown in figure 1.21 (b) . Thus even in this case ,20 ALGEBRA OF VECTOps 4 Q Proj, A = ON = (~Acos@) (-6) = (Acos8) b= (A.b)b Similarly , the projection of a vector B onto a non-zero vector A denoted by Proj. B is a vector ON defined by Proj. B = ON = (Bos 0) t=(B.a)a [using equation (2)] (4) where © is the angle between A and B and @ isa unit vector in the direction of A as shown in figure (1.22) . WRITING A VECTOR AS A SUM OF ORTHOGONAL VECTORS In mechanics , we often need to express a vector A as the sum of a vector parallel to a vector B and a vector orthogonal to B. We can accomplish this with the equation, A = Proj. A+( A-Proj-A (5) 8 8 as shown in figure (1.23) Proj A We can write equation (5) as Figure (1.23) R= (A.b)6+[A-(A.6)6 Parallel to B Orthogonal to B ‘Thus any vector A can be expressed as the sum of a vector parallel to Band a vector orthogonal to B EXAMPLE (11): If A @ find Comp; A and Proj (ii). write vector A as the sum of# vector parallel to B anda vector orthogonal to BVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS an SOLUTION: (Aunt vector in the direction of Bis given by _ ne a_B 4i-4547 faafe7k $-F aes k = Sioa 40 da a5 eT?” Vie+ 16449 91-9145 K i. Now and Comp, A = Acos®O=A.6 = We know that ellis] = (f-2f+k).(at-afe7k) = (1)(4)#(-2)(-4)+(1)(7) = 44847 = 19 >I wl B.B = (47-434+7k).(41-4} 47k) = (4)(4)+(-4)(-4)+(7)(7) = 16416449 = 81 Then from equation (1) , we have 121 Also It follows that the dot product of two vectors is equal to the length of either of them multiplied by the component of the other upon it as shown in figure (1.24) . * * al Of me 2 (gt a}arh)e[(t-2}4h)- B(4t-a}a7k) | 81 16% 765 1334) (5% _ 86% 28) (atl-aie t)e(gt-ath are " GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF DOT PRODUCT We know that A.B = ABcos@ = A(Bcos0) = A (comp, 3 ) A.B = ABcos@ = B(Acos0) = B (com, ) Boos @ A Figure (1.24)2 ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 1.22. APPLICATION OF DOT PRODUCT WORK DONE BY A FORCE In mechanics , we know that the w’ object through a distance d is given by W = Fd- ork done by a constant force of magnitude F in moving an ine of motion, If a constant force F moving an This formula holds only if the force is directed along the li the work is performed by the component object through a displacement | has some other direction , of F inthe direction of T . If @ is the angle between F and 1 as shown in figure (1.25) , then the work done am component of F } (a) we eS . = moved = in the direction of F = (Feos@)(r) = Freos@ = FoF 6 fe <5, then W>0. r Figure (1.25) If F and 7 are orthogonal , then the work done is zero . If © > E then W <0 , which means that in the displacement one has to do work against the force, EXAMPLE (12): Find the work done in moving an object along a vector T= the applied forceis F = 2f-j-k. SOLUTION: Work done = W = F-F = (2h-f-k).