CHAPTER 4 : MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

➢ Here is a quick list of the subjects that we will cover in chapter 4.

It is based on Serway, Ed. 6

➢ 4.1 The Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors.

➢ 4.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration.
➢ 4.3 Projectile Motion.
➢ 4.4 Uniform Circular Motion.
➢ 4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration
 4.1 The Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors
•Figure (4.1) – position of a particle by its position vector r, drawn from the
origin of some coordinate system to the particle located in the xy plane.
•As the particle moves form A to B :

Time interval t = tf - ti

Position vector changes from ri to rf

• Define the displacement vector r for the particle of Figure (4.1) as being the
difference between its final position vector and its initial position vector :

r = rf - ri (4.1) Displacement vector

• Average velocity of a particle during the time interval t as the displacement of

the particle divided by that time interval :
r
v= (4.2) Average velocity
t
• As the time interval over which we
observe the motion becomes
smaller and smaller, the direction
of the displacement approaches
that of the line tangent to the path
at A .
• The instantaneous velocity v is
defined as the limit of the average
velocity r / t as t approaches
zero :
r dr
v = lim = (4.3)
t→ 0 t dt
Instantaneous velocity

• That is, the instantaneous velocity

equals the derivative of the
position vector with respect to
time.
•Figure (4.3) – the direction of the instantaneous velocity vector at any point in a particle’s path is
along a line tangent to the path at that point and in the direction of motion.
•The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector υ = |v| is called the speed, which, is a scalar
quantity.
•As a particle moves from one point to another along some path, its instantaneous velocity vector
changes from vi at time ti to vf at time tf.
•Knowing the velocity at these points allows us to determine the average acceleration of the particle :
•The average acceleration of a particle as it moves from one position to another is defined as the
change in the instantaneous velocity vector v divided by the time t during which that change
occurred :

v f − viv
a= = (4.4) Average acceleration
t f − ti t
•Because 𝐚lj is the ratio of a vector quantity Δv and a positive scalar
quantity Δt, we conclude that average acceleration is a vector
quantity directed along Δv. As indicated in Figure 4.4, the direction
of Δv is found by adding the vector -vi (the negative of vi) to the
vector vf , because by definition Δv = vf - vi.
•When the average acceleration of a particle changes during
different time intervals, it is useful to define its instantaneous
acceleration a :
•The instantaneous acceleration a is defined as the limiting value
of the ratio v / t as t approaches zero :
v dv
a = lim = (4.5) Instantaneous acceleration
t→ 0 t dt
•The instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the
velocity vector with respect to time.
4.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration
•The position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane can be written :
r = xi + yj (4.6)
where x, y, and r change with time as the particle moves while i and j remain constant.
•If the position vector is known, the velocity of the particle can be obtained from Equations
(4.3) and (4.6), which give :
v = vxi + vyj (4.7)
•Because a is assumed constant, its components ax and ay also are constants.
•Can apply the equations of kinematics to the x and y components of the velocity vector.
•Substituting vxf = vxi + axt and vyf = vyi + ayt into equation (4.7) to determine the final
velocity at any time t, we obtain :
vf = ( vxi + axt ) i + ( vyi + ayt ) j
= ( vxi i + vyi j ) + ( ax i + ay j ) t
 vf = vi + at (4.8) Velocity Vector as a function of time

•This result states that the velocity of a particle at some time t equals the vector sum of its initial velocity
vi and the additional velocity at acquired in the time t as a result of constant acceleration.
• From equation (2.12) – the x and y coordinates of a particle moving with constant acceleration are :
x f = x i + v xi t + 12 a x t 2
y f = y i + v yi t + 12 a y t 2
• Substituting these expressions into Equation (4.6) – final position vector rf :
rf = ( x i + v xi t + 12 a x t 2 )i + ( y i + v yi t + 12 a y t 2 ) j
= ( x i i + y i j) + ( v xi i + v yi j) t + 12 (a x i + a y j)t 2

rf = ri + v i t + 12 at 2 (4.9) Position vector as a function of time

• This equation tells us that the displacement vector r = rf –ri is the vector sum of a displacement vit
arising from the initial velocity of the particle and a displacement 12 at 2 resulting from the uniform
acceleration of the particle.
•Figure (4.5) – graphical representations of Equations (4.8) and (4.9).
• Equation (4.8) and (4.9) in component form (because they are vector expressions) :

v f = v i + at  v xf = v xi + a x t
v yf = v yi + a y t
(4.8a)


x f = x i + v xi t + 12 a x t 2
rf = ri + v i t + 12 at 2 (4.9a)
y f = y i + v yi t + 12 a y t 2

