COURSE MANUAL

E9: Disaster Management

Module 6
Relief and Recovery

Open University of Mauritius

MAURITIUS
2014
Copyright
© Commonwealth of Learning 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this course may be reproduced in any form by any means without prior
permission in writing from:
Commonwealth of Learning
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Open University of Mauritius

Reduit
MAURITIUS
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Email: [email protected]
Website: www.open.ac.mu
2014
Acknowledgements
The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) wishes to thank those below for their contribution to the
development of this course:
Course coordinator Professor Wayne Greene
(original version) Director, Disaster Preparedness Resource Centre
Centre for Human Settlements
(School of Community and Regional Planning)
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada

Principal writer Taranjot Gadhok

Research Associate, DPRC
Centre for Human Settlements
Senior Fellow, Human settlement Management Institute, HUDCO
India

Topic consultant Dr. Laurie Pearce (PhD)

Research Associate, DPRC

Course designer Stephanie Dayes

Vancouver, Canada

Course authors Dave Hutton, PhD Modules 1,

(revised version) United Nations Relief and Works Agency 2, 6.
(UNRWA)
Jerusalem, West Bank Field

Susan Gilbert, MA, Disaster and Emergency Modules 1,

Management 2, 6.
Gilbert Consulting
Toronto, Canada

Wayne Dauphinee, MHA Modules 3,

Victoria, Canada 4, 5, 7.

Sue Olsen Module 7

Vancouver, Canada

Course editor Symbiont Ltd.

Otaki, New Zealand

COL would also like to thank the many other people who have contributed to the writing of this
course.
 E9: Disaster Management

Contents
Module 6 1
Relief and Recovery.......................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1

Unit 15 2
Emergency relief and humanitarian assistance ................................................................. 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 2
Terminology...................................................................................................................... 2
Emergency relief and humanitarian assistance ................................................................. 3
Emergency shelter ................................................................................................... 5
Water ....................................................................................................................... 5
Hygiene and sanitation ............................................................................................ 6
Food and nutrition ................................................................................................... 7
Health care ............................................................................................................... 7
Protection................................................................................................................. 8
Education ................................................................................................................. 9
Psychosocial support ............................................................................................. 10
Conducting an assessment .............................................................................................. 11
Examples of needs assessments ............................................................................ 13
Activity 6.1 ..................................................................................................................... 17
Minimum standards ............................................................................................... 18
Sphere project ................................................................................................................. 19
Humanitarian accountability partnership international (HAP International) ................. 22
The Inter-agency Standing Committee (IASC) .............................................................. 23
United Nations (UN) standards....................................................................................... 25
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 27

Unit 16 29
Post-disaster recovery ..................................................................................................... 29
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 29
Terminology.................................................................................................................... 29
Planning for recovery: a development focus .................................................................. 30
Recovery planning principles ................................................................................ 32
Developing an early recovery plan ........................................................................ 33
Strengthening disaster reduction and emergency response ................................... 37
Barriers and solutions to recovery .................................................................................. 38
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 42

Activity Answers 43
Activity 6.1 ............................................................................................................ 43
ii Contents

Assignment 2 44

References 45

Further reading 46
 E9: Disaster Management

Module 6

Relief and Recovery

Introduction
Module 6 focuses on the relief and recovery phase of disasters. In the
immediate aftermath of a disaster, survivors require basic assistance to
survive including shelter, food and medical care. With time (as these
immediate needs are met), survivors will need assistance to begin to
rebuild their lives and communities.
The term relief is most often associated with humanitarian crises caused
by devastating disasters or refugee crises associated with wars and
conflicts. In some cases, this emergency phase may last months or years
should the situation remain unstable. One example of this is the 2005-
2006 food security crisis in the Horn of Africa (more than 11 million
people were in crisis in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia)
where the emergency phase (which focused on emergency food
distribution and humanitarian assistance), continued for well over a year.
Recovery, on the other hand, refers to a rebuilding phase. The duration of
this phase depends not only the extent of damage and disruption caused
by a disaster but also the effect on the economy and resources of the
impacted country. The amount of assistance received from the outside
will also determine how quickly a community or country recovers.
Upon completion of this module you will be able to:

 define a complex humanitarian crisis

 describe a population’s needs and how these may change over
time (immediate, medium- and long-term)
Outcomes  apply assessment tools that may be used to identify beneficiary
needs
 discuss the importance of implementing interventions in
accordance to international standards of humanitarian assistance.

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Unit 15

Unit 15

Emergency relief and

humanitarian assistance
Introduction
This first unit discusses the needs of communities and people in the
immediate aftermath of a disaster, or during a conflict or refugee crisis.
The second unit focuses on the longer-term recovery needs and the
importance of framing these within a resiliency-building and
development context.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 identify different types of disaster relief and humanitarian

assistance
 describe key steps that should be followed when assessing
Outcomes the needs of people affected by disasters
 explain different guidelines and standards that have been
developed by humanitarian organisations
 identify different types of assessment tools that can be used
to assess relief needs
 discuss the importance of having minimum standards for
humanitarian assistance
 explain different examples of minimum standards guidelines.

Terminology
Convergence When aid received is not appropriate or useful to
the affected population, for example when old
clothing, bedding, or medicines are improperly
sent.
Terminology
Psychosocial A process of facilitating resilience within
support individuals, families and communities while
respecting individuals’ and communities’
independence and dignity and strengthening
peoples’ innate coping mechanisms.

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 E9: Disaster Management

Emergency relief and

humanitarian assistance
Emergency relief and humanitarian assistance is more often associated
with large-scale disasters or complex humanitarian crises such as
conflicts and refugee crises.
The intent of this assistance is to relieve the immediate distress of
affected populations through the provision of vital services (such as food
aid to prevent starvation) by aid agencies and the provision of funding or
in-kind services (like logistics or transport), usually through aid agencies
or the government of the affected country. This is different from
development aid which aims to address the root causes of poverty or
vulnerability.
International organisations have a significant role in providing emergency
relief and humanitarian assistance.
In response to the 2004 Asian Tsunami, for example, national
governments provided close to USD 6 billion in aid to support the
response.
Figure 1 in the following case study shows other sources of international
aid.

Case Study: 2004 Asian tsunami

On December 26, 2004 a massive earthquake struck off the western coast
of Sumatra, Indonesia.
Case study With an approximate magnitude of 9.2, it was the second-largest
earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph, and caused the entire planet
to vibrate 1cm. The earthquake triggered a series of tsunamis affecting 14
countries bordering the Indian Ocean, resulting in the deaths of over
230,000 people, and causing more than 10 million people to be displaced
or homeless. Countries hardest hit by the tsunami were Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, India and Thailand.
The scale of this disaster necessitated the assistance of the international
community.
Figure 1 shows the significant international response to the disaster.

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Unit 15

Figure 1: International response to the 2004 Asian Tsunami

Source: Flint, M. & Goyder, H. (2006)

One of the challenges in providing effective relief and humanitarian

assistance after disasters is ensuring that it is co-ordinated and meets the
needs of the affected population. It is common after disasters that people
and organisations want to help by sending supplies and materials they
think will be helpful.
There is a phenomenon called convergence which is when aid received is
not appropriate or useful to the affected population, such as when old
clothing, bedding, or even medicines and other supplies are improperly
sent.
It is also common for people to converge on disaster sites with the hope
of helping the affected population. While trained volunteers are critical in
disaster relief, untrained individuals who are not affiliated with any
organisation can interfere with on-going relief and recovery efforts.
In the event of a disaster, it is important that the government of the
affected country conduct a thorough needs assessment to determine what
emergency supplies and personnel are required.
The needs in a disaster are strategic and selective needs such as
equipment, supplies and services are needed in particular quantities,
types, times and places. These needs should be effectively assessed and
communicated to those relief organisations that will potentially provide
assistance.
The needs of disaster-affected populations will obviously differ
depending on the type of disaster as well as the pre-existing structure of
the community.
Priorities related to emergency relief generally include any of the
following.

