Prepared By- Er.

Krishna Khadka

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION
HYDROLOGY:-
Hydrology is the science, which deals with the occurrence, circulation, distribution
and disposal of water on the planet earth and their chemical and physical properties
with their reaction with environment including their relation to living beings.
Hydro=Water Logos=Science
“Hydrology is a science of water” Explain the statement.
Hydrology is derived from two words: hydro and logos. ‘Hydro’ means water and
‘logos’ means study. Simply hydrology is defined as the study of water. Hydrology
is the science which deals with the occurrence, distribution and movement of water
on the earth including that in the atmosphere and below the surface of the earth.
The water occurs as vapour in the atmosphere, as liquid water on the surface and as
ground water in underground surface. The various process involved are
precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, runoff, groundwater flow, stream flow and
transportation. Evaporation from the surfaces of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, ocean
surfaces, etc. and transpiration from surface vegetation i.e., from plant leaves of
cropped land and forests, etc. take place. These vapours rise to the sky and are
condensed at higher altitudes by condensation nuclei and form clouds, resulting in
droplet growth. The clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting in precipitation of
different forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew and frost. A part of this
precipitation flows over the land called runoff and part infilters into the soil which
builds up the ground water table. The surface runoff joins the streams and the
water is stored in reservoirs. A portion of surface runoff and ground water flows
back to ocean. Again evaporation starts from the surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and
ocean, and the cycle repeats. Hence it completes a scientific cycle of change of
water forms. In a general sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter-
disciplinary nature drawing support from allied sciences such as meteorology,
geology, statistics, chemistry, physics and fluid mechanics.

Branches of Hydrology
A. According to the application
1. Scientific Hydrology – deals with hydrological processes from the
viewpoint of natural processes. Ex: flood
2. Applied of Engineering Hydrology –deals with engineering
application of hydrology. Ex: hydropower

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B. According to distribution of water

1. Surface water hydrology – runoff water, stream
2. Sub surface water hydrology – infiltration, ground water recharge

SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY
The study of hydrology helps us to know
1. Multidisciplinary study (geography, chemistry, physics, biology, geology
and engineering).
2. Studies involve the application of scientific knowledge and mathematical
principles to solve water related problems such as quantity, quality and
availability in society.
3. The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site and its
frequency; this is required for the safe design of drains and culverts, dams
and reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
4. The water yield from a basin—its occurrence, quantity and frequency, etc;
this is necessary for the design of dams, municipal water supply, water
power, river navigation, etc.
5. The ground water development for which a knowledge of the hydrogeology
of the area, i.e., of the formation soil, recharge facilities like streams and
reservoirs, rainfall pattern, climate, cropping pattern, etc. are required.
6. The maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design of a
drainage project in the area.

Application of Engineering Hydrology

‘Describe the specific uses of hydrology in Civil engineering.’
1. Hydropower development:
 For planning of hydropower plants to determine feasibility of a ‘run
off river’ plant and operation with pondage.
 To determine the maximum expected flow at dam, reservoir, spillway
etc.
 To determine minimum reservoir capacity sufficient to meet
hydropower demands.
2. Water supply:
 For determining the correct assessment of flows in water supply
projects.
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 For determining the minimum yield of water to meet water demands.

3. Irrigation system:
 Finding the sources, velocity and water levels before and after
completion of irrigation structures.
 To determine the maximum expected volume of water that may be
available for the irrigation.
4. Navigation:
 For dimensioning of the navigation channel during various seasons.
 For computation of water surface profile for various rates of flow.
5. Roadway Design:
 Study of stream through hills in Hill road design.
 Determining maximum flow of water at intermediate structures like
bed-bridges, bridges, culverts etc.
 Determining stability of soil containing water in landslide and soil
erosion area.
6. Flood mitigation:
 Determining river water level to alert before flood disaster.
 For the construction of required dams and other protection walls.
7. Pollution control and ecological protection
 For the control of erosion to minimize sedimentation of reservoirs.
 For the navigation of streams flow, particularly magnitude and
duration of low flows for prevention of stream pollution.
 Study of watershed area, protection and conservation.

Hydrologic Cycle
‘What is hydrological cycle and what is its importance?’
‘Sketch a figure to show hydrological cycle showing all the major components.’

Water occurs on the Earth in all its three states i.e. liquid, solid and gas and in
various degrees of motion. Hydrologic cycle is the center of focus of hydrology.
The cycle has no beginning or ending and its many processes occurs continuously.
It is earth’s water circulating system.
Hydrologic cycle is define as continuous natural process of transfer of moisture
from atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance of the
precipitated water by streams and river to ocean and lake and evaporation of water
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back to the atmosphere. This is a continuous cycle due to which every living being
get water necessary for their survival.

