Topic 3

Motion in Two Dimensions

Kinematics in Two Dimensions

Will study the vector nature of position, velocity and acceleration in greater detail
Will treat projectile motion and uniform circular motion as special cases
Discuss relative motion
Position and Displacement

The position of an object

! is described
by its position vector, r .
The displacement of the object is
defined as the change in its position.

! ! !
Dr º rf - ri
General Motion Ideas

In two- or three-dimensional kinematics, everything is the same as in one-

dimensional motion except that we must now use full vector notation.
§ Positive and negative signs are no longer sufficient to determine the
direction.
Average Velocity
The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement to the time interval for the
displacement.
!
! Dr
vavg º
Dt

The direction of the average velocity is the direction of the displacement vector.
The average velocity between points is independent of the path taken.
§ This is because it is dependent on the displacement, which is also
independent of the path.
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity is the limit of the
average velocity as Δt approaches zero.
! !
! Dr d r
v º lim =
Dt ®0 Dt dt
§ As the time interval becomes smaller,
the direction of the displacement
approaches that of the line tangent to
the curve.
The direction of the instantaneous velocity
vector at any point in a particle’s path is
along a line tangent to the path at that point
and in the direction of motion.
The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity
vector is the speed.
§ The speed is a scalar quantity.
Average Acceleration

The average acceleration of a particle as it moves is defined as the change in the

instantaneous velocity vector divided by the time interval during which that
change occurs.
! ! !
! Dv vf - vi
aavg º =
Dt tf - t i

As a particle moves, the direction of the

change in velocity is found by vector
subtraction.
! ! !
Dv = vf - v i
The average acceleration !is a vector
quantity directed along Dv .
Instantaneous Acceleration
!
The instantaneous acceleration is the limiting value of the ratio Dv Dt as Δt
approaches zero.
! !
! Dv dv
a º lim =
Dt ®0 Dt dt
§ The instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the velocity vector
with respect to time.
Producing An Acceleration

Various changes in a particle’s motion may produce an acceleration.

§ The magnitude of the velocity vector may change.
§ The direction of the velocity vector may change.
§ Even if the magnitude remains constant
§ Both may change simultaneously
Kinematic Equations for Two-Dimensional Motion

When the two-dimensional motion has a constant acceleration, a series of

equations can be developed that describe the motion.
These equations will be similar to those of one-dimensional kinematics.
Motion in two dimensions can be modeled as two independent motions in each
of the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes.
§ Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction.
Kinematic Equations

Position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane.

!
r = x ˆi + yˆj (Eq. 1)
The velocity vector can be found from the position vector.
!
! dr
v= = v x ˆi + v y ˆj
dt (Eq. 2)
Since acceleration is constant, we can also find an expression for the velocity as
a function of time:

𝑣⃗! = 𝑣"# + 𝑎" 𝑡 𝚤̂ + 𝑣$# + 𝑎$ 𝑡 𝚥̂ = 𝑣"# 𝚤̂ + 𝑣$# 𝚥̂ + 𝑎" 𝚤̂ + 𝑎$ 𝚥̂ 𝑡

𝐯𝐟 = 𝐯𝐢 + 𝐚𝑡 (Eq. 3)
Kinematic Equations, Graphical Representation of Final
Velocity
The velocity vector can be represented
by its components.
!
vf is generally
! ! not along the direction of
either v i or a

𝑣⃗! = 𝑣"# + 𝑎" 𝑡 𝚤̂ + 𝑣$# + 𝑎$ 𝑡 𝚥̂

= 𝑣"# 𝚤̂ + 𝑣$# 𝚥̂ + 𝑎" 𝚤̂ + 𝑎$ 𝚥̂ 𝑡

𝐯𝐟 = 𝐯𝐢 + 𝐚𝑡 (Eq. 3)
Kinematic Equations
The position vector can also be expressed as a function of time:
%
𝑥! = 𝑥# + 𝑣"# 𝑡 + & 𝑎" 𝑡 &
%
𝑦! = 𝑦# + 𝑣$# 𝑡 + 𝑎$ 𝑡 &
&
1 1
𝑟⃗! = 𝑥# + 𝑣"# 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝑡 & 𝚤̂ + 𝑦# + 𝑣$# 𝑡 + 𝑎$ 𝑡 & 𝚥̂
2 2
%
= 𝑥# 𝚤̂ + 𝑦# 𝚥̂ + 𝑣"# 𝚤̂ + 𝑣$# 𝚥̂ 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝚤̂ + 𝑎$ 𝚥̂ 𝑡 &
&

#
𝐫⃗𝐟 = 𝐫⃗𝐢 + 𝐯𝐢 𝑡 + 𝐚𝑡 $ (Eq. 4)
$
§ This indicates that the position vector is the sum of three other vectors:
§ The initial position vector
§ The displacement resulting from the initial velocity
§ The displacement resulting from the acceleration
 Kinematic Equations, Graphical Representation of Final
Position

