EMP 316.3; ELEMENTS OF HYDOLOGY, ADEGBOYE, M. A.

Definition and Scope of Hydrology

Hydrology is an inherently interdisciplinary geoscience, built upon the basic sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and
biology, and upon its sister geosciences. Much of the motivation for answering hydrologic questions has and will continue to
come from the practical need to manage water resources and water-related hazards. Thus, hydrologic science is the basis for
hydrologic engineering and, along with economics and related social sciences, for water-resources management.

Hydrology is the geoscience that describes and predicts the occurrence and circulation of the earth’s fresh water. The principal
focus of hydrology includes:
A. The distribution and movement of water substance on and under the earth’s land surfaces, including its exchanges
with the atmosphere;
B. Its physical and chemical interactions with earth materials; and
C. The biological processes and human activities that affect its movement, distribution, and quality.
The circulation of water on land occurs in the context of the global hydrologic cycle, which includes the spatial and temporal
variations of water substance in the oceanic and atmospheric as well as the terrestrial compartments of the global water system
(figure 1.1). Thus, the study of the global hydrologic cycle is included in the scope of hydrology. The hydrologic cycle is a
central component of the earth’s climate system at all scales, from local to global.
SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY
The study of hydrology helps us to know
(i). the maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site and its frequency; this is required for the safe design of drains
and culverts, dams and reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
(ii). the water yield from a basin—its occurrence, quantity and frequency, etc.; this is necessary for the design of dams,
municipal water supply, water power, river navigation, etc.
(iii). the ground water development for which a knowledge of the hydrogeology of the area, i.e., of the formation soil,
recharge facilities like streams and reservoirs, rainfall pattern, climate, cropping pattern, etc. are required.
(iv). the maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design of a drainage project in the area.

HYDROLOGICAL DATA
For the analysis and design of any hydrologic project adequate data and length of records are necessary. A hydrologist is often
posed with lack of adequate data. The basic hydrological data required are:
(i) Climatological data
(ii) Hydrometeorological data like temperature, wind velocity, humidity, etc.
(iii) Precipitation records
(iv) Stream-flow records
(v) Seasonal fluctuation of ground water table or piezometric heads
(vi) Evaporation data
(vii) Cropping pattern, crops and their consumptive use
(viii) Water quality data of surface streams and ground water
(ix) Geomorphologic studies of the basin, like area, shape and slope of the basin, mean and median elevation, mean
temperature (as well as highest and lowest temperature recorded) and other physiographic characteristics of the basin; stream
density and drainage density; tanks and reservoirs
(x.) Hydrometeorological characteristics of basin:
(i). a.a.r., long term precipitation, space average over the basin using isohyets and several other methods (Rainbird, 1968)
(ii). Depth-area-duration (DAD) curves for critical storms (station equipped with self-recording raingauges).
(iii). Isohyetal maps—Isohyets may be drawn for long-term average, annual and monthly precipitation for individual years
and months
(iv). Cropping pattern—crops and their seasons
(v). Daily, monthly and annual evaporation from water surfaces in the basin
(vi). Water balance studies of the basin
(vii). Chronic problems in the basin due to a flood-menacing river (like Tapti or Tapi in central India) or siltmenacing river
(like Tungabhadra in Karnataka)
(vii). Soil conservation and methods of flood control