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 E9: Disaster Management

Emergency shelter
This is a critical determinant for survival in the initial stages of a disaster.
Beyond immediate protection from the elements, survival, and enhanced
resistance to ill health and disease, shelter is necessary to provide security
and personal safety. It is also important for human dignity and to sustain
family and community life as far as possible in difficult circumstances.
The type of response required to meet the shelter needs of populations
affected by a disaster is determined by key factors such as:
 the nature and scale of the disaster (and the resultant loss of
housing)
 the local environment
 climatic conditions
 the context (rural or urban) and the ability of the community to
cope.
Shelter options can include:
 staying with family, friends or community hosts
 placement in private or public structures including churches,
schools, or community halls
 placement in camps set up for the short or medium term.
Whenever possible, temporary housing (using prefabricated materials)
should be avoided. These units are often expensive and use resources that
might be better directed toward rebuilding survivors’ permanent homes.
Additionally, temporary shelters can often become long-term or even
permanent solutions for more marginalised populations.
As a general rule, survivors should be assisted in rebuilding their homes,
taking into account a number of simple principles:
1. The best way to meet the emergency shelter needs is to ensure
availability of materials or shelter similar to that normally used
by the population. This will help ensure that materials that are
both readily accessible and affordable.
2. Request outside supplies (such as plastic sheeting for roofing or
tents) only if absolutely necessary. Be sure to account for
inclement weather when tents are used.
3. When rebuilding homes and businesses, the design of
reconstructed buildings should be based on proper technical
advice and proven experience.
4. Construction itself should be sustainable and based on pre-
existing building techniques used by local builders or craftsmen.

Water
This is among the most critical needs for survival in the aftermath of
major disasters.

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People affected by disasters are generally much more susceptible to

illness and death from disease, (in large part) because of inadequate
sanitation, inadequate water supplies and poor hygiene.
In some cases, the water system of a community might be severely
damaged (or be of) insufficient quantity. Depending on the situation, the
water needs of a community might be met by using:
 trucks or other means to transport water from the outside
 pumping water from a nearby community
 filtering
 using other treatments to clean contaminated water.
Emergency managers should always ensure the availability of enough
safe drinking water to meet the minimum health and hygiene needs of a
population including:
 drinking
 cooking
 washing
 bathing.
Planning considerations should include:
 Ensuring water distribution points are accessible and take into
account the special needs of more vulnerable groups such as:
o the elderly
o persons with disabilities and
o women in insecure environments.
 Households have (or are provided) suitable containers for
collecting and storing water. Households should also receive
instructions on decontaminating water.
 Households should be encouraged to conserve and recycle water
supplies.
 Quality testing and treatment is carried out wherever
contamination is suspected.

Hygiene and sanitation

This is usually of most serious concern after a disaster.
Disruptions in water supplies and sewage systems can pose serious health
risks to victims because they decrease the amount and quality of available
drinking water and create difficulties in waste disposal.
Drinking water can be contaminated by breaks in sewage lines or the
presence of animal cadavers in water sources. These factors can facilitate
the spread of disease after a disaster.

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When planning for the hygiene and sanitation needs of an affected

population, the following principles should be considered:
 Ensure people have access to adequate washing facilities with
proper drainage.
 Ensure arrangements for the collection, storage and disposal of:
human waste, wastewater and garbage so to minimise the risks of
disease spreading due to contamination of the environment.
 Insects and rodents may be problematic in areas where food,
standing water and/or excreta is present, for example, in
temporary emergency settlements or camps. In these cases,
vector control is critical to reducing the risk of disease and
illness.

Food and nutrition

This is an obvious need after disasters to ensure the basic sustenance of
people and to prevent the deterioration of the nutritional condition.
Depending on the type of disaster, existing food stocks may be destroyed
or disruptions to distribution systems may prevent the delivery of food.
Should a population be displaced, there will be an immediate need to
provide adequate foodstuffs to avoid hunger and malnutrition.
In these situations, food relief programmes should consider the following
elements:
 The actual (or foreseeable lack of access to food), not only
because of decreased supplies but also as a consequence of
reduced purchasing power among survivors. This may be because
of lost employment and earning opportunities and/or rising food
costs because of food scarcity.
 Even when supplies are adequate, there may be a mal-distribution
of available supplies between different communities as well as
between (or within) households
 Some groups of people may be more affected by food deficits
than others. Particular attention should be given to more
vulnerable survivors such as pregnant women, infants, young
children and the elderly.
 When populations are displaced ensure people have the means to
prepare and cook food, including cooking utensils and fuel.
 Self-reliance through the re-establishment of local food
production, distribution and marketing systems should be
considered a priority.

Health care
This is critical to ensuring basic medical care and treatment, access to
drugs and other essential supplies and the control of communicable
diseases.

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Unit 15

Emergencies may result not only in a loss of lives but an increased

incidence of diseases. This is especially relevant in developing countries
where there is higher incidence of:
 diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera)
 acute respiratory infections (pneumonia)
 malnutrition
 Malaria.
Emergency health operations should consider the following:
 Provision of medical treatment for casualties and the seriously ill,
thereby mitigating the immediate health consequences of the
event.
 Provision of accessible primary health care to diagnose and treat
non-urgent injuries and illnesses that occur in the course of
everyday living. When possible, these services should be
implemented with the aim of reinforcing pre-existing health
services.
 Access to essential medicines and supplies for persons with
chronic diseases, disabilities and HIV/AIDS.
 Rapid establishment of epidemiological surveillance to detect and
mitigate the outbreak of communicable diseases and emphasise
preventative public health and control measures which will
reduce the incidence of communicable diseases (for example,
ensuring clean water and sanitation practices).
 Provision of maternal and child health to ensure the health of
new-born infants and young children, pregnant women and
lactating mothers.

Protection
This is essential to ensure that the basic human rights of disaster-affected
survivors, refugees and displaced persons are not violated.
During emergencies (and especially civil conflicts where there is a
breakdown of law and order) people may be at significant risk of human
rights violations and other forms of abuse.
Examples of protection violations include:
 sexual violence against women and girls
 forcible conscription of young males at humanitarian sites
 attacks on displaced persons by armed groups
 blockage of humanitarian deliveries
 theft or diversion of humanitarian assistance.
Important protection issues to keep in mind during relief operations
include:

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 During and after an emergency, adequate shelter, food, water,

essential health and other services should be provided to the
affected population without discrimination of any kind.
Adequacy of services and goods means that these are available,
accessible and acceptable to the population.
 Should populations be settled in temporary camps, the location
and lay-out of these camps should maximise the safety of the
survivors (for example, in areas with a low natural hazard risk).
Camps should be designed to maximise the security and safety of
all inhabitants including women and children, people with
disabilities, ethnic and minority groups.
 Under no circumstances should an affected population be forced
to return to or resettle in any place where their safety, freedom
and/or health may be at further risk.
 Appropriate measures should be taken as early as possible to
protect affected persons, especially women and children, against
trafficking, forced labour or sexual exploitation. When children
are unaccompanied, family tracing and appropriate care and
protection should receive immediate attention.

Education
Assistance is often required to re-establish basic learning and
development needs of children. Emergencies can severely curtail
children’s ability to access schools.
When populations are displaced, it is important to identify schooling as a
priority in order that children and youths’ learning and development are
not significantly disrupted.
Schooling is also important in providing children a sense of continuity
and security in the aftermath of disasters and this can have a positive
effect on their emotional, cognitive and behavioural well-being.
Priority issues to consider in relation to children’s education include:
 Implementation of schooling should be based on the local
curriculum and standards. Establishment and staffing of schools
should be planned jointly with the local community and
education authorities.
 Assistance may be required to ensure adequate materials and
supplies such as books and expendable supplies (for example,
pencils, paper, crayons and other materials) for both children and
teachers.
 Alternative education settings may be required should pre-
existing schools require repair or reconstruction. Attention should
be given to ensuring that these premises are environmentally
safe, do not expose children to protection risks (see protection
above), and are easily accessible for all children. Large,
centralised schools that require children to travel distances should
be avoided.

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Unit 15

 Support should be given to re-establishing local production and

distribution of text books, teaching guides and other materials.
Local operating costs for restarting instructor training courses –
especially initial training on newly recruited teachers – may also
be required.

Psychosocial support
This should be recognised as an integral emergency response for children,
adults and families. Although most people do not require formal mental
health interventions, disasters do cause significant social, emotional
and/or psychological disruptions.
Disruptions may include:
 emotional and behavioural changes among children and youth
 family disruptions and conflict
 poor coping practices such as abuse of alcohol.
In cases where people are exposed to potentially traumatic events such as
a life threat or witnessing the death of another, there may be cases of
post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and other forms of mental
distress.
Planning considerations to keep in mind when addressing the
psychosocial needs of a population include:
 Stress and grief reactions are normal after a disaster. In fact, the
majority of people pull together and function during and after a
disaster. Only a small proportion may require formal mental
health assistance (for example, from a psychologist or
psychiatrist).
 Effective psychosocial programming is often more practical than
psychological. It is about ensuring that people affected by
extreme events are able to meet their basic needs like food and
shelter, that they can begin to feel safe and supported and that
they can solve immediate problems caused by a disaster.
 Psychosocial interventions should always be culturally sensitive
and be consistent with the norms, beliefs and values of the
affected community. Counselling and therapy may not always be
appropriate. Interventions should be based on the principle of ‘do
no harm’.
 Psychosocial activities are often most beneficial when they are
community-based and assist members to re-establish a sense of
normalcy and continuity in their lives. The rebuilding of self-help
and support networks is most critical to both individual and
community recovery.