(3t42}-5k) = 6-245 =9 1.23 CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT or vector product ( also called the outer product ) of two The cross non-zero vectors A and B denoted by A x B is defined as AxB AxB =aBsinon, OSOSk waee 6 is the angle bormeen A and B and 1 the unit vector ns perpendicular to the plane of A and B_pointing in the direction of AxB e such that A, B, and A forma right handed system . [ see figure (1.26) ] A Figure (1.26) Since fh is aunit vector , A x B is a vector quantity and its magnitude is given by |AxB| = ABsin® aVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS 23 ie. the magnitude of A x B is the product of the magnitudes of A and Band the sine of the angle between them. From equation (1), the angle @ between A and B can be expressed a |AxBl sin® = AR (2) Note that AXA = (A)(A)sinO n= (A)(A)(0)n = 00 = 1.24 CROSS PRODUCT OF UNIT VECTORS THEOREM (1.7): If 1,}, and & are the unit vectors in the directions of x,y, and z-axis respectively , then prove that i AA j=kxk= ee xisjx xk=0 er epee fxpe-fxtek, jxk=-kxj =i, PROOF: Since the unit vectors 1,}, and & are mutually perpendicular , as shown in figure (1.18) , weet Txt = IT flsino®& = (1)(1y(oyk = 0 — Saf =U lsino?t = cycry(ayt = 0 ij ; fh = ILL [El sino} = (10) (0)3 Sad = ITIL ainsoté = cacpce =£ }xk = IFLR ingot = cncncat st : fe i TELIA | singo®f = (Cs = Figure (1.27) 125 CROSS PRODUCT IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS THEOREM (1.8): Prove that if A = Ayi+Az)+AsK and B = Bi +BrJ+Bok, then ta AxB=]A, Az As B, Bi Bs PROOF: We have >I oI " £)x(Bi1+B.}+Bs8) = (A; f+Ars +As Byeardx(Bileasd+Bsb)+Aske (a teBs}+ BR) = Ayix(B,P+B23+B> a tet ApBaixj+ArBsixh+ A: 2B Sate ArBsl x} easy }xk = ixt+A,Bo a ‘ ASB Rx + As Bakx} + AsBskxkcmauaanindien. | Bok nye he (ABs ABs) 94 Uge na THEOREM (19); Prove that x1 isorthogonal to both A and B « PROF, Ln K = AyteasieAst and B= BsleBi} Bol. then f+ (AsBy As BD) +041 Bs~A, By) RCAxB a (art ons} + Ash) [ArBs- Ay Ay(AnBy~AyBs) #A2(AsBy-AiBa)#As( ABs A2Bu) = Tous A wonton A xB Sinay we can stow ha B isonbogonalto A xB 445-28 men tind al = Geaylectear}ecseayk wiesfent (ieah-at)a(at-a}-ty 3h w 1.26 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF ‘CROSS PRODUCT THEOREM (110) Prove thatthe magnude of Xx represents the area of» partegs® ithaca sides K andYBCTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS, os The : Parelogram with les and i shown nga (128) eso aporlleogram = base x beg Then by forma MWB = Kiso Lit = Ikea ‘Noe that the area ofa Wiangle with sides A and B et 1Ax al ? Fewe 128 SXAMPLE(IS): Find the ate of paraogram wha adjacent sides are = T-a}eat wna Beats feat SOLUTION: Welnow hat te ret of puatogam= 1x | fF 3 6 Now 12 3] sU-steceoafocrearts steiofest ae Tose wea ofa puelogam = |A xi = Ist +10} +581 = OTTO TG? = Vi = 56 127 CONDITION FOR PARALLELISM ‘THEOREM (1.11): Prove that any two non-aero vectors Nand Hare paral and only if PROOF: Heace Kx Conresely if Ax ‘Since & isa unit vector and A # 0 and B #0, thisimplics that sin © = 0 or @ = 0" oF 180" ie X and B se parallel NOTE: a component form, this condition becomes (Abs asBy tea B AB FHA BABE # chm that AvBs-AsBy = 0, AsB)-AsBy= 0, ArBr-ArBs = 06 a ALOEBRA OF vecton on BoB a ACT ART AL= = Soreny scr m, eT AEAD = By: Bis By ‘ch is the same condition as that bined ‘inexample (4) on page (9) EXAMPLE (IS): Show tat the vectors A=2tss}-sh ana i $83 +108 are parane ‘SOLUTION: Weknow that A and 5 ‘ae parallel if and only if A xB = ee Nowsince AxB= [2 5 4-8 (40-4026 (20-20)} 