Process involved in Hydrologic Cycle

1. Evaporation
The process by which water from liquid or solid state is converted into
vapour form and removed from the surface is called evaporation.
2. Transpiration
The process of loss of water in the form of water vapour from the internal
tissue of green aerial parts of plant into the atmosphere is called
transpiration.
3. Precipitation
The fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth in any form like rain,
drizzle, snow, hail, sleet etc. is called precipitation.
4. Run Off
The portion of the precipitation which reaches the stream channel by a
variety of paths above and below the surface of the earth is called run off.
 Sub surface run off (Inter flow)
The infiltrated water flows laterally through the unsaturated soil to the
stream channel is called sub surface run off.
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 Deep percolation
The water from the soil moisture zone percolates deeper to recharge
ground water.
 Ground water flow ( Base flow)
The flow that takes place from the saturated ground water zone to the
streams is called ground water flow.
 Stream flow (final output)
The part of precipitation that reaches the stream through different
paths above and below the earth surfaces is called run off. Once it
enters the channel, the run-off is called stream flow.
5. Infiltration
The process of movement of water into the ground from ground surface is
called infiltration. The infiltrated water replenishes the soil moisture
deficiency and the excess water moves downward to become a part of
ground water.
6. Interception
It is the quantity of water that is intercepted by vegetation, building and
other objects which finally gets evaporated without contributing to the
runoff.

Discuss critically the statement ‘Through knowledge of hydrology is a must

for any water resources planning.’

Planning and designing are the key parts of a construction of projects. So various
factors are to be considered for planning and design of water resources projects.
Maximum flow rate calculation, regulation of floods, environmental impacts, study
of groundwater potentials and its uses, all are necessary to be kept in mind before
planning and design. These raw materials can be achieved only by the knowledge
of hydrology. It is very essential as it provides complete solution of upcoming ups
and downs during construction of engineering structures. Following are the various
factors that need to be considered.

1. Maximum flow which are expected to occur at a place

2. Minimum flow which can occur during any dry period.
3. Minimum reservoir capacity to be fixed to meet all water demands from a
multi-purpose reservoir.

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4. Possible regulation of floods at the downstream reaches once a hydraulic

structure erected.
5. Possible supply of water from a river to meet demands for water supply
projects.
6. Environmental impacts of a hydraulic structure.
7. Study of ground water potentials and its uses.

Development of hydrological study in Nepal

Hydrologic cycle is the continuous water circulatory system. Most of the ancient
civilization was flourished on the banks of rivers. This means civilization
flourished where there was assured sources of supply of water meeting various
demands of human beings. Most of the present day science of hydrology has been
developed since 1930.

Nepal has short history in the field of hydrology. Systematic collection, processing
and dissemation of water resource data of Nepal was first initiated in 1962 as a
program between USAID/N and Government of Nepal (GON). The responsible
organization was a subsection under division no. 3 in the department of Electricity.
This organization after several administrative changes took the present shape of the
department of hydrology and meteorology (DHM) in 1988.

Major historical events are summarized below:

1. Hydrological studies started after Government of India initiated Koshi

Project In late 1940s.
2. Hydrological stations on Koshi at Bara Chhetra, Sunkoshi at Kampughat and
Tamur at Mulghat were established in 1947.
3. With the support of Gov of India, the meteorological observations stations
were established in 1956.
4. Nepal started hydrological and meteorological activities in an organized way
in 1962 from Karnali basin.
5. In 1966, Department of hydrology and meteorology (DHM) was established
under the ministry of water and power.
6. Publication of hydro-meteorological data was started from 1966.
7. The department was merged with Department of Irrigation in 1972.
8. The department was finally separated in 1988 from Irrigation.

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9. The nationwide hydro-meteorological data management project was started

in 1993.
10. Water resource Strategy was prepared in 2002 and national Water Plan was
published in 2005.

Objectives, Goals and Scope of DHM

1. The main objective of DHM is to collect hydrological and meteorological

data throughout Nepal, process the data, publish it and disseminate the data
to users such as water resource planners, developers, researchers and data
seekers for the verification of extreme hydrological and meteorological
events required for different purposes.
2. The fundamental goal of DHM is to support for overall development of
water resources of the country.
3. Besides, DHM generates information of extreme hydrological and
meteorological events and deliver such information publicly in time to save
life and property of people.
4. DHM has a mandate from GoN to monitor all the hydrological and
meteorological activities in Nepal.
5. The scope of work includes the monitoring of river hydrology, water quality,
sediment, limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, weather, climate, agro-
meteorology, air quality and solar energy.
6. The Department has extended its services in the sector of General and
Aviation Weather Forecast regularly.
7. The department delivers periodical Climate Bulletin to the public through its
website and generates Agro-meteorological Notice for Agriculture
Management and Information System (AMIS) too.
8. Besides, the department is providing its 24/7 day service of Flood
Forecasting and Early Warning to public and related agencies during the
period of Monsoon Season.
Principal Activities of DHM
1. Collect and disseminate hydrological and meteorological data and
information for water resources, agriculture, energy, and other development
activities.
2. Issue hydrological and meteorological forecasts for public, mountaineering
expedition, civil aviation, and for the mitigation of natural disasters.
3. Mitigate weather, flood and drought induced disaster by providing early
warning services to the concerned communities.
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4. Conduct special studies required for the policy makers and for the
development of hydrological and meteorological sciences in the region.
5. Promote relationship with national and international organizations in the
field of hydrology and meteorology.