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More information about the provision of emergency relief can be found in

the UNHCR Handbook for Emergencies, 3rd edition (2007), found at:
http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid
Reading =472af2972&query=refugee camps and emergency relief

Conducting an assessment
Accurate and timely post-disaster needs assessments are critical for
effective responses to disasters of all types.
Although different organisations may use different assessment tools, all
assessments should be properly and thoroughly planned.
Below are number of basic guidelines that should be followed when
planning and conducting assessments.

Identify the user of the information

Every assessment should be designed to collect relevant information for a
specific purpose and use. For example, emergency managers responsible
for water and sanitation will require different information than what is
required for emergency health professionals responsible for meeting the
medical and health needs of a population.

Ensure collected information is relevant

It is not necessary to collect information on all aspects of an affected
community after a disaster. This can waste valuable time and resources.
Initial assessments in the immediate aftermath of disaster are often broad
in scope in order to identify the overall needs and priorities of a
population in a timely and effective way.
When information is specific, it should be directly linked to the analysis
and decisions to be made. When developing assessments, consider what
information is vital and how much detail is necessary.

Ensure collected information is timely

The needs of a disaster-affected population can be expected to change
over time. What is needed immediately after a disaster is usually not the
same as one or two months later. For example, shifting from the most
basic needs (food, water, shelter) to increased self-reliance such as
needing materials to rebuild homes and livelihoods. Timeliness and
continuity of information is critical in making informed decisions after a
disaster.

At the beginning of a response, it is important that baseline data be

collected in order to understand what is normal for the impacted
community or locality and what is occurring as result of the disaster
event. All developing countries have chronic needs and it is important to
distinguish these from conditions created by the emergency. Baseline

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data, or benchmarks, can serve as reference points for planning and

programming.

Co-ordinate information between organisations and within

sectors
Many survivors complain of being asked the same question by multiple
organisations. Whenever possible, consider using joint assessments or
collating information gathered by different organisations that are
targeting a specific need such as health, water, sanitation, or food and
nutrition (commonly referred to as sectors). This can maximise the use of
existing resources and focus assistance on the humanitarian conditions of
affected populations.
Joint assessment can also help ensure that sectoral assessments are
conducted more effectively. The co-ordination of needs assessments
during the initial stages of a major disaster is often sub-optimal, with the
result that some areas are assessed by more than one agency while others
are not assessed at all.
In an ideal emergency situation, agencies and authorities come together to
share their assessments and, based on this information, make informed
decisions on how best to meet the needs of the affected population.
No less important, consideration should also be given as to how and when
needs assessments will be co-ordinated with local authorities.
This will vary from one context to the next depending on the existing
capacity of the local authorities. In some situations local authorities may
take full control of this process, with support from the humanitarian
community.
In other cases, participation may be more limited. Issues to consider
include:
 the capacity of local authorities to analyse data
 the need for sensitive information – such as information about
protection issues – to be handled carefully and with discretion
 the possibility that local authorities will also be affected by the
disaster, and may not be available for field assessments.

Use recognised terminology, standards and procedures

Using better practice and agreed-upon formats to collect, analyse and
present findings can not only help ensure that collected information will
be valid and lead to sound decisions, but also allow for information to be
efficiently shared by organisations.
The use of common methodology and tools allows different organisations
to have an integrated understanding of the needs of the population and, in
turn, are able to better co-ordinate planning and humanitarian assistance.

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Ensure community participation

Community participation in assessments is important to ensure that the
assessment process is accurate, accountable and transparent.
People and communities affected by disasters should be seen as part of
the solution, not a problem to be fixed. By involving communities, one
can be assured that the collected information is accurate and relevant.
Involving communities is also important to effectively understand not
only their needs but also capacities and vulnerabilities.
Communities have the most immediate and direct interest in recovering
from a disaster. Working closely with survivors can enable organisations
to better understand what resources are most needed and how these can
best support the efforts of the community to recover. It can help an
organisation to identify and understand the needs of more vulnerable and
often less-visible individuals, such as elderly, people with disabilities,
and in some contexts women and young girls.

Manage beneficiary expectations

Although managing the expectations of disaster-affected populations is
not part of an assessment per se, it is important to consider and manage
what an affected population may expect following the assessment.
Communities will usually not be aware of the mandate of different
organisations, nor the type and quantity of assistance that might be
provided to them. A community might want an organisation to provide
for its most pressing needs (shelter or water) when that organisation’s
mandate is to provide psychosocial support.
The most effective way of managing beneficiary expectations is to ensure
that the community understands the purpose of the needs assessment
during data collection. Results of the assessment (and what and when
assistance will follow), should also be clearly communicated to the
population. This should be provided in a timely, accurate and transparent
manner.

Examples of needs assessments

Before conducting an assessment, emergency managers should consider
whether an existing assessment tool can be used. This can help ensure
that the assessment is being conducted according to better practices –
using recognised terminology, standards and procedures – and that the
findings can be shared with other organisations.
Some examples of better practice assessment tools include:

The Rapid Assessment for Humanitarian Assistance

This is a multi-sector assessment tool developed by the Working Group
on Risk, Emergency, and Disaster of the Interagency Standing Committee
for the American and Caribbean region (REDLAC).
This tool is intended to be used by different organisations to provide a
rapid overview of the emergency situation in order to identify the

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immediate impacts of the crisis, estimate needs of the affected population

for assistance and to define the priorities for humanitarian action (and
funding for that action) in the early weeks.
The tool assesses:
 health
 food
 nutrition
 water
 sanitation
 shelter
 livelihoods
 protection
 education.

Here is the website for the document:

http://www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster
%20approach%20page/training/CSLT%20July%2007/Day4/REDLAC%
Reading 20Rapid%20Needs%20Assessment.pdf

The Rapid Shelter Assessment

This was developed in Afghanistan as a joint assessment tool by the
Emergency Shelter Cluster and Technical Working Group.
The tool is designed to provide organisations with a standardised tool to
assess housing and living needs in order to prioritise humanitarian
assistance.
The Rapid Shelter Assessment considers such factors as the settlement
and population profile (such as location of the settlement, number of
vulnerable households), housing and living conditions, access to
assistance and local resources including building materials, as well as
access to non-food items such as bedding and heating fuel.

More information on emergency shelters can be found at:

http://ochaonline.un.org/afghanistan/Clusters/EmergencyShelter/tabid/55
85/language/en-US/Default.aspx
Reading

Rapid Health Assessment Protocols for Emergencies

This tool was developed by the World Health Organization in
collaboration with other international organisations to provide guidance
in conducting health assessments during emergencies.
Emphasis is placed on the exact information needed, the best sources of
data and methods for rapid collection, and the specific questions that need

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to be answered in order to draw initial conclusions and direct immediate

actions.
The protocols also include steps to follow during an assessment including
the impacts of a disaster on a population’s health, assessing local
response capacity and immediate needs and presenting results.

To purchase the WHO book Rapid Health Assessment Protocols for

Emergencies go to:
http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&codlan=1&
Reading codcol=15&codcch=463

The Joint Education Needs Assessment Toolkit (ENA)

This tool was developed by the Global Education Cluster to provide
guidelines in how to respond to education needs in the aftermath of
disasters.
The ENA is meant to provide a comprehensive framework and guidelines
to design and conduct joint education assessment, obtain reliable, timely
and comprehensive information needed to guide effective inter-agency
emergency education decisions, and highlight immediate and critical
education issues that require co-ordination across education stakeholders
in an emergency.

More information on Educational Clusters can be found at:

http://education.humanitarianresponse.info/

Reading

The Livelihood Assessment Tool-Kit (LAT)

This has been jointly developed by the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization and the International Labour Organization.
The LAT is intended to provide guidance on people’s ability to make a
living after disasters such as floods, earthquakes and tsunamis.
The LAT consists of three assessment components:
1. A livelihood baseline compiled at national level, targeting areas
prone to natural hazards, to establish a pre-disaster context and
baseline.
2. Initial livelihood impact appraisals conducted within 14 days of
the disaster to assess the impact of the event on livelihoods at
‘local level’ disaster.
3. Detailed livelihood assessment within the first three months to
determine the impact of the disaster on livelihoods as well as
opportunities and capacities for recovery at the household,
community and local economy levels.