4-16 41698 ofrofsok= 3 ‘Therefore A and B are parallel 128 PROPERTIES OF CRoss PRODUCT ‘THEOREM (1.12): If A, B, and © are three vectors, and m ‘any scalar , then prove that © KxBo-Bxk (Anti commut Law) Kx(B4E) AaB eke (Distebotive Law i) (A+B) xB Kees bxs (Distributive Law ) (9) m(KxB) = (ma) = Re(mB) = (ZH) m PROOF: Wetave ny fy e @ -BxXe-Ja. o. Bs] =]ar as ay| = x5 aa: al Te, py or AxB e-BxA ‘Thus reversing the order ofthe vector in s cos product reverses the sign of he cross pode ie commune hw fr os po fas. Tk opr nae ede se see W@ — -Kx(B+E) - AxBeAxe la Remtemteak Tem temteae at @-c\teefeestt fk A as Bite, Biecy Brey wing» propery ofthe detemicants, we have Ax(B+é)= tm) (xB) = (mA )xB w Rei te Ke Asisarjea and B= a, TeB,}sps,tnen pe AL Ay 0 e ofa Ney, o Also (Ax )m = m(AxB) From equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) webs¥e m(AxB) = (mA )xB = Ax(mB 1.29 APPLICATIONS OF CROSS PRODUCT () MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT Let us find an expression forthe moment of © force F abouts point Pat shown in igure (129) It mechanics the moment M. of fore F about «post P is defined as M=Fé o where dis the perpendicular distance between P_ and the line of action L of F . If 7 is the vector from P ‘the initial point Q of F then d= sind 2 where 0 isthe angle between 7 and F . Fromeqaton (1) and (2) FxFl M F(rsin) = rind ‘nso te direction of 7 x Fis perpendicular tthe plane of and TF forming right-handed ye “Ths itis convenient wo define the moment ie teF ds caled te moment vero eter moment of about P. (The momen messes te te ‘ofaforce F totum the body about P). HaAMPLe.an: Atte dren by F = 34¢21-4E applied wt te peat Q(1-102 Find the veer momento F abet the pont P(2,1,3). SOLUTION: Let ¥ bethe vector joining the points P(2,—1,3) and Q(1,-1,2) je Fe (eaytacrei}e(2-ayk=feop-e P. Momeatot F stout P(2,-1,3) is a ra H-75F= | 0 | «at 2 sandVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS. » @) LINEAR VELOCITY OF A ROTATING BODY ‘Consider arigd body rotating about an axis through the origin © with uniform angult speed Lat P be any point of the body and its stance from he ais of rotation. We know thatthe maid fe linear velocity Le. linear speed i given by IWl-v= od o Let 7 be the positon vector ofthe point P relative wo the igi ©. Since P moves onacicleof radius 4, therefore, a= sind ‘whee @ itheanglehesween @ and ‘rom equation (1) and 2), we get Ww ‘Aso, ¥ ustbe perpendiclsrtboth @ and F andi such that 7, @ and V forma right-handed system, e ‘Tus Tgres both in magne and dcetion with x7 : resuap, tence V = @x F The vector & iecaled he angular velocity ‘Thus we have proved thatthe lner velocity ofa point P ofthe body with postion vector i given y V= ax where @ i the vector with magnitude © whos direction is tht of the axis of rotation asshown in igure (1.31) EXAMPLE (17: SOLUTION: Linear velocity ¥ ‘The angular velocity of a rotating body about an axis of rotation is given by @ = 4f+]-20. Find the tincar velocity of a point Pon the body whose ‘position vector relative to point © on the axis of rotation is F =2 1-3} +h. Since 7 = 21-3} +f, terefore tie xr =a 1 -2 = (1-6) (4-4) fe (- 12-29 ~si-sj-uk» ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 1.30 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT UK, B, and © ae any tree non-zero vectors» ten as A.