HYDROLOGIC EQUATION
The hydrologic equation is simply the statement of the law of conservation of matter and is given by
I = O + ∆S …………………………………………………....(1.1)
where I = inflow, O = outflow, and ∆S = change in storage
This equation states that during a given period, the total inflow into a given area must equal the total outflow from the area
plus the change is storage. While solving this equation, the ground water is considered as an integral part of the surface water
and it is the subsurface inflow and outflow that pose problems in the water balance studies of a basin.
 WORLD’S WATER RESOURCES
The World’s total water resources are estimated at 1.36 × 108 Mha-m. Of these global water resources, about 97.2% is salt
water mainly in oceans, and only 2.8% is available as fresh water at any time on the planet earth. Out of this 2.8% of fresh
water, about 2.2% is available as surface water and 0.6% as ground water. Even out of this 2.2% of surface water, 2.15% is
fresh water in glaciers and icecaps and only of the order of 0.01% is available in lakes and streams, the remaining 0.04%
being in other forms. Out of 0.6% of stored ground water, only about 0.25% can be economically extracted with the present
drilling technology (the remaining being at greater depths).
HYDROLOGY AND HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Hydrology is the science, which deals with the occurrence, distribution and disposal of water on the planet earth; it is the
science which deals with the various phases of the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrologic cycle is the water transfer cycle, which occurs continuously in nature; the three important phases of the hydrologic
cycle are: (a) Evaporation and evapotranspiration (b) precipitation and (c) runoff and is shown in Fig. 1.7. The globe has one-
third land and two thirds ocean. Evaporation from the surfaces of ponds, lakes, reservoirs. ocean surfaces, etc. and
transpiration from surface vegetation i.e., from plant leaves of cropped land and forests, etc. take place. These vapours rise to
the sky and are condensed at higher altitudes by condensation nuclei and form clouds, resulting in droplet growth. The clouds
melt and sometimes burst resulting in precipitation of different forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew and frost. A part of
this precipitation flows over the land called runoff and part in filters into the soil which builds up the ground water table. The
surface runoff joins the streams and the water is stored in reservoirs. A portion of surface runoff and ground water flows back
to ocean.
Again evaporation starts from the surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and ocean, and the cycle repeats. Of these three phases of the
hydrologic cycle, namely, evaporation, precipitation and runoff, it is the ‘runoff phase’, which is important to a civil engineer
since he is concerned with the storage of surface runoff in tanks and reservoirs for the purposes of irrigation, municipal water
supply hydroelectric power etc.
Fig. 1.7 The hydrologic cycle
 Figure 1.2 The principal storages (boxes) and pathways (arrows) of water in the global hydrologic cycle.

Figure 1.3 The principal storages (boxes) and pathways (arrows) of water in the land phase of the hydrologic cycle. The
heavy dashed line represents the boundary of a watershed or other region.
 Figure 1.4 Range of space and time scales of hydrologic processes

Figure 1.5 Hydrologic science in the hierarchy from basic sciences to water-resources management
Summary of Basic Laws of Classical
Physics Most Often Applied in Hydrologic Analyses.
Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed.
Newton’s Laws of Motion:
1. The momentum of a body remains constant unless a net force acts upon the body (= conservation of momentum).
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net force acting on the body, and is in the same direction
as the net force (force equals mass times acceleration).
3. For every net force acting on a body, there is a corresponding force of the same magnitude exerted by the body in the
opposite direction.
Laws of Thermodynamics:
1. Energy is neither created nor destroyed (= conservation of energy).
2. No process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat and its complete conversion into work.
Fick’s First Law of Diffusion:
A diffusing substance moves from where its concentration is larger to where its concentration is smaller at a rate that is
proportional to the spatial gradient of concentration.

UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS

 PRECIPITATION

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Drizzle — a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5 mm) and intensity <1 mm/hr
Rain — the condensed water vapour of the atmosphere falling in drops (>0.5 mm, maximum size—6 mm) from the clouds.
Glaze — freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with cold objects.
Sleet — frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing temperature.
Snow — ice crystals resulting from sublimation (i.e., water vapour condenses to ice)
Snowflakes — ice crystals fused together.
Hail — small lumps of ice (>5 mm in diameter) formed by alternate freezing and melting, when they are carried up and down
in highly turbulent air currents.
Dew — moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool surfaces.
Frost — a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the surface of exposed objects by dew or water vapour that has
frozen
Fog — a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of atmospheric vapour (interfering with
visibility)
Mist — a very thin fog