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Integrated Food Security and Humanitarian Phase

Classification Scheme (IPC)
The IPC was originally developed for use in Somalia by the national
government, the United Nations and non-government organisations to
provide a standardised scale for assessing food security, nutrition and
livelihood. Other countries in Africa, Asia and beyond are now using this
scale.
The IPC provides a set of protocols for consolidating and summarising
the severity of a food crisis and the implications for humanitarian
response across five phases defined as being:
1. generally food secure
2. chronically food insecure
3. acute food and livelihood crisis
4. humanitarian emergency
5. famine/humanitarian catastrophe.

The Field Operations Guide (FOG) for Disaster Assessment

and Response
This was developed as a reference tool for individuals sent to disaster
sites to undertake initial assessments or to participate as members of
the Office of United States Foreign Disaster Assistance’s (OFDA)
Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART).
It contains guidelines for comprehensive assessments (including food,
water and sanitation, shelter and health), general responsibilities for
disaster responders, formats and reference material for assessing and
reporting on populations at risk, descriptions of OFDA stockpile
commodities, general information related to disaster activities and
information on working with the military in the field.

The FOG can be downloaded (pdf) at:

http://www.rmportal.net/library/content/tools/disaster-assessment-and-
response-tools/da_field_guide_2005/view
Reading

The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Needs Analysis

Framework (IAS NAF)
This is not an assessment tool but used to compile and provide coherent
analysis of the overall humanitarian situation in a crisis area.
The Framework is designed to organise existing information gathered by
different organisations working in emergency sectors (for example,
health, shelter, water and sanitation), identify potential needs and
resources gaps and establish priorities for humanitarian action.

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More information on needs assessment can be found at:

http://ocha.unog.ch/drptoolkit/PNeedsAssessmentOtherInitiatives.html

Reading

Activity 6.1
Complete the following ac The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) estimates that over half of the world’s 8.8 million refugees live
in urban areas and only one third live in refugee camps. However, in sub-
Saharan Africa, 60 per cent of refugees live in camps.
Activity
You are part of a team responsible for managing a refugee camp in the
Darfur region of western Sudan. There are about 1,000 people, mainly
women and children, who have arrived on foot after the men in their
villages were killed. Many are sick and very scared they will be attacked
again. The rainy season is late so there is limited food and water. Relief
workers must work quickly to get supplies to the camp before the rains
make the roads impassable.

Conflict between the government and people in Darfur has led to many
deaths and people fleeing their homes in search of safety. The United
Nations, governments and aid organisations are working together to assist
refugees by monitoring peace and by running camps which provide water
and sanitation, food, medical services and shelter. A fragile peace, limited
budget to purchase supplies and massive distances to camps from ports
make caring for the Darfur refugees a complex situation.
Select one of the specialist roles listed below and write a one-page report
which includes the following components:
 Issues you must consider in the Darfur refugee camp as they
relate to your specialty.
 A proposed action plan which covers how you will address
refugee needs as they relate to your specialty.
 How you will measure the success of your action plan.
Specialist Roles:
1. Water specialist
2. Food specialist
3. Sanitation specialist
4. Health care specialist
5. Shelter specialist
6. Safety and security specialist

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Minimum standards
One of the challenges in the provision of relief and humanitarian
assistance in the aftermath of emergencies is to ensure consistency and
quality of the provided assistance.
An increasing number of organisations support relief activities in the
aftermath of disasters. In response to the 2004 Asian Tsunami, some 138
organisations provided direct assistance by January 2006.
After the 2005 Pakistan earthquake, more than 100 organisations
provided support and nearly 200 organisations assisted with relief efforts
following the 2010 Haitian earthquake.
Organisations obviously differ in their capacities and resources to assist
survivors of disasters and wars. They may also have different approaches
in providing assistance.
After the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, the What If? Foundation (a small
California-based non-profit organisation founded in 2000 to help feed
those in need) served approximately 3,000 hot meals per day to thousands
of earthquake survivors. A considerably larger NGO, the American Red
Cross was able to provide enough food for 1 million people for one
month and also assisted 300,000 Haitians through direct distributions
including rice, beans and oil.
Organisations may also not always be aware of the diverse needs of
impacted populations. Studies by HelpAge International after the Asian
Tsunami, found that older persons were often neglected and unable to
access relief assistance because of mobility and other age-related issues.
Relief workers were also not aware of the dietary requirements of elderly
people, and special diets for elderly people with diabetes or high blood
pressure were not available.
In the past decade, international organisations have developed a number
of guidelines to ensure minimum standards for humanitarian assistance.
These standards aim to ensure that organisations responding to disasters
commit to adequate provision of humanitarian aid, on the basis of agreed
minimum standards of assistance and protection.
Examples of minimum standard guidelines include:
 Sphere Project
 Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International (HAP
International)
 Inter-Agency Standing Committee (ISAC) Guidelines for
humanitarian assistance.

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Sphere project
The Sphere Project was launched in 1997 by a coalition of leading non-
governmental humanitarian agencies to develop a set of universal
minimum standards in core areas of humanitarian assistance.
The first edition of The Sphere Project handbook, Humanitarian Charter
and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, was produced in 2000
with the specific objectives of:
1. improving the quality of assistance provided to people affected
by disasters
2. ensuring accountability in humanitarian efforts during disaster
response.

The humanitarian charter

The cornerstone of the Sphere Handbook is the Humanitarian Charter.
The Humanitarian Charter sets out principles for humanitarian action that
are based on humanitarian law. These include:
The right to live with dignity
Individuals have a right to life, an adequate standard of living and
freedom from cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
The distinction between combatants and non-combatants
Civilians (and others), including the sick, wounded and prisoners, must
be distinguished from those who are actively engaged in hostilities and
who are protected under international law and entitled to immunity from
attack.
The principle of non-refoulement
No refugee shall be sent back to a country where their life or freedom
would be threatened because of race, religion, nationality, membership of
a particular social group or political opinion, or where there are
substantial grounds for believing that they would be in danger of being
subjected to torture.

Minimum standards for specific sectors

The Sphere Project provides minimum standards in four key sectors. The
identified standards set out a minimum level of service provision which
cannot be changed.
These standards are as follows:
1. Water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion sets out
minimum standards for hygiene promotion, water supply, excreta
disposal, vector control, solid waste management and drainage.
For example, the standard on access and water quantity notes that
“all people have safe and equitable access to a sufficient quantity
of water for drinking, cooking and personal and domestic

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hygiene. Public water points are sufficiently close to households

to enable use of the minimum water requirement”.
2. Food security, nutrition and food aid sets out standards to
ensure that people have access to food and that their nutritional
needs are adequately met.
For example, food security standard one specifies that “people
have access to adequate and appropriate food and non-food items
(such as fuel for food preparation, cooking pots and water storage
containers) in a way that ensures their survival, prevents erosion
of assets, and upholds their dignity”.
These standards also include nutrition assessment checklists,
correction of malnutrition guidance, food handling, supply chain
management and food distribution.
3. Shelter, settlement and non-food items standards address the
universal human right to adequate housing.
The standards address both shelter and settlement issues as well
as non-food items including:
 clothing
 bedding
 household items.
Both sections provide general standards for use in any of several
response scenarios, such as the return to (and repair of) damaged
dwellings, accommodation with host families, mass shelter in
existing buildings and structures and temporary planned or self-
settled camps.
4. The health services standards are designed primarily to
ensure that disaster-affected communities have access to good-
quality health services during the disaster response.
In addition to setting out critical health indicators to monitor a
population’s health in an emergency (as the crude mortality rate
and under 5 mortality rate), the standards provide guidance on the
provision of priority public health interventions such as:
 ensuring adequate supplies of safe water
 sanitation
 food and shelter
 infectious disease control (for example, measles
vaccination)
 basic clinical care
 disease surveillance.
Additionally, the standards aim to promote equitable access to
health services on the principle of equity, ensuring equal access
according to need, without any discrimination that could lead to
the exclusion of specific groups.