( Bx). Note that fir we then the scalar oF dt product of K with Bx is calle the salar wile provet and is wet save oak he roan then dt atheist expreston K «(B x G ) bees sx salar quantity. Te salar triple product is sometime called he box es meanBges Aly xe) is itis clear tat K -( product andis denoted by [A B.C] NOTE: The partes wed in A (Bx) ae aot necesny because K «Bx comely ieepeed as K.(BxE) of (AB scala wit vector is undefined [SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS Ge ater has no meaning since the cross prod of a THEOREM (19; Provethate = AvieAsD+Ak, B= DiteBs] +Bsk me as a Ay Tecitecstrerk, men X.Bxe= |B, Br cr Gy Go PRooF: Wetwe tee AeBx@= Ae] 5, By Bs cc = (asteda}s asf)-[@.05-B,C9%+@5¢)-B1C9) +(6,C,-B,C08] # As(DsC3-ByCi)+As(ByCs-ByCs)+As(BCs-BICs) AAA = [a BB eG & EXaMLgy: Ko 2t-s}eak, B= F438, SOLUTION: Weksow hat AAD As! [2-3 4 K.GBxE)= [BB Belt 1-1 cc ol ts 0-1 = 2(-1-0)+3(-143)44(0-3) = -246-12VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS ” 132 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS oF UNTT VECTORS THEOREM (1419: Provettat Txt = f.kxt ef.te} aa and Toe} e ftak et fat ROOF Webne fiat tetet ao fat ot ‘Aeration or be einige dt, we obi 100 ajxt=|o 1 of a 001 The terse tip rod lows oe 1.33 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF MAGNITUDE OF &.BxC THEOREM (1.15): Prove that the mayaitde of X.BxG represets the volume of # paralllopiped with sides XB, and €. PROOF: Conder the paeopiped wih ike 48x KB and & as shown in the figure (132). 10h she atid then we know tat Volume V ofthe prielpiped (height h) (ata of tebe program) ( =hIBxEl = A1BxEl eo = A-Bxe whee 0 iste angleberween A and Bx Te yea E50, tite woseeS ieit Ai jant © fomarght-tanied sytem & te Zeose test RB and € domttemasigt-tankd ae, tea 2. x6 <0 “Tnsinboth cases, the mageitode of A. Hx G repens the volame V of he pariopiped EXAMPLE (1): Find the volume ofthe parllelopped determined by aget, B= -2tesk ana @ = 7f-af x SOLUTION: Wehme Rix) =« ALGEBRA OF VEcTon, = 1(0-21)=2(8-0)=1(- 14-0) = 21-1644 = -23 ‘Then the volume of the paralislopiped is |. Bx G1 = |-231 = 23 134 CONDITION FOR COPLANARITY THEOREM (116): Prove that necessary and sulin condition forthe vectors X tobe copanaristhat «BX = 0. PROOF: 1 K,B, and & ace cpt en te volume of te panlelopiped fom themis eo, and so by teorem(118). X-BxE «0 Conversely, if A. Bx E = 0, the volume ofthe panllopped formed bythe vectors A,B and @ ts zero, and ote vectors mut ein plane Le. they are coplanar EXAMPLE (20): Show that the vectors A = 2 i-J+k, G = 34-4} +50 arecoplanar. ‘Te thre vectors wile coplnarit K «x 2(10-12)41(549)+1(-4-6) 3-4 14-10 =0 “Thu the given vectors ae coplanar. 1.38 PROPERTIES OF SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT ‘THEOREM (1.17): If jand © are any three non ~ zero vectors then prove that o a @ i wy ow & PROOF: @ R.(BxE) = B.(ExA)By e (ExR) = B(x) ‘usc ner ofthe Yet ina clr pe product eaves vase changed wo 4.(BxE)=(AxB).E yop) wave RC BxG) = C.(AxB) R.