The component form of the equations for vf and rf show us that two-dimensional motion at constant
acceleration is equivalent to two independent motions—one in the x direction and one in the y
direction—having constant accelerations ax and ay
 4.3 Projectile Motion
•Any object thrown into the air – projectile motion.
•Two assumptions :
1) the free-fall acceleration g is constant over the range of motion
and is directed downward.
2) the effect of air resistance is negligible. Figure 4.7 The parabolic path of
a projectile that leaves the origin
•The path of a projectile, which we call its trajectory, is always a parabola. with a velocity vi. The velocity
To show that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola vector v changes with time in
both magnitude and direction.
•Choose our reference frame – the y direction is vertical, and positive is This change is the result of
upward. acceleration in the negative y
direction. The x component of
•Because air resistance is neglected → ay = - g and ax = 0. velocity remains constant in time
•Assume at t = 0, the projectile leaves the origin (xi = yi = 0) with speed vi because there is no acceleration
along the horizontal direction.
Figure 4.7.
The y component of velocity is
•The vector vi makes an angle i with the horizontal, where i is the angle zero at the peak of the path.
at which the projectile leaves the origin.
To show that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola (continue)
•From the definitions of the cosine and sine functions we have :
cos i = v xi / v i sin i = v yi / vi
•Therefore, the initial x and y components of velocity are :
v xi = v i cos i v yi = vi sin i (4.10)

•Substituting the x component into Equation (4.9a) with xi = 0 and ax = 0, we find that :

x f = v xi t = ( v i cos i ) t (4.11) Horizontal position component

•Repeating with the y component and using yi = 0 and ay = -g, we obtain :

y f = v yi t + 12 a y t 2 = ( vi sin i ) t − 12 gt 2 (4.12) Vertical position component

To show that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola (continue)
•Solve Equation (4.11) for t = xf / (vi cos i) and substitute this expression for t into Equation (4.12) :

 g  2
y = (tan i ) x −  2  x
 2vi cos i 
2

•The equation is valid for launch angles in the range 0 < i < /2.
•The equation is of the form y = ax – bx2, which is the equation of a parabola that passes through the
origin.
•Thus, we have shown that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola.
•The trajectory is completely specified if both the initial speed vi and the launch angle  are known.
•The vector expression for the position vector of the projectile as a function of time follows
directly from Equation (4.9), with ri = 0 and a = g :
1 2
𝐫f = 𝐯i t + 𝐠t
2
Conclusion
• Projectile motion is the
superposition of two motions :
(1) constant-velocity motion in the
horizontal direction, and
(2) free-fall motion in the vertical
direction.
Horizontal Range and Maximum Height of a Projectile
• Assume that a projectile is fired from the origin at ti = 0 with a
positive vyi component (Figure 4.10).
• Two points :
1) the peak point A , which has cartesian coordinates (R/2, h),
and
2) the point B , which has coordinates (R, 0).
• The distance R is called the horizontal range of the projectile.
• The distance h is its maximum height.
To find h and R in terms of vi , i , and g
• Determine h by noting that at the peak, v yf = v yi + a y t
vyA = 0.
0 = v i sin i − gt A
• Therefore, use Eq. (4.8a) to determine
the time tA it takes the projectile to reach v i sin i
the peak : tA =
g
• Substituting this expression for tA into the y part of Equation (4.9a) and
replacing yf = yA with h, we obtain an expression for h in terms of the
magnitude and direction of the initial velocity vector :
2
vi sin i 1  vi sin i 
h = ( vi sin i ) − 2 g 
g  g 

v i2 sin 2 i
h= (4.13) Maximum height of projectile
2g
• The range R is the horizontal distance that the projectile travels in twice the
time it takes to reach its peak, that is, in a time tB = 2tA.
• Using the x part of Equation (4.9a), noting that vxi = vxB = vi cos i, and setting
R  xB at t = 2tA, we find that :
R = v xi t B = ( v i cos i )2t A
2v i sin i 2v i2 sin i cos i
= ( v i cos i ) =
g g
•Using the identity sin 2 = 2 sin  cos  (Appendix B.4) – write R :

v i2 sin 2i
R= (4.14) Range of projectile
g

Note : Eq. (4.13) and (4.14) are useful for calculating h and R only if vi and i
are known (which means that only vi has to be specified) and if the projectile
lands at the same height from which it started (Figure 4.10).