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Minimum standards for humanitarian projects

Within each of the above sectors, Sphere sets out eight Minimum
Standards for humanitarian programming, as follows:
1. Participation
The affected community actively participates in assessment,
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the
programme.
2. Initial Assessment
In consultation with appropriate authorities, assessments will
provide an understanding of the disaster situation and the threats
to life, dignity, health and livelihoods and will determine whether
an external response is needed and if so, the nature of such a
response.
3. Response
A humanitarian response is required when the relevant authorities
are unable and/or unwilling to protect and provide the assistance
the population requires and when assessment and analysis
indicates that these needs are not met.
4. Targeting
The delivery of equitable and impartial humanitarian assistance
or services is based on the vulnerability and needs of affected
individuals or groups.
5. Monitoring
Programme effectiveness is monitored as problems arise so that
the programme can be improved or phased out as required.
6. Evaluation
There is a systematic and impartial examination of the
humanitarian programme so that practice and policy are
improved and accountability is enhanced.
7. Aid worker competencies and responsibilities
Aid workers possess the appropriate qualifications, attitudes and
experience to effectively plan and implement humanitarian
programmes.
8. Supervision, management and support
Aid workers are supervised and supported to ensure effective
implementation of the humanitarian assistance programme.

For more information about Sphere standards, see the Sphere

Handbook:
http://www.spherehandbook.org
Reading

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Humanitarian accountability
partnership international (HAP
International)
The Humanitarian Accountability Partnership (HAP) was formed in 2003
with the purpose of “achieving and promoting the highest principles of
accountability through self-regulation by members”.
This was largely a consequence of the 1994 Rwanda genocide which had
demonstrated the harm humanitarians could cause by failing to deliver on
their promises of assistance and protection.
Over the course of approximately 100 days following the assassination of
Juvénal Habyarimana, an estimated 800,000 people were killed (over 20
per cent of the country’s total population).
HAP International became the humanitarian sector’s first self-regulatory
body and aimed to make humanitarian organisations more accountable to
their beneficiaries through self-regulation, compliance verification and
quality assurance certification in accordance with proven good practices
in humanitarian work. In 2007, after several years of consultation, HAP
International produced the HAP 2007 Standard in Humanitarian
Accountability and Quality Management.
The HAP 2007 Standard certification aims to provide assurance that
certified agencies are managing the quality of their humanitarian actions
in accordance with the HAP standard.
In practical terms, a HAP certification (which is valid for three years)
involves providing external auditors with mission statements, accounts
and control systems, thereby ensuring greater transparency in operations
and overall accountability. By evaluating an organisation’s processes,
policies and products with respect to the Standard’s benchmarks, the
quality becomes measurable and accountability in its humanitarian work
increases.
Agencies that comply with the Standard agree to:
 declare their commitment to HAP’s Principles of Humanitarian
Action and to their own Humanitarian Accountability Framework
 develop and implement a Humanitarian Quality Management
System
 provide key information about quality management to
stakeholders
 enable beneficiaries to participate in programme decisions and
give their informed consent
 determine the competencies and development needs of staff
 establish and implement a complaints-handling procedure for
staff and beneficiaries

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 establish a process of continual improvement.

In order to help people affected by crisis, organisations need to develop
quality programmes which meet people’s needs and reduce or eliminate
mistakes, abuses and corruption. Accountability processes are required to
help organisations assess and improve their work and benefit both the
organisations as well as the people they serve. The following section
outlines the HAP principles of accountability.

HAP principles of accountability

1. Commitment to humanitarian standards and rights: Members
commit to respecting and fostering humanitarian standards and
beneficiary rights.
2. Setting standards and building capacity: Members set a
framework of accountability to their stakeholders and review
standards and performance indicators and revise them if
necessary; members provide training in the use and
implementation of standards.
3. Communication: Members inform and consult with all
stakeholders about standards, programmes and mechanisms
available for addressing concerns.
4. Programme participation: Members involve beneficiaries in the
planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation of
programmes and report to them on progress.
5. Monitoring and reporting on compliance: Beneficiaries and
staff are involved in monitoring and revising standards. There is
an annual report to stakeholders on compliance with standards.
6. Addressing complaints: Beneficiaries and staff are able to report
complaints and safely seek redress.
7. Implementing partners: Members are committed to
implementing these principles when working through
implementation partners.

The Inter-agency Standing

Committee (IASC)
Formed in 1992 in response to United Nations General Assembly
Resolution 46/182 on the strengthening of humanitarian assistance, the
Inter-Agency Standing Committee is the primary mechanism for inter-
agency co-ordination of humanitarian assistance among key UN non-UN
humanitarian partners.
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee is responsible for several
functions. These include:
 To develop and agree on system-wide humanitarian policies.

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 To allocate responsibilities among agencies in humanitarian

programmes.
 To develop and agree on a common ethical framework for all
humanitarian activities.
 To advocate for common humanitarian principles to parties
outside the IASC.
 To identify areas where gaps in mandates or lack of operational
capacity exist.
 To resolve disputes or disagreement about and between
humanitarian agencies on system-wide humanitarian issues.
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) has produced a number of
guidelines to promote better practice in the delivery of the humanitarian
services.
These include but are not limited to the following:
ISAC guidelines on mental health and psychosocial support in
emergency settings provides guidance on how to:
 address the most urgent mental health and psychosocial issues in
emergency situations in an integrated manner
 effectively co-ordinate services between agencies
 identify both useful and potentially harmful interventions
 use different psychosocial and mental health approaches so that
they complement one another in a co-ordinated manner.
Gender handbook for humanitarian action provides guidance on how
to:
 integrate gender issues from the outset of a complex emergency
so that humanitarian efforts neither exacerbate nor inadvertently
put people at risk
 ensure that humanitarian services reach their target audiences
 consider the differing needs, capacities and situations of girls,
boys, women and men to ensure a maximum positive impact.
IASC operational guidelines on human rights and natural disasters
provide guidance on how to:
 ensure that human rights principles and protection standards are
integrated into all disaster response, recovery and reconstruction
efforts from the earliest stage possible
 identify measures to ensure that affected persons and their
communities are fully consulted and can actively participate in all
stages of the disaster response in accordance with their human
rights
 complement existing guidelines on humanitarian standards in
situations of natural disaster

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 provide benchmarks for monitoring and assessing the needs of

persons affected by natural disasters
 provide a basis for humanitarian workers when entering into
dialogue with governments about their obligations to the victims
of natural disasters under human rights law.
Guidelines on gender-based violence interventions provide guidance
on how to:
 ensure a co-ordinated, participatory approach to prevent and
respond to gender-based violence programming in emergency
situations
 provide humanitarian protection and assistance programmes for
displaced people which are safe and do not directly or indirectly
increase women’s and girls’ risk of sexual violence
 ensure that the appropriate response services are in place to meet
the needs of survivors/victims of sexual violence.

More information about IASC Guidelines can be accessed at:

http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/pageloader.aspx?page=content-
products-default
Reading

United Nations (UN) standards

Organisations of the United Nations have also produced various guidance
and standards manuals. Some examples include:
Food Safety Guidance in Emergency Situations was developed by the
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) to assist those responsible for
planning and overseeing food operations.
This document includes guidance on mass feeding activities, receiving
and storing food, facility requirements and safe food handling.
Guidance is also provided on planning issues, for example, security and
infrastructure conditions, as well as guidance in assessing and
maintaining the safety of existing food.

For more information see:

ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/emergency.pdf

Reading

Transitional shelter quality, standards and upgrading guidelines was

developed by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) to provide guidance on emergency shelter.
The document includes guidance on the quality of transitional shelters to
bridge the gap between emergency shelter and durable housing, a

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summary of standards that relate to transitional shelters, specifically

tsunami transitional shelters, as well as strategies for upgrading shelters,
including assessment guidelines.

Further information can be accessed at:

http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/UNHCR_transitional_shelter_final.pdf

Reading

Manual for the health care of children in humanitarian emergencies

was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) to provide
guidelines to assist in the care of children in emergencies.
The document includes guidance on the triage and emergency assessment
of severe illness in emergency situations, integrated management of
childhood illnesses, including injuries, burns and neonatal care, in
emergencies, as well as the prevention of childhood morbidity and
mortality, including psychosocial support.

For more information, see:

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241596879_eng.pdf

Reading

Minimum standards for education in emergencies, chronic crises and

early reconstruction was produced by the Inter-Agency Network for
Education in Emergencies (INEE) for use in emergency responses,
including natural disasters and armed conflict situations.
The document is meant to be used as a capacity-building and training tool
for humanitarian agencies, governments and local populations to enhance
the effectiveness and quality of their educational assistance.
The document provides guidance and minimum standards on issues such
as teaching and learning (for example, curriculum and instruction)
community participation and utilisation of local resources when
implementing emergency education responses, administration and
management of human resources including recruitment and selection of
teachers, as well as education policy formulation and enactment.