(Bxe) = = (AxB).E (since dor roost commutive) ‘is shows ta ot and ros in scalar ple rodct canbe intchanged without changing is ve ‘Ts property called the fundamental ett fo te scalar tiple prodct w (Axe) =0 Websre bypropeny Gi) A-(AxE Sway wecanpove C.BxE = 0 and A.Bx ‘Ths property shows tht if ny two vector in a ela ipl product re equa then the valu of he clr tiple roducis 20 K.BxG =-4.0x8 “This follows ftom the fact that B x © = - © xB . This property shows thatthe scalar triple produc is readin sg ifthe eee nde of he vectors changed. whe tedeot, B--i-B, ana C= 2hsa}-28, EXAMPLE @): erty dat € SOWWTON: — Weluve 454k 0ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 140 fecrsipfecor tk = -festek 2 (RxB).E = (-Tesfok).(ateaf-2b) =-2¢12-2 Comparison of equations (1) and 2) shows hat (Ax8).E RCBxe) 136 VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT 1 K,B, and © ae thee non-sxo vectors, then the vector oF ers prot of K wih x is called the vector tiple product and is writen as Ax(BXE). Now dat parentheses must be used in Ax(B xT) because an expression bike AxBxC is ambigoous the result depends on whether we form Ax firstor Bx © frst Ingeneral Ax(BxC) 4 (AxB)xe ‘The veewwe A x (Bx) is perpendicular to both K and BE, bar BxE ienfhetoserier cic| ) ein te plane of B and C,s0 Ax of B and © orins plae parallel vo that Hand ©. Thus the product Ax (Bx C ) represents & ecto coplanar with Band © but perpendicular K a shown in gure (1.33) 1.37 FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITIES FOR THE VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT ‘THEOREM (18); Prove that Figure (1.33) o Ax(Bx€) = (4.6) B-(A.B)E w (Kui )xé = (4.6) B-(B.E)K rroor, Ka Asteafeask, Beastensfeat, Facitecsfecst. tee iy 8 © Ax(Bxe)= (AteasoaQel ey a a, ac oy Asbea} eAsR)xL(B26)-B563)1+(8,6)-B1Cs)} +(B)C2-BCHIE]econ AI TERGOR ANALYTES ‘ » ‘ i t Ay AL Ay BsCi-BsCs ByCy-B,C, B\C,-B,C, = (ArBiCa~A3BsC)~AyByC)+A,B,C5)? #(AsB165~A5B)Ci-A, B,C +A BSC,)} +(A1BsC)~AsB)Cy~A2BsC)+A2B,Ca)8 © pw (KiB) B= (NC ALCL AICS)A( Aepsjemsb) (ABCA BIC eABICyE +(A,BiC, A,B,C +AsB:65)} F(ALBsCit ALB Cat A,B Cy)R (RBG = (ABs 4A Br+AsBs)-(CiT ses} 4esk) = (ABCi+ALBICLFADBIC)T +(A1BiCi#A2B.Ci+AsB3Ca)} H(ALBiCst ABiCs#ArBiCs yk (RE) B-(A.B)E = (AB ,Cr4 As BiCs-AsBICL-ADBsC VDT #(AB3C14AsB3Cs-AyBC3-AsBsC3)} $(ANBsC)+A:B3Cs-A:BiCy-AsBsCs)E@) (Comparing equations (1) and 2), we cncde tat Rx(BxE) =(4.8)8-(A.B)E ® (AxB)xe Now that Ax (Bx) # (AxB)xE ‘Thats the associative law for vector triple product is not valid forthe vector A [NOTR: These fundamental ident area remembered by the mid-term ale ‘The vector ile product is equal to the mide vector whose coefficient i the scalar product of th ‘emsing vectors mis the ator vetr inthe pareateses whos coef is th salar produc of th ‘mining vectors.1% ALGEBRA OF VECTORS, atef-2k, ana G=-f+2}-f, cateulate §—() Ax(BxE) — Ga) (AxB)xE SOLUTION: (By theorem (118) pst (0), wehave o ai (t-B48).(atef-ak) = 2-1 (KiB) = 1 Banh hy = ah ek ‘Thus rom equation (1), we gt Kx(BxE) = (-st-aj+st)-(f-aj+k) =-9f-2}+7k H)—_Bytheorem (1.18) part i), we bave (AxB)x€ = (K.6)B-(B.E)A @ Now (A.E)B=-st-a}+at — [tompand] (atej-aky.