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

The precipitation may be due to

(i) Thermal convection (convectional precipitation)—This type of precipitation is in the form of local whirling thunder storms
and is typical of the tropics. The air close to the warm earth gets heated and rises due to its low density, cools adiabatically to
form a cauliflower shaped cloud, finally bursts into a thunder storm. When accompanied by destructive winds, they are called
‘tornados’.
(ii) Conflict between two air masses (frontal precipitation)—When two air masses due to contrasting temperatures and
densities clash with each other, condensation and precipitation occur at the surface of contact, Fig. 2.1. This surface of contact
is called a ‘front’ or ‘frontal surface’. If a cold air mass drives out a warm air mass’ it is called a ‘cold front’ and if a warm air
mass replaces the retreating cold air mass, it is called a ‘warm front’. On the other hand, if the two air masses are drawn
simultaneously towards a low pressure area, the front developed is stationary and is called a ‘stationary front’. Cold front
causes intense precipitation on comparatively small areas, while the precipitation due to warm front is less intense but is
spread over a comparatively larger area. Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and usually overtake them, the frontal
surfaces of cold and warm air sliding against each other. This phenomenon is called ‘occlusion’ and the resulting frontal
surface is called an ‘occluded front’.
(ii) Orographic lifting (orographic precipitation)—The mechanical lifting of moist air over mountain barriers, causes heavy
precipitation on the windward side (Fig. 2.2). For example, Cherrapunji in the Himalayan range and Agumbe in the western
Ghats of south India get very heavy orographic precipitation of 1250 cm and 900 cm (average annual rainfall), respectively.
(iv) Cyclonic (cyclonic precipitation)—This type of precipitation is due to lifting of moist air converging into a low pressure
belt, i.e., due to pressure differences created by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface. Here the winds blow spirally inward
counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. There are two main types of cyclones
—tropical cyclone (also called hurricane or typhoon) of comparatively small diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind
velocity and heavy precipitation, and the extra-tropical cyclone of large diameter up to 3000 km causing wide spread frontal
type precipitation.

Fig. 2.2 Orographic precipitation

2.2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Rainfall may be measured by a network of rain gauges which may either be of non-recording or recording type.

Fig. 2.3 Symon’s rain gauge

The non-recording rain gauge used in India is the Symon’s rain gauge (Fig. 2.3). It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of
12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle as a receiver. The cylindrical metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry foundation
with the level rim 30.5 cm above the ground surface. The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is
measured in a special measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall; when full it can measure 1.25 cm of rain.
The rainfall is measured every day at 08.30 hours IST. During heavy rains, it must be measured three or four times in the day,
lest the receiver fill and overflow, but the last measurement should be at 08.30 hours IST and the sum total of all the
measurements during the previous 24 hours entered as the rainfall of the day in the register. Usually, rainfall measurements
are made at 08.30 hr IST and sometimes at 17.30 hr IST also. Thus the non-recording or the Symon’s rain gauge gives only
the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24 hours (i.e., daily rainfall) and does not give the intensity and duration of rainfall
during different time intervals of the day. It is often desirable to protect the gauge from being damaged by cattle and for this
purpose a barbed wire fence may be erected around it.
Recording Rain Gauge
This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge. This type of rain gauge Figs. 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6, has an
automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of a clockwork, a drum with a graph paper fixed around it and a pencil point,
which draws the mass curve of rainfall Fig. 2.7. From this mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or
intensity of rainfall at any instant during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined. The gauge is
installed on a concrete or masonry platform 45 cm square in the observatory enclosure by the side of the ordinary rain gauge
at a distance of 2-3 m from it. The gauge is so installed that the rim of the funnel is horizontal and at a height of exactly 75 cm
above ground surface. The self-recording rain gauge is generally used in conjunction with an ordinary rain gauge exposed
close by, for use as standard, by means of which the readings of the recording rain gauge can be checked and if necessary
adjusted.