For more information, see:

http://www.ineesite.org/index.php/post/inee_handbook/

Reading

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Unit summary
In this unit you learned about:
 different types of disaster relief and humanitarian assistance
Summary  key considerations when assessing the needs of people
affected by disasters
 various guidelines and standards that have been developed by
humanitarian organisations
 different types of assessment tools that can be used to assess
relief needs
 different examples of minimum standards and the importance of
having minimum standards for humanitarian assistance.

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Unit 16

Post-disaster recovery
Introduction
Post-disaster recovery generally refers to:
“the coordinated process of supporting disaster-affected communities in
reconstructing damaged physical infrastructure and restoring the
emotional, social, economic and physical well-being of people who have
been impacted by the event” (Emergency Management Australia, 2004.).
In this unit, different types of recovery will discussed as well as the
importance of linking recovery to development priorities that will
strengthen the capacity of community or country to prepare for and
respond to hazards in the future.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 explain why recovery should be linked to development

 explain planning principles that should be considered when
assisting in the recovery process
Outcomes  identify different types of recovery
 define early recovery planning
 identify barriers and solutions to recovery.

Terminology
Recovery The co-ordinated support of a disaster-affected
community to facilitate the reconstruction of
infrastructure which has been damaged by the
disaster, and to assist in the restoration of the
Terminology emotional, social, economic and physical well-
being of people who have been impacted.

Reconstruction The replacement of a structure built to a better

standard than existed before the event.

Rehabilitation Restoration of an entity to its normal or near-

normal functional capabilities after the occurrence
of a disabling event.

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Unit 16

Planning for recovery: a

development focus
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) defines
recovery as the:
decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring
or improving the pre-disaster living conditions of the stricken
community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary
adjustments to reduce disaster risk.
According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
the recovery approach focuses on how best to restore the capacity
of the government and communities to rebuild and recover from
crisis and to prevent relapse. In doing so, recovery seeks not only
to catalyze sustainable development activities but also to build
upon earlier humanitarian programmes to ensure that their inputs
become assets for development.
This is different from emergency or relief assistance.
While emergency humanitarian assistance is critical to reducing suffering
and the loss of life in emergencies, it is not necessarily meant to mitigate
the underlying causes of disasters, nor does it automatically stimulate
rebuilding or rapid and sustainable recovery.
Until recently, recovery and construction activities were often similarly
designed to return a disaster-affected community back to normal, that is,
to the condition it was before the disaster.
This often led to recreating the same conditions and risks that existed
before the disaster.
Disasters are now viewed as opportunities to address underlying
vulnerabilities and build stronger and less-risky communities.
A good example of this type of rebuilding and development is the
creation of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System, following the
2004 Asian Tsunami.
In the aftermath of this catastrophic disaster (in which more than 230,000
people died), the United Nations Inter-governmental Oceanographic
Commission began co-ordinating efforts to create an Indian Ocean
tsunami early warning system.
Before the tsunami struck, there were no sea-level monitoring
instruments in the Indian Ocean and many countries did not have
agencies responsible for tsunami warnings or points of contact to receive
messages from international warning centres.
The Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System became active in June,
2006. It consists of three deep-ocean sensors and 25 seismographic
stations which relay information to 26 national tsunami information
centres. Although more co-ordination is needed to ensure national centres
are communicating with each other and sharing information across the

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region, the Indian Ocean is now much better prepared than it was
previously.
Other examples of using the recovery period as an opportunity to
integrate risk reduction measures into reconstruction and development
activities include:
 relocating critical infrastructure out of hazard zones
 upgrading damaged systems in order that they are more resistant
to hazards
 upgrading building codes to make rebuilt homes and other
structures safer in the future.
Disasters can also provide opportunities to enhance the overall quality of
community life, making it a safer and healthier place for members to live.
To achieve this, emergency planners should consider the following
principles when planning:
1. Maintain and (if possible), enhance people’s quality of life by
ensuring that recovery efforts do more than return a community
to its prior state. Disasters can provide opportunities to strengthen
the infrastructure on which people depend, to build better schools
and health facilities, and to improve housing and other living
conditions (parks and playgrounds for example).
2. Enhance local economic vitality by recognising that poor
communities can neither prepare for nor effectively respond to
disasters. Communities are also at greater risk when there is
unlimited population growth, high consumption or dependence
on non-renewable resources. Recovery can provide opportunities
diversify economies and target the poor for income-generation
activities.
3. Use a consensus-building process when making decisions to
ensure the full range of community needs and priorities are
identified and addressed. Particular attention should be given to
those groups which are not part of the mainstream of society, for
example, recent immigrants or the marginalised poor, and as such
are frequently overlooked in planning and programming.
4. Foster local resiliency to and responsibility for disasters by
strengthening local level capacities for disaster risk reduction.
For example, the implementation of early warning systems and
emergency preparedness activities such as stockpiling of
emergency supplies. Local resiliency can also be fostered by
promoting public awareness and understanding of local
environmental hazards and risks, thereby also encouraging
individual preparedness.
5. Maintain and, if possible, promote mitigation and
environmental quality by prioritising natural resource
management and implementing practices that control or reverse
environmental degradation. For example, bulldozing steep
hillsides for housing can destroy natural systems while also

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exposing people to natural hazards such as landslides.

Incorporating urban planning and environmental management
into recovery plans can be an important step in reducing a
population’s vulnerability to future disasters.
6. Ensure social and inter-general equity by not shifting the costs
and hazards of unplanned development to the next generation.
Intergenerational equality means that attention is given to
preserving natural resources and ecosystems so that these are
available to future stakeholders.
Source: Mileti (1999)

Recovery planning principles

Depending on the magnitude of a disaster, recovery may last months or
even years. It is important that recovery planning take place as early as
possible and be based on a thorough assessment of sustained damages,
underlying causes and both the needs and capacities of the affected
community or country.
This is important for the following reasons:
1. To have an in-depth understanding of the impacts and needs
caused by the disaster.
2. To ensure a multi-stakeholder planning and co-ordination
strategy to guide activities to repair and rebuild damaged social,
physical, infrastructural and economic systems.
3. To identify available resources (human, financial and technical)
that may be used to rebuild the affected region.
4. To identify and secure additional resources (human, financial
and technical) which will be required to rebuild the affected
region.
5. To ensure implemented activities are monitored and evaluated
against agreed-upon outcomes and desired results, thereby
facilitating the identification of changing needs and allowing for
corrective actions to be taken.
Recovery plans can be expected to differ from one country or community
to the next. Factors that will affect recovery will include the magnitude of
the disaster, the capacity of the country or community to recover, as well
as the availability of outside agencies to support the recovery process.
It is important to keep the following principles in mind when developing
a recovery plan.

Understand the context

Successful recovery is based on an understanding that communities differ
from one another. Communities face different threats and disasters lead to
a range of effects and impacts that require a variety of approaches.
Communities also differ in their demographics, infrastructure and
financial resources. All affected individuals and communities have

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diverse needs, wants and expectations which are immediate and evolve
rapidly.

Recognise complexity
Successful recovery acknowledges the complex and dynamic nature of
emergencies and communities. Disasters result in a range of sudden
impacts that require quick action. Moreover, the needs of a community
may change over time, in part because affected individuals and
communities have diverse needs, wants and expectations. These can often
lead to differing priorities and even conflicts.

Use community-led approaches

Recovery programming is most effective when it based on participatory
assessments and planning, thereby ensuring that the diverse needs and
priorities of an affected community are incorporated into recovery
activities. This approach can also ensure that local resources and
capacities are fully understood and utilised by building on and
strengthening local expertise, leadership and initiative.

Ensure co-ordination of activities

Successful recovery requires a planned, co-ordinated and adaptive
approach based on continuing assessment of impacts and needs.
Recovery plans should be based on comprehensive needs assessments
and have clearly articulated goals and outcomes. These should be
developed in close collaboration with community stakeholders, taking
into account different community needs and stakeholder expectations.

Employ effective communication

Successful recovery is built on effective communication with affected
communities and other stakeholders. Recovery should recognise that
communication with a community should be two-way, and that input and
feedback should be sought and considered over an extended time. It is
important to ensure that information is accessible to audiences in diverse
situations, addresses a variety of communication needs, and is provided
through a range of media and channels.