(te2}-f) = 20202 02 and (B.C)A = 2(t-f4k) = 2%-2feak “Ths fom equation (2), we get Kx(Bx) = (-8t-4}+8b)-(2i-2}+2k) = -10f-2}s6k ‘THEOREM (1.19): Prove that a necessary and suicent condition that Rx(Bx6) = (4 x€ is (AxC)xBNOTE: The condition (AxE)xB uF @ tepiet AXE and B epee. ot Ax tpeeadato tH aad & tentae 5 ‘spendin bot A sod E. The above comin (1) inplis hacer Xx = 3 oe =. See B+ 8, dereore Ax = F wbichinples tat X and Z we prt Ths te heorem canbe tated nan terse forms fons rovethati A, By & srenon—rervand Ax (ix) = (Kx )xE then ether 0 B teperpendicuarto both X and © or Gi) X and © are paral, EXAMPLE G3): It K -2}48, B=-2hefeat, ond & then show that Ax(ix€) = (AxB)xe. By theorem (1.18) parti), we have Ax(BxC) =(A.8)8-(A.B)E o Now oak) a 2ens20 12 2(-atefoak) = 20a rafeat wd KB = (S-afok).(-2tsfeat) = 2-243 (K.B)E = -1(2t shook) =-2teaj-ak Ths om eiton 1), we get Ru(BxE) = (248+ 2} +368)-(-2t 445-28) = -atesfeset ® Ao (Axi )x& = (A.E)B-(B.C)A @ Nov (K.G)B =-24tei2}es6€ [tomar] BoE = (-ahefast).(ah-af 2b) = -4-446 md (BLE) Aw -2(3-2) +8) = 20 ea} 2k8 ALGEBRA OF VECTORS, “Thus from equation (2), we et Rx(Bxb) = (-m beta} es6b)-(-atea}-28) = -misaj+sek wo ‘From equations (3) and (4), we se tht Ru Bub) = (Ax) xe 138 SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS OF FOUR VECTORS “The concepts of salar triple prodct and veto tiple product mak it possible 10 eva te fotlowing salar and vector product of four vectors ‘THEOREM (1.20): Prove that o » PROOF: tat = (AxB) then (AxB).(ExB) = [(AxB) xe]. = (4.0)8-G. = (K.E)(B.B)-C which my be writen in the form of determina rp roca Lge @ Weknowtha Xx(ExD) =(K.D)E-(K.E)D La X= AxB, then (AxB)x(ExD) =‘yoCTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS » 139 LINEAR COMBINATION oF VEcTOoRS WA and Be ny 00 vector sad yt sel en expr of fom mA+aB iscaledatneaconbiowonot X snd 3 Ka men vectas and C1.C3 ingeneral if Ay, Aa Inert Cy, seals outer) en sropesionsftieferm C1214: Aa tot yhy isc stir combination ie vecees Ky, Bay sory EXAMPLE Q4: Express © = 41-5 +i asa tinear combination of A Bast-sferk. SOLUTION: By definion C= mA+n 0 forsome scalars mand a sts fk = m(2t. sfeben(at-ste2ty (2ms3n)h4(-3m-Sa)} +(me20yk ging the coeteientsof 1,3, and &, we get 4 n3m-5 ameso Saving hve equations, we get_ m= S$ and n= ~2 ‘Tas fiom equation (1), we gt G2 3K-28 EXAMPLE (GS): Fy = 2h f+, F.= fes}-ai and Fy = 34425 +58, Express Fy, Fayand Fo. SOLUTION: Wernqute 74 = Cy 71+C: 7240s Fs o fienge alr C),C3, 12d Cy a steafest = cy(2t-fet)eca(tea}-2t)ecs(-2%6f-s8) a aqecy2entec-creserecnnfe(cs-26,-36n8 Ring ecw fff, weet Teieracja’. -CwaGsecs= 4, Cy-26r-$Cs Sohing tite qouons geet Ci ==2 Cres Cy¥-3 Thus fromequition (I), eget Fa —-2 Fit Fa-3 Fy< ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 1.40 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE OF VECTORS ‘Two vectors A and Bare sid to be linsy dependent if here exist two scalars mand 9 {no both 20), such at mA+nB = o ln general, a set of vectors A, Any veuesA q it sid tobe linearly dependent if there exists «set of seal C4, Cpy osnrs Cay (otal zero) sch that ©) Ry 4a Rat nnn $Ca Ae @ I no such seis of scalars ens, ie. if all the scalars in the above equations (1) and 2) are zero simultaneously, then the vectors involved ste sad to be lincary