Hydro-meteorological data availability in Nepal

Hydro-Meteorological data are very important to know the existing and past
environmental condition to deal with natural and environmental problems. For the
monitoring, analysis and projection of the environmental condition of the study
area, the researcher requires hydrological and meteorological data.
According to Department of Hydrology and Meteorology of Nepal, there are 438
meteorological stations in the country. The hydro-meteorological data analysis is
divided into various sub division like hydrology division (responsible for
collecting hydrological (river, lake, flood, snow and glacier) data, studying and
analyzing them, publishing analyzed data and report, and run and manage
hydrological project across the country), Climatology Division (Study and
investigation about climate change and precipitation), Agro-meteorology
Division(Collect and disseminate hydrological and meteorological information
about agriculture etc.

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Water balance equation (water budget Equation)

The water balance equation is the statement of the law of conservation of mass. In
other words it is the balance of input and output of water with in a given area
taking into account net changes of storage. It can be defined by the following
relationship.
P
Mass inflow-mass outflow = change in storage E
The main source of inflow is precipitation (P)
and outflows are surface runoff (R), T
evaporation (E), transpiration etc.
The general water balance equation is
P- (R+G+E+T) = ΔS
Where, ΔS= change in storage
G= Net ground water flow G
In case of other inflow besides precipitation,
R
the water balance equation is
(P+I)- (R+G+E+T) = ΔS where I= other inflow

World Water Balance

1. The total quantity of water in the world is estimated to be about 1386 million
cubic kilometers (M km3). About 96.54% of this water is contained in the
oceans as saline water.

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2. Some of the water on the land amounting to about 1% of the total water is
also saline.
3. Thus, only about 35.0 M km 3 of fresh water is available.
4. Out of this about 10.6 M km 3 is both liquid and fresh and the remaining 24.4
M km3 is contained in frozen state as ice in the Polar Regions and on
mountain tops and glaciers.

Problem: 1
A river reach had a flood wave passing through it. At a given instant the
storage of water in the reach was estimated as 15.5 ha. meter. What would be
the storage in the reach after interval of 3 hours if the average inflow and
outflow during the time period are 14.2m 3/sec and 10.6m 3/sec respectively?
Solution:
Initial storage = 15.5 ha.m = 15.5×10 4 m3
Inflow rate = 14.2m 3/sec
Outflow rate = 10.62m 3/sec
Time (T) = 3hrs
Inflow volume in 3 hr = 14.2×3×60×60 = 153360m 3
Outflow volume in 3 hr = 10.6×3×60×60 = 114480m 3
Final storage =?
From water balance equation,
Inflow – outflow = change in storage
Or, 153360-114480 = final storage -15.5×10 4 m3
Final storage = 193880 m 3

Problem 2:
Estimate the constant rate of with drawl of water from a 1375 ha reservoir in
a month of 30 days during which the reservoir level dropped by 0.75m in spite
of an average inflow into the reservoir of 0.5 million m 3/day. During the
month, the average seepage loss from the reservoir was 2.5 cm, total
precipitation was 18.5 cm and total evaporation was 9.5cm.
Solution:
Given,
Reservoir area (A) = 1375 ha = 1375×10 4 m2
Inflow into the reservoir = 0.5×10 6 m3/day
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Inflow in the month = 0.5×10 6×30 = 15×10 6m3

15×10 6
Inflow in term of depth = (I) = = 1.091𝑚
1375×10 4
Change in storage (ΔS) = 0.75m
Seepage loss (G) = 2.5cm=0.025m
Precipitation (P) = 18.5cm=0.185m
Evaporation (E) = 9.5cm=0.095m
From water balance equation,
(P+I) – (Q+G+E) = ΔS
or, (0.185+1.091)- (Q+0.025+0.095) =0.75
or, Q = 0.406m for a month
0.406×1375×10 4
Now, 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑙 = = 2.15𝑚 3 /𝑠
30×24×60×60

Problem 3:
A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90 minutes
due to storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the
catchment was dry before the storm and experience a runoff lasting for 10
hours with an average discharge value of 2m 3/sec. the stream was again dry
after the runoff event. (a) What is the amount of water which was not
available to runoff due to combined effect of infiltration, evaporation and
transpiration? (b) What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?
Solution:
Given,
Catchment area (A) =150 ha = 150×10 4 m2
Precipitation = 10.5 cm =0.105 m
Volume of precipitation (P) = 0.105×150×10 4 = 157500m3
Runoff = 2m3/sec
Runoff volume in 10 hours (R) = 2×10×3600 = 72000 m 3
a) Amount of water loss (L) =?
From water balance equation,
P –(R+G+E+T) =ΔS
Where, G+E+T= L and ΔS=0 as the stream was dry before and after storm.
P-(R+L) = 0
L= P-R = 157500-72000 = 85500m 3
b) Ratio of Runoff to rainfall = 72000/157500 = 0.457
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