Acknowledge and build on local capacity

Successful recovery recognises, supports and builds on community,
individual and organisational capacity. Recovery should support the
development of self-reliance by quickly identifying and mobilising
community skills and resources. It is important to recognise that all
communities have resources on which they can draw upon during
recovery and these can usually be mobilised by building on existing
networks and partnerships as well as providing opportunities to share,
transfer and develop knowledge, skills and training.

Developing an early recovery plan

Because recovery is long-term, it usually extends beyond the immediate
mandate of emergency managers.

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Typically, there is a transition from emergency or relief assistance to

long-term programming aimed at full-scale reconstruction and
revitalisation of the impacted area. Rather than being under the preview
of emergency managers, this often shifts government ministries and
institutions that usually have the lead in such sectors as:
 health
 education
 social services
 trade
 industry
 infrastructure
 transportation.
Additionally, there is a shift from ensuring basic needs and well-being to
developing and implementing a sustainable development strategy that
may integrate (but not be based on) disaster reduction and emergency
management practices.
Nevertheless, it is important that emergency managers and humanitarian
workers work to ensure a smooth transition from the emergency to the
longer-term recovery phase. This phase is sometimes called Early
Recovery.
The goal of an Early Recovery Plan is to support the longer-term road to
reconstruction by bridging the end of the relief phase and the start of full-
scale reconstruction. The Early Recovery Plan outlines a set of
operational programmes for early recovery to minimise the gap between
relief and reconstruction.
To complete an early recovery plan, the following activities are usually
undertaken:
 Assessment and analysis of the various sectoral needs (i.e.
infrastructure, business and trade, health, education and other
basic services) using appropriate methodology (see the Post
Conflict Needs Assessments).
 Assessment and analysis of local capacities and resources which
may be used for recovery activities, including addressing the
underlying causes of the crisis and create conditions for future
development.
 Design a strategic framework for early recovery, setting out the
key priority focus areas for a comprehensive approach to early
recovery
 Ensure appropriate delegation and follow-up on commitments
from ministries, organisations and other stakeholders.
 Work with the national authorities, international organisations
and authorities to mobilise the necessary resources to undertake
recovery activities.

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The overall focus of a recovery plan (as defined by United Nations

Development Programme), is to restore the capacity of local and national
institutions and communities to recover from a natural disaster or
conflict.
Early recovery itself is intended to build on previous emergency relief
and humanitarian activities in order to continually strengthen local and/or
national capacities that may have been depleted by the crises. This would
include the restoration and rehabilitation of critical infrastructure and
basic services, resuscitating markets and livelihoods, re-establishing
security and governing institutions, as well as reintegrating displaced
populations should this be necessary.
Emphasis should also be placed on the mitigating the underlying causes
of the crisis and fostering conditions for future development.
Although the impacts of a disaster will vary from one context to the next
– depending on both the type and magnitude of the event as well as the
existing infrastructure of the impacted community – early recovery plans
will minimally address the following sectors:
Rehabilitation of critical infrastructure refers to those assets that are
essential for the functioning of a society and economy. These generally
include:
 electricity generation (transmission and distribution)
 gas and oil production (transport and distribution)
 transportation systems (fuel supply, railway network, airports,
harbours, inland shipping)
 telecommunications (public and private).
Employment and livelihoods refers to revitalising the local economy.
This includes the restoration of businesses that supply food, clothing,
personal supplies and services to the community.
As part of recovery, attention should be given to structuring economic
assistance and aid programmes so that they address the specific needs of
the small and medium sized business that are often overlooked in the
emergency phase of disasters. Attention should also be given to
revitalising distribution systems for essential goods, including the roads
and market places that people rely upon for accessing and exchanging
goods.
Food and agriculture production is an essential step in assisting
communities and nations to recover from natural disasters or conflicts.
Disruptions to food production and markets can have serious
consequences to poorer segments of a society especially, leading to rising
prices and increased food insecurity.
Recovery planning may include repairs to relevant infrastructure such as
factories and food processing plants, rehabilitation of agricultural land,
and the protection of agricultural livelihoods through the provision of lost
equipment or the restocking of depleted livestock.

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Rehabilitation of critical services such as health, education and social

services are essential to the continued well-being of an affected
population.
Whereas the provision of basic services is the main aim during the relief
or emergency phase of a disaster, recovery focuses on full restoration and
strengthening of services. This includes:
 strengthening of infrastructure (health and school buildings and
equipment)
 enhancing the quality of services being provided through
technical training and education to personnel
 and/or expanding services so to make these more comprehensive
(for example, monitoring of the health status of the population,
introducing disease surveillance and early warning systems into
the health care system).
Services may also be introduced in order to address needs that may arise
as a result of the disaster. For example, psychosocial services may be
required after major disasters that cause widespread damage and
disruption and especially following those that result in injuries and
deaths.
Rehabilitation of the housing sector is critical to ensuring people have
adequate and safe places to live with a reasonable time period. This may
include assistance to private home owners to rebuild residences as well as
repairs or reconstruction of public housing. In some cases, recovery plans
may include the regularisation of housing and property rights,
implementation of property registries, and/or the introduction of new
planning and building legislation.
While the built environment is being restored, governments usually have
a responsibility to create temporary arrangements so that the affected
population receives adequate housing.
In cases where resettlement may be required, planning considerations
should go beyond the provision of housing and also address other needs
of the population such as access to livelihoods and economic activities.
Strengthening of governing institutions refers to the restoration of
political stability and the government’s operational capacity.
This is particularly relevant in post-conflict environments in which strong
governments and functioning bureaucracies may be lacking. In some
cases, recovery plans may include institution-building components that
aim to strengthen the planning, decision-making and administration
capacities of both governments and civil society organisations.
One example of this form of assistance is in Afghanistan. The United
Nations Development Programme established the Afghan Interim
Authority Fund in 2002 to pay for the most pressing needs of re-
establishing the country’s civil service, including salary payments,
rehabilitation of government buildings and procurement of equipment.
UNDP also supported the drafting of the constitution, established the Law
and Order Trust Fund to ensure the regular payment of salaries of 63,000

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police and supported the foundation for justice sector reform and human
rights protection that addressed the non-fulfillment of the rights of
women.

More information on the UNDP in Afghanistan can be found at:

http://www.undp.org.af/whoweare/undpinafghanistan/index.htm

Reading

Strengthening disaster reduction and emergency response

For emergency managers, early recovery planning can be an important
opportunity to establish the foundations of a more robust disaster
reduction programme.
The root causes of under-development, poverty and vulnerability to crises
are often the same. These structural factors include:
 political exclusion
 social and economic marginalisation
 unsafe living conditions.
Recovery plans that seek to support the most vulnerable by promoting
human rights, political participation while targeted resources and
opportunities to rebuild their lives can help prevent the marginalised
populations from returning to pre-crises levels of vulnerability.
Early recovery also provides an entry point to integrate disaster risk
reduction principles into the entire recovery process, thereby reducing the
exposure that communities face to future hazard threats.
Incorporating mitigation techniques into recovery strategies is a hallmark
of successful reconstruction. This can include such steps as:
 undertaking multi-hazards risk assessments
 the implementation of surveillance systems to monitor high risk
hazards
 reviewing of existing disaster reduction measures to ensure
effective response capacities
 enactment of policies to regulate land use or strengthen building
practices and/or implementing public education and school
preparedness programmes to increase community awareness and
individual/household preparedness.
One international example of early recovery planning is the Post Conflict
Needs Assessments (PCNA). PCNAs (sometimes called Joint Needs
Assessment) are typically conducted by the World Bank and UN agencies
in countries emerging from conflict.
PCNAs are now being increasingly used by national and international
actors as an entry point for conceptualising, negotiating and financing

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shared strategies for recovery and development in fragile, post-conflict

settings.
The PCNA includes both the assessment of the various sector needs and
the national prioritisation and costing of needs in an accompanying
transitional results matrix.

Barriers and solutions to recovery

As an emergency manager, it is important to understand potential barriers
that may be encountered during recovery so that these may be planned for
and managed as much as possible.
Below are number of more common barriers encountered during the
recovery process, as well as possible solutions that can be considered.

Funding
Recovery always depends on funding, however, communities often face
challenges in their financial recovery including lost taxes to enable
physical recovery.
After a disaster, communities must often rely on government and non-
government organisations for support to rebuild infrastructure as well as
to assist businesses and families. When communities are uninformed
about available sources of assistance, or do not know how to access such
assistance, there may be delays or even lost opportunities that can further
damage the community.
Although not all funding issues can be resolved through preparedness
activities, a strong assessment of the risks and likely recovery needs can
ensure that key stakeholders are made aware of funding issues before a
disaster strikes.
A realistic appraisal of potential impacts and costs, highlighted by
exercises targeting senior policy and decision-makers, can ensure relevant
issues are better understood. Pre-event plans can also identify available
mechanisms to access resources, as well as defining roles and
responsibilities, thereby ensuring that officials know how to leverage and
co-ordinate resources during emergencies.