independent. In this defniion , n 2 2. If n = 1, so thatthe st consists ofa single vector A, we call K whe Tineary dependent if A = 1 and ine independent it K # 6 Pwecuple.towam Zisatastet, Kynatfol mt Aymater}-t ena doped since the slecdonof Cy #3, Ci = 2, Cy=-t showihat Cy KreyAaeey Ay = 3(2te3}-b)+2(-2t-Fok) =(2herf-B) =o ‘The unit vectors A, = 1, Az =}, As =f sretineaty independent since Oy Ai 4Cs Katey Ay = Cih+Cs oak = only when C; = Cr = Ca =0 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF EQUATIONS (1) AND (2) It m ¢ 0 equation (1) an be writen as A = (n/m) which shows that A is scr mip ot Ths code a! wo eo ely dependent ian onli ey wel onde oerhand, Kant Bae sor an orp, te none of eto cane eed arn sc ft eran here es a newt inked and conven venue hat n> 2 Egon (2 ceri tls fo Cy = Cz # wren = Gy =O. He an indecent Cup voe- Cy» (ntl sich at quinn me an vie b+ scalar Ci # 0 and represent the coresponding vector A as linear combination ofthe ober. Fo" trample, if equation 2) hols witha C, # 0, we obtain rom equation (2) Bae gs Ay = -@4,-Bas- ° K,A1+Ks Ass.yecTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS a ¢ perioral, fee, oe as ws, ints case YOM consti nety dependent aoa ise eny eto sel which eqution 2) ads, e cnt seq (2) sy adie vetors const a Hinealy independent set. Hence et ald ner dependent tif lea on of he eco Ses. The ses called lineal independ =Cy20 the vectors, otavecor Ky, Ray souesy scan be repesated sear combination of the sti none of he vectors can be represented in that manne. 41 COLLINEAR VECTORS: two veo Kant Bow aid w te cota if ey aprile 1 he sme wig ae x . x toc wien thin points coincide, hey i along o fore i ne sown iu 9) fe ag twotte ven K sad B uvcoliny tm B «mi, ‘where m is a scalar. Herice one of the two collinear vectors Figure (1.34) cabecnpated etter milf ober HPOREM (120): X and Hare no-oaear ( no-puralLe neey Independent) ‘vectors , then prove that any vector © in the plane of A and B can be csprested as stn contin ot K and B te, Ge xk yh bere x and yar gy ermine sear. PROOF: ‘Two vectors K and Bare snd to be non caller they a ot pal te ‘ame sigh ie. Hence wien hil on cine, ny demi plane ‘ide te vector Tin the plane of A and B having its nial pin coiciat with the inl points of A and B 0. From the terminal point of F const tines Parle 10 the vectors A and B and complete the Panlelgram OPQR by extension ofthe lines of acton of 0 FH and 8 toecenay. [See fnwe(135)] pw (135) Now OQ = OR+RQ = OF +OR Since OP ispurael to A and OR isp o B , webave Ob = xX ant OR» 9 forse miuble seals x <1, > 1 Hence, Fx Ky B wa ALGEBRA OF VECTOR; “The vectors x and yar called component vectors of © inthe directions of A and § respectively. The vectors K and B areclled base vstsina plane, To tow that x andy ac uniucly determined, asine a the exist x” andy life tng sandy sochthat, Cav ary ® ‘Subuacting equation 2) rom equation (1), we get (ex) Aegny B= 8 But Hand B are nary independest ad hence non-zero vectors. Thus it imple that x=" = 9 and y-y = 0. Hence x = x’ and y = y’. This contradicts our assumption . Thus the scalar lps andy ae wig ‘THEOREM (1.22): Prove that if A and B are non-collinear vectors, then o x Key =O implics