The vector representation of the position vector

1 1
𝑟⃗! = 𝑥# + 𝑣"# 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝑡 𝚤̂ + 𝑦# + 𝑣$# 𝑡 + 𝑎$ 𝑡 & 𝚥̂
&
2 2
%
= 𝑥# 𝚤̂ + 𝑦# 𝚥̂ + 𝑣"# 𝚤̂ + 𝑣$# 𝚥̂ 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝚤̂ + 𝑎$ 𝚥̂ 𝑡 &
&

#
𝐫⃗𝐟 = 𝐫⃗𝐢 + 𝐯𝐢 𝑡 + 𝐚𝑡 $ (Eq. 4)
$
 Example 1

A particle moves in the xy plane, starting from the origin at t = 0 with an initial velocity
having an x component of 20 m/s and a y component of -15 m/s. The particle
experiences an acceleration in the x direction, given by ax = 4.0 m/s2.
(a) Determine the total velocity vector at any time.
(b) Calculate the velocity and speed of the particle at t = 5.0 s and the angle the
velocity vector makes with the x axis.
(c ) Determine the x and y coordinates of the particle at any time t and its position
vector at this time.
Solution:
(a) We have 𝑣⃗# = (20𝚤̂ − 15𝚥)̂ 𝑚⁄𝑠, 𝑎⃗ = (4.0𝚤)̂ 𝑚⁄𝑠 & ,
Applying Eq. 3,
𝐯𝐟 = 𝐯𝐢 + 𝐚𝑡 = 20𝚤̂ − 15𝚥̂ + 4.0𝑡𝚤̂ = [ 20 + 4.0𝑡 𝚤̂ − 15𝚥]̂
 Example 1
(b) At t = 5.0 s,
𝑣⃗! = 20 + 4.0×5 𝚤̂ − 15𝚥̂ = 40𝚤̂ − 15𝚥̂ 𝑚⁄𝑠
Evaluate the speed of the particle as the magnitude of 𝑣⃗! ,
𝑣! = 𝑣⃗! = 𝑣"! & + 𝑣$! & = 40 & + −15 & = 43 𝑚⁄𝑠

Determine the angle 𝜃,

*!" )%+-⁄.
𝜃 = tan)% *#"
= tan)% /0-⁄.
= −21° (the negative sign for the angle indicates that
the velocity vector is directed at an angle of 21˚ below the positive x axis.)
(c)
Use the components of Eq. 4 with xi = yi = 0 at t =0
1 1
𝑥! = 𝑥# + 𝑣"# 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝑡 = 𝑣"# 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝑡 & = 20𝑡 + 2.0𝑡 &
&
2 2
1
𝑦! = 𝑦# + 𝑣$# 𝑡 + 𝑎$ 𝑡 & = 𝑣$# 𝑡 = −15𝑡
2
Express the position vector of the particle at any time t,
𝑟⃗! = 𝑥! 𝚤̂ + 𝑦! 𝚥̂ = 20𝑡 + 2.0𝑡 & 𝚤̂ − 15𝑡𝚥̂
Assumptions of Projectile Motion
Projectile motion of an object is simple to analyze if we make two assumptions:

1. The free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion and is directed
downward. (i.e., 𝑎" = 0, 𝑎$ = −𝑔)

2. The effect of air friction is negligible.

With these two assumptions, an object in projectile motion will follow a parabolic
path.
§ This path is called the trajectory.
Projectile Motion Diagram

The vertical velocity is zero at the top.

The acceleration is not zero anywhere along the trajectory.
The x component of velocity remains constant because there is no acceleration
in the x direction.
 Analyzing Projectile Motion
Consider the motion as the superposition of the motions in the x- and y-
directions.
The actual position at any time is given by:
! ! ! 1 ! 2 ! ! ! 1 ! 2
rf = ri + v i t + at rf = ri + v i t + gt (Eq. 4)
2 2
The initial velocity can be expressed in terms of its components.
§ vxi = vi cos q and vyi = vi sin q
The x-direction has constant velocity.
§ ax = 0
The y-direction is free fall.
§ ay = -g
Range and Maximum Height of a Projectile

When analyzing projectile motion, two

characteristics are of special interest.
1. The range, R, is the horizontal
distance of the projectile.
2. The maximum height the projectile
reaches is h.
Height and Range of a Projectile, equations

The range of a projectile can be expressed in terms of the initial velocity vector:

v i2 sin2 qi (Eq. 5)
h=
2g

The maximum height of the projectile can be found in terms of the initial velocity
vector:

v i2 sin2qi (Eq. 6)
R=
g

These two equations are valid only for symmetric motion.