Other money-related issues

Rebuilding can also be affected by issues such as property rights,
insurance and land use.
After many disasters, people may want to rebuild their homes and
business in the same location despite the continuing threat of the hazards.
One example of this is the building of residential properties in flood
plains that are subject to regular flooding.
One way to address this barrier is to incorporate land use planners and
land use planning principles into recovery plans. For example, the
Charlotte and Mecklenburg County’s Recovery Plan evolved as the result
of a major flood event. The flood dramatically highlighted unsustainable

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development patterns that were visible to a number of technical experts,

but up to that point had been largely ignored by elected officials. The
ability to capitalise on this window of opportunity required being
prepared to present land use information to reach agreement on how to
build safer and more sustainable communities.

Information sharing and co-ordination

The aftermath of disasters is frequently characterised by a multiplicity of
actors that do not normally interact.
Additionally, any number of organisations may have overlapping
missions that may not have been clearly defined before the disaster
occurs. Co-ordination and information sharing is critical to avoid
duplication of effort and gaps, as well as make the optimal use of
available resources.
Before a disaster occurs, emergency managers should invest the time
necessary to build a diverse coalition of support for disaster recovery
planning.
Collaborative planning can strengthen the quality of policies, inform
stakeholders and help to form supportive coalitions that are willing to
help implement consensus-driven solutions.

Informed decision-making
In the aftermath of disasters, there are multiple priorities which will
almost always exceed the available funding and resources. Decisions
need to be based on collaborative planning processes that allow multiple
stakeholders to identify and reach consensus on actions that bring the
greatest benefit to an affected population.
One way to promote this is to invest the time necessary to build a diverse
coalition of support for disaster recovery planning. Collaborative
planning strengthens the quality of policies, informs stakeholders and
helps to form supportive coalitions that are willing to help implement
consensus-driven solutions.
Good decision-making can also be facilitated by establishing and
regularly updating a recovery plan fact base. The ability to collect,
analyse and display data is a major part of the disaster recovery planning
process.
A sound recovery plan and the data that supports it should be regularly
evaluated and amended as needed in order to reflect these contextual
realities.
One international example of such an approach is:
Who does What Where Database and Contact Management Directory
developed by United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs. This database system provides information on
which organisation (who) is carrying out which activities (what) in which
locations (where).

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For more information, go to the United Nations Office for the

Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs:
http://ocha.unog.ch/drptoolkit/PInformationManagement.html
Reading

Rushing to return to normal

Although disasters may provide opportunities to improve communities,
these changes may also require new building codes, land use codes and
other regulations.
In the aftermath of disasters, pressures to make immediate improvements
to the living conditions of people may cause decision-makers to regard
the enactment of new rules and regulations as being an unnecessary delay
and motivate them to rebuild to existing codes and regulations.
One way to overcome this tendency is to understand disaster risks as well
as potential ways to mitigate these risks before disasters happen.
Public managers need to work closely with scientists and engineers to
understand and prepare for likely risks. For example, they need better
information on the location and probable impact areas of flooding,
knowledge from scientists and engineers about beneficial improvements
to the built environment and better maps of hazard zone locations.
Furthermore, administrators and engineers need to develop types of
response activities most suited to different risks and then inform states
and municipal governments about these strategies.
This can not only raise awareness of critical policy issues that will need
to be undertaken after a disaster, but can form the basis for informed
investments such as physical mitigation measures, better community
maps of where hazards are most likely to occur and effective allocation of
budgeted resources for disaster response and recovery.

The poor get poorer

Disaster almost always has the greatest impact upon the poorest segments
of society, not only because these groups live in the higher-risk localities
but also because they have the fewest resources to rebuild their lives.
The poor and vulnerable are more likely to be social and economically
marginalised, and less visible to humanitarian organisations.
Other groups most frequently at risk in disasters are women, children,
older people, disabled people and people living with HIV/AIDS
(PLWH/A). In certain contexts, people may also become vulnerable by
reason of ethnic origin, religious or political affiliation, or displacement.
Efforts need to be made to ensure that all segments are included in
recovery planning, thereby ensuring that their interests and concerns are
included in recovery initiatives.
One way to achieve this is to identify and work with civil society,
volunteer agencies and other public organisations that represent the
interests of more vulnerable persons. A strong participatory approach
which builds on such practices as civic engagement, local leadership

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skills and governance monitoring of political participation can form the

basis of a sustainable strategy.

Lack of political will to do the right thing

Disaster always forces political leaders to choose between multiple
priorities, based on available funding and resources that can be allocated
to rebuilding communities. Leaders may also be swayed by strong
interest groups and lobbies that are able to effectively publicise their
needs and priorities through the media and other means.
Strong political leadership is required to advance the public good,
particularly when it alters the status quo. The ability to effect change and
embrace new ideas relies on both technical and political leadership.
Technical leaders, including land use and urban planners, can provide
fact-based information that grounds sound decision-making and policy.
Ensuring decisions are not based on political consideration can also be
enhanced by bringing together diverse stakeholders in policy and
decision-making activities that affect them. Again, this can often be most
effective by assuring public awareness and civic engagement in the
recovery process.

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Unit summary
In this unit you learned :
 why recovery should be linked to development

Summary  principles that should be considered when assisting in the

recovery process
 about early recovery planning
 about barriers and solutions to recovery.

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Activity Answers
Activity 6.1
1. Water and sanitation specialist
In the hot dry camps it is essential to have clean, safe drinking water
for each person. They also need water for cooking, washing and
cleaning. Without access to clean water, it is easy for deadly diseases
such as cholera to spread through the camp. The water specialist is
responsible for making sure that there is enough clean water and that
it is not polluted with waste from toilets (also known as latrines).
Water needs to be located, collected, transported, stored and
distributed fairly to all the people in the camp. People need to be
educated in ways of using water to prevent contamination from
excreta.
2. Food specialist
Without adequate nutrition the people in the camp will become weak
and sick. The food specialist must ensure that enough clean,
nutritious food is located, bought, transported, stored and distributed
fairly to all the people in the camp. The food specialist must also be
able to assess when some groups of people, for example children and
elderly, might require extra nutrition.
3. Health care specialist
Many refugees arrive at the camp sick or injured from travelling or
the fighting. Others can become sick after they arrive due to the
spread of diseases such as cholera or dysentery or from lack of food.
The health care specialist must ensure that adequate medical facilities
are available, including doctors, nurses and medical supplies. They
must also work with other members of the team to make sure that
good general health is maintained. They may also run education
programmes to help people understand how to stay healthy and avoid
diseases.
4. Shelter specialist
Refugees need protection from the weather – sun, rain and cold.
Using resources such as wood and mud bricks from the local area
may cause long term environmental damage. If plastic sheeting or
tents are provided they need to be located, bought, transported, stored
and distributed fairly to all the people in the camp.
5. Refugee representative
Refugee representatives are people who act as a link between the aid
specialists and the people in the camp. They make sure that decisions
are made for the best interests of the refugees in the camp, especially
the children and women. This may mean considering issues about:
transport, security, making a living, finding lost family members and
connections with the local community.

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Assignment 2

Assignment 2
This assignment focuses on disaster response and recovery.
The assignment should be in a case study format and about 10 pages in
length (double spaced). References are to be cited in APA format.

Assignment
Put yourself in the place of an emergency planner and consider what you
would need to do to effectively respond to a major disaster with
widespread humanitarian consequences such as a major earthquake.
In your role as the emergency planner, explain how you would co-
ordinate and organise the response, what needs you would assess and how
you would carry out these assessments.
Identify and explain any planning principles that might guide your
thinking. For example:
 Are there better practices and standards that you might want to
consider when planning and leading a response?
 Are there general principles or lessons learned that you would
consider to ensure that the response is linked to long-term
community and recovery effort?

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References
Emergency Management Australia. (2008) Recovery. Retrieved from
http://www.em.gov.au/Documents/Manual10-Recovery.pdf

References Mileti, D. (1999). Disasters by Design. Washington, D.C.: John Henry

Press.

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Further reading

Further reading
Web resources
UNHCR – the UN Refugee Agency
Reading http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c125.html

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