x=y= 0, Key B= xy At ysB implies x= ony y= ya PROOF: © Suppose x #0. Then xh +yB = 6 -(i)B implies xK = -yB oe K fe Wand B must be paral othe sume ie (colina) contrary to hypothesis ‘Thus x = 0; then y B = 0 from which y Wx Aty,B =x: AtysB canbe wrinenas (unm) Re Qin) B= 0 Hence by pat (),webave xy-x2= 0, ysmys= 0 oF xy ‘THEOREM (1.23): Show that a necessary and sfficent condition thatthe vectors ne Mes ReAtea}eark B= wisest +Bk, C= cfeeJsok beinearly independent i that sy K.BxC= |B, By B,| 40. ©. ccs PROOF: Let A, and © be linearly independent vectors . Then these vectors are nat ‘onlanar ie. they ar not ying in he same plane. Thus the volume of the parllelonped formed bythe ects KB and € tenon zero‘VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS Ay Ay Ay Hence RBC BBs] 40 Gt cy ‘Tous the conditions ecesenry Ar Ay Ay Conversely, et K.BxE= |B, 8, Bs] wo ce ‘Thus the volume ofthe paalicloppedfomed by he vectors A,B, and © is ot zero which implies hat tes vectors ae noo-coplanar . Hence he vets A ‘he condition i suicient and. © eles independent. That EXAMPLE (6): Determine whether the following ss of vectors are linearly dependent ot Aart independet © Reatefest, Te tak, eatesit @ Kefesfeat, Beateai-t, Sesteaht. ais ‘SOLUTION: @ Sine A.BxG=]1 0-4] =24-15-920 sat heer the given vectors, and are coplaar. Hence any vector ca be express ination of te ote two vectors. Consequeay he given set of vectors inary dependent 1-3 2 Sie K.BxE=|2 -4 -1| = 6sae-41¥0 Ba oa hence by there (1.23), the givens of vectors iinet ndependes 142 COPLANAR VECTORS fee at i,t elt me coe ory ot pend be rn ae erway eon, ty ten pnw iw (136)) bet Figure (1.36) Tones cans aX, Hak © are ay te nope (1 tery npn) etn hat cer Cn prem xed ee combination ofthe vectors , By nd Cie, Ba xk ey Bere where x,y and 2 are wniquey determined scalars.PROOF: Take the vector B having its Inkl point coincident with the ini poins of KR, B, and E at 0 asshownin figure (137) Then OP = OR+RO+ OP = OR+08+0r But OR isparallel© A, OS isparaliel to B Figure 137) and OF is parle to G , therefore we have OR xk, OS=yB, Gt= xT torsomesuiablesealas x <1, yl, 2>1 Hence B= x Avy +28 ‘The vectors x A, yB, and 2€ ae called component vectors of D in the direction o¢ KB, aad E respectively. The vectors K, B, and C are called base vectors in thee — dimensions. Asa special ease. it KB and E ae hewn vectors 5 and which a may Perpendicular, we se that any vector 1 can be expressed uniquely in terms of 1}, & by the expression Darteyfexk. atoir G = 0, ten D mustic inthe plane of and B so thatthe resitot theorem (1.21) i obtained To show that x. y. and 1 ae uniquely determined assume that sere exist x’, y’, and dees fiom x.y.and sch tat Deatksybeve o ‘Subeatng equation (2) fom equation (1), we get OD RY BLE AT sand © ste cay independent and hence non-zero vectors. Th it ips dat Ny = yf and 2 = 2), This conmadics our AoX 50, y-¥' = 0, and 2-2! = 0. Heace sssumpin Thu the sealer mules x, y, ae unique NOTE: Any tet of thee mtu perpendicular unt vectors i sido be an orthonormal et. Recut ‘ny sea vecor in tee dimesional ce canbe represented as linear combination of 1 a ‘therefore the set of unit vectors 7,7), isan orthonormal set