More About the Range of a Projectile

The maximum range occurs at qi = 45o .

Complementary angles will produce the same range.
§ The maximum height will be different for the two angles.
§ The times of the flight will be different for the two angles.
Example 2

A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal and at
a speed of 11.0 m/s.
(a) How far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
(b) What is the maximum height reached.

Solution:
(a)
*$ % 123 &4$ %%.0-⁄. % 123 &(&0.0°)
𝑅= = = 7.94𝑚
5 :.;0-⁄. %

(b)
*$ % 123% 4$ %%.0-⁄. % 123 &0.0° %
ℎ= &5
= &(:.;0-⁄. %)
= 0.722𝑚
Projectile Motion – Problem Solving Hints
Analyze
§ If the initial velocity is given, resolve it into x and y components.
§ Treat the horizontal and vertical motions independently.
§ Analyze the horizontal motion with the particle-under-constant-velocity
model.
§ Analyze the vertical motion with the particle-under-constant-acceleration
model.
§ Remember that both directions share the same time.
Finalize
§ Check to see if your answers are consistent with the mental and pictorial
representations.
§ Check to see if your results are realistic.
 Example 3

A stone is thrown from the top of a building

upward at an angle of 30.0° to the horizontal
with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s as shown in
this figure. The height from which the stone is
thrown is 45.0 m above the ground.

(a) How long does it take the stone to reach

the ground?

(b) What is the speed of the stone just before

it strikes the ground?

• The stone is modeled as a particle under

constant acceleration in the y direction and
a particle under constant velocity in the x
direction.
Example 3
Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion occurs when an object moves in a circular path with a
constant speed.
The associated analysis model is a particle in uniform circular motion.
An acceleration exists since the direction of the motion is changing .
§ This change in velocity is related to an acceleration.
The constant-magnitude velocity vector is always tangent to the path of the
object.
Changing Velocity in Uniform Circular Motion

The change in the velocity vector is due to the change in direction.

The direction of the change in velocity is toward the center of the circle.
! ! !
v
The vector diagram shows f = v i + Dv
Centripetal Acceleration

The acceleration is always perpendicular to the path of the motion.

The acceleration always points toward the center of the circle of motion.
This acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration.
The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration vector is given by

v2
aC =
r (Eq. 7)
The direction of the centripetal acceleration vector is always changing, to stay
directed toward the center of the circle of motion.
Period

The period, T, is the time required for one complete revolution.

The speed of the particle would be the circumference of the circle of motion
divided by the period.
Therefore, the period is defined as:

2p r
Tº (Eq. 8)
v
Tangential Acceleration

The magnitude of the velocity could also be changing.

In this case, there would be a tangential acceleration.
The motion would be under the influence of both tangential and centripetal
accelerations.
§ Note the changing acceleration vectors

𝐚 = 𝐚𝐫 + 𝐚𝐭
Total Acceleration
The tangential acceleration causes the change in the speed of the particle. It is
parallel to the instantaneous velocity
dv
• The magnitude of tangential acceleration: at = (Eq. 9)
dt

The radial acceleration comes from a change in the direction of the velocity
vector.
*%
• The magnitude of radial acceleration: 𝑎< = 𝑎= = (Eq. 10)
<

• The total acceleration:

§ Magnitude a = ar2 + at2 (Eq. 11)
Example 4

Evaluate the radial acceleration:

𝑣& 6.00 𝑚⁄𝑠 &
𝑎< = = = 0.072 𝑚⁄𝑠 &
𝑟 500𝑚
Find the magnitude of 𝐚:
𝐚 = 𝑎< & + 𝑎> & = 0.072 𝑚⁄𝑠 & & + 0.300 𝑚⁄𝑠 & & = 0.309 𝑚⁄𝑠 &
Find the angle 𝜙 (see Figure b) between 𝐚 and the horizontal:
)%
𝑎< )%
0.072 𝑚⁄𝑠 &
𝜙 = tan = tan = 13.5°
𝑎> 0.300 𝑚⁄𝑠 &
Relative Velocity

Two observers moving relative to each other generally do not agree on the
outcome of an experiment.
However, the observations seen by each are related to one another.
A frame of reference can be described by a Cartesian coordinate system for
which an observer is at rest with respect to the origin.
Different Measurements, example

Observer A measures point P at +5 m

from the origin
Observer B measures point P at +10 m
from the origin
The difference is due to the different
frames of reference being used.
Different Measurements, another example

The man is walking on the moving

beltway.
The woman on the beltway sees the
man walking at his normal walking
speed.
The stationary woman sees the man
walking at a much higher speed.
§ The combination of the speed of
the beltway and the walking.
The difference is due to the relative
velocity of their frames of reference.