Fig. 2.4 Tipping bucket gauge

Fig. 2.5 Weighing type rain gauge

There are three types of recording rain gauges—tipping bucket gauge, weighing gauge and float gauge.
Tipping bucket rain gauge. This consists of a cylindrical receiver 30 cm diameter with a funnel inside (Fig. 2.4). Just below
the funnel a pair of tipping buckets is pivoted such that when one of the bucket receives a rainfall of 0.25 mm it tips and
empties into a tank below, while the other bucket takes its position and the process is repeated. The tipping of the bucket
actuates on electric circuit which causes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a drum which revolves by a clock
mechanism. This type cannot record snow.
Weighing type rain gauge. In this type of rain-gauge, when a certain weight of rainfall is collected in a tank, which rests on a
spring-lever balance, it makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum (Fig. 2.5). The rotation of the
drum sets the time scale while the vertical motion of the pen records the cumulative precipitation.
Float type rain gauge. In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the float moves up which makes a pen to move
on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum (Fig. 2.6). When the float chamber fills up, the water siphons out automatically
through a siphon tube kept in an interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork revolves the drum once in 24 hours. The
clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a week when the chart wrapped round the drum is also replaced. This type of gauge
is used by IMD.
 Fig. 2.6 Float type rain gauge

The weighing and float type rain gauges can store a moderate snow fall which the operator can weigh or melt and record the
equivalent depth of rain. The snow can be melted in the gauge itself (as it gets collected there) by a heating system fitted to it
or by placing in the gauge certain chemicals such as Calcium Chloride, ethylene glycol, etc.

Automatic-radio-reporting rain-gauge
This type of rain gauge is used in mountainous areas, which are not easily accessible to collect the rainfall data manually. As
in the tipping bucket gauge, when the buckets fill and tip, they give electric pulses equal in number to the mm of rainfall
collected which are coded into messages and impressed on a transmitter during broadcast. At the receiving station, these
coded signals are picked up by UHF receiver. This type of rain gauge was installed at the Koyna hydro-electric project in June
1966 by IMD, Poona and is working satisfactorily.
RADARS
The application of radars in the study of storm mechanics, i.e. the areal extent, orientation and movement of rain storms, is of
great use. The radar signals reflected by the rain are helpful in determining the magnitude of storm precipitation and its areal
distribution. This method is usually used to supplement data obtained from a network of rain gauges.
Location of rain-gauges—Rain-gauges must be so located as to avoid exposure to wind effect or interception by trees or
buildings nearby.
The best location may be an open plane ground like an airport.
The rainfall records are maintained by one or more of the following departments:
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)
Public Works Department (PWD)
Agricultural Department
Revenue Department
Forest Department, etc.
RAIN-GAUGE DENSITY
The following figures give a guideline as to the number of rain-gauges to be erected in a given area or what is termed as ‘rain-
gauge density’

The mean of yearly rainfall observed for a period of 35 consecutive years is called the average annual rainfall (a.a.r.) as used
in India. The a.a.r. of a place depends upon: (i). Distance from the ocean, (ii). Direction of the prevailing winds, (iii). The
mean annual temperature, (iv). Altitude of the place, and(v). its topography. The ratio of rainfall in a particular year to the
a.a.r. is called the ‘index of wetness’. There may be wet (good), dry (bad or difficult), and normal (average) years as the
rainfall is greater, less than, or to a.a.ar., respectively. Foe instant, an index of wetness of 60% in a particular year indicates a
rainfall deficiency of 40%.
Estimates of Missing Data and Adjustment of Records
For frequency analysis of rainfall data, a sufficient long record is required. It may so happen that a particular rain gauge is not
operative for a part of a month or so (since it is broken or some other reason), when it becomes necessary to supplement the
missing record by one of the following methods:

(i) Station-year method—In this method, the records of two or more stations are combined into one long record provided
station records are independent and the areas in which the stations are located are climatologically the same. The missing
record at a station in a particular year may be found by the ratio of averages or by graphical comparison. For example, in a
certain year the total rainfall of station A is 75 cm and for the neighbouring station B, there is no record. But if the a.a.r. at A
and B are 70 cm and 80 cm, respectively, the missing year’s rainfall at B (say, PB) can be found by simple proportion as:

75 = PB therefore, PB = 85.7cm

70 80

This result may again be checked with reference to another neighbouring station C.
(ii) By simple proportion (normal ratio method)–This method is illustrated by the following example.
Working Example
Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occured. The storm rainfall recorded in the
three surrounding stations A, B and C were 8.5, 6.7 and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and 90
cm, respectively, estimate the storm rainfall at station D.