Note : The maximum value of R from Eq. (4.14) is Rmax = vi2 / g. This result
follows from the fact that the maximum value of sin 2i is 1, which occurs
when 2i = 90o. Therefore, R is maximum when i = 45o.
 4.4 Uniform Circular Motion
•A car moving in a circular path with constant linear speed v = uniform circular
motion - Figure 4.17a.
•Because the car’s direction of motion changes, the car has an acceleration.
•For any motion – the velocity vector is tangent to the path.
•When an object moves in a circular path, its velocity vector is perpendicular to the
radius of the circle. Figure 4.17 (a) A car
moving along a circular
•The acceleration vector in uniform circular motion is always perpendicular to the path at constant speed
path and always points toward the center of the circle. experiences uniform
circular motion.
•An acceleration of this nature is called a centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration,
and its magnitude is :
𝑣2 (4.15)
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟

where r is the radius of the circle and the subscript (c) on the acceleration symbol
reminds us that the acceleration is centripetal.
To derive Equation (4.15)
• Figure 4.17b – shows a particle first at point A and then at
point B .
• The particle is at A at time ti and its velocity at that time is vi.
• It is at B at some later time tf, and its velocity at that time is vf.
• Assume the vi and vf differ only in direction; their magnitudes Figure 4.17 b
(speeds) are the same (that is, vi = vf = v).
• To calculate the acceleration of the particle – define equation for
average acceleration (Eq. (4.4)) :
v f − v i v
a= = Change in velocity
tf − ti t
• Because vi + v = vf → find the vector v using the vector
triangle in Figure 4.17c. Figure 4.17 c
•Consider the triangle in Figure 4.17b – which has sides r and r.
•Figure 4.17b similar to the one in Figure 4.17c, which has sides v and v.
•This fact enables us to write a relationship between the lengths of the sides :

𝚫𝐯 𝚫𝐫
=
𝑣 r
•This equation can be solved for v and the expression so obtained substituted into
Eq. 4.4 to give the magnitude of the average acceleration over the time interval for the particle
to move from A to B :
𝚫𝐯 𝑣 𝚫𝐫
𝐚lj = =
Δ𝑡 𝑟Δ𝑡

•Imagine if points A and B in Figure 4.17b are extremely close together.

•In this case v points toward the center of the circular path.
•Acceleration is in the direction of v , it too points toward the center.
•As A and B approach each other, t approaches zero, and the ratio 𝚫𝐫 / t approaches
the speed v.
•Hence, in the limit t →0, the magnitude of the acceleration is :

𝜐2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
•Conclusion – in uniform circular motion, the acceleration is directed toward the center of the
circle and has a magnitude given by v2/r, where v is the speed of the particle and r is the radius of
the circle.
• It is convenient to describe the motion of a particle moving with constant speed in a circle of
radius r in terms of the period T.
• The period is defined as the time required for one complete revolution.
• In the time interval T the particle moves a distance of 2πr, which is equal to the circumference
of the particle’s circular path.
•Therefore, because its speed is equal to the circumference of the circular path divided by the
period, or υ = 2πr / T, it follows that
2πr
T= (4.16)
𝜐
 4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration
•Consider a particle moving along a curved path where the velocity changes both in direction and in
magnitude Figure 4.18.
•The velocity is tangent to the path, but the direction of the acceleration vector a changes from point to
point.
•This vector can be resolved into two component vectors :
i) a radial component vector ar and ii) a tangential component vector at.
• a can be written as the vector sum of these component vectors :
a = ar + at (4.17) Total acceleration

Figure 4.18 The motion of a particle along an arbitrary curved

path lying in the xy plane. If the velocity vector v (always
tangent to the path) changes in direction and magnitude, the
components of the acceleration a are a tangential component at
and a radial component ar
•The tangential acceleration causes the change in the speed of the particle.
•It is parallel to the instantaneous velocity, and its magnitude is :
𝑑𝐯
𝑎𝑡 = (4.18) Tangential acceleration
𝑑𝑡

•The radial acceleration arises from the change in direction of the velocity vector and has
an absolute magnitude given by :
𝜐2
𝑎𝑟 = −𝑎𝑐 = − (4.19) Radial acceleration
𝑟

where r is the radius of curvature of the path at the point in question.

•Because ar and at are mutually perpendicular component vectors of a :

a = a 2r + a 2t
•ar always points toward the center of curvature – Figure 4.18.
•At a given speed, ar is large when the radius of curvature is small (as at points A and B in Figure
4.18.
•ar is small when r is large (such as at point C ).
•The direction of at is either in the same direction as v (if v is increasing) or opposite v (if v is decreasing).
Note
•In uniform circular motion, where v is constant, at = 0 and the acceleration is always completely radial.
•In other words, uniform circular motion is a special case of motion along a curved path.
•If the direction of v does not change, then there is no radial acceleration and the motion is one-
dimensional (in this case, ar = 0, but at may not be zero).
 Acceleration of a particle moving in a circular path in terms of unit vectors :

•Define the unit vectors r̂ and θ̂ shown in Figure 4.19a, where r̂ is a unit vector lying along the radius
vector and directed radially outward from the center of the circle and θ̂ is a unit vector tangent to the
circle.
•The direction of θ̂ is in the direction of increasing , where  is measured counterclockwise from the
positive x axis.
•Both r̂ and θ̂ “move along with the particle” and so vary in time.
•Express the total acceleration as :

d v ˆ v2
a = at + ar = θ − rˆ (4.20)
dt r