Solution
By equating the ratios of storm rainfall to the a.a.r. at each station, the storm rainfall at station D (PD) is estimated as

(iii) Double-mass analysis—The trend of the rainfall records at a station may slightly change after some years due to a change
in the environment (or exposure) of a station either due to coming of a new building, fence, planting of trees or cutting of
forest nearby, which affect the catch of the gauge due to change in the wind pattern or exposure. The consistency of records at
the station in question (say, X) is tested by a double mass curve by plotting the cumulative annual (or seasonal) rainfall at
station X against the concurrent cumulative values of mean annual (or seasonal) rainfall for a group of surrounding stations,
for the number of years of record (Fig. 2.9). From the plot, the year in which a change in regime (or environment) has
occurred is indicated by the change in slope of the straight line plot. The rainfall records of the station x are adjusted by
multiplying the recorded values of rainfall by the ratio of slopes of the straight lines before and after change in environment.
Example 2
The annual rainfall at station X and the average annual rainfall at 18 surrounding stations are given below. Check the
consistency of the record at station X and determine the year in which a change in regime has occurred. State how you are
going to adjust the records for the change in regime. Determine the a.a.r. for the period 1952-1970 for the changed regime.
Solution

The above cumulative rainfalls are plotted as shown in Fig. 2.9. It can be seen from the figure that there is a distinct change in
slope in the year 1958, which indicates that a change in regime (exposure) has occurred in the year 1958. To make the records
prior to 1958 comparable with those after change in regime has occurred, the earlier records have to be adjusted by
multiplying by the ratio of slopes m2/m1 i.e., 0.9/1.25.
 Cumulative annual rainfall-18 Stns. average, cm

Fig. 2.9 Double mass analysis Example 2

2.9 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RAINFALL

The variation of rainfall with respect to time may be shown graphically by (i) a hyetograph, and (ii) a mass curve.
A hyetograph is a bar graph showing the intensity of rainfall with respect to time (Fig. 2.16) and is useful in determining the
maximum intensities of rainfall during a particular storm as is required in land drainage and design of culverts.

Fig. 2.16 Hyetograph

A mass curve of rainfall (or precipitation) is a plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against time (Fig. 2.17). From the mass
curve, the total depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any instant of time can be found. The amount of rainfall for any
increment of time is the difference between the ordinates at the beginning and end of the time increments, and the intensity of
rainfall at any time is the slope of the mass curve (i.e., i = ∆P/∆t) at that time. A mass curve of rainfall is always a rising curve
and may have some horizontal sections which indicates periods of no rainfall. The mass curve for the design storm is
generally obtained by maximizing the mass curves of the severe storms in the basin.
 Fig. 2.17 Mass curve of rainfall

WATER LOSSES

The hydrologic equation states that Rainfall–Losses = Runoff ............................................................(3.1)

The various water losses that occur in nature are enumerated below. If these losses are deducted from the rainfall, the surface
runoff can be obtained.
(i) Interception loss-due to surface vegetation, i.e., held by plant leaves.
(ii) Evaporation: can be either;
(a) from water surface, i.e., reservoirs, lakes, ponds, river channels, etc.
(b) from soil surface, appreciably when the ground water table is very near the soil surface.
(iii) Transpiration—from plant leaves.
(iv) Evapotranspiration for consumptive use—from irrigated or cropped land.
(v) Infiltration—into the soil at the ground surface.
(vi) Watershed leakage—ground water movement from one basin to another or into the sea.

Interception Loss
The precipitation intercepted by foliage (plant leaves, forests) and buildings and returned to atmosphere (by evaporation from
plant leaves) without reaching the ground surface is called interception loss. Interception loss is high in the beginning of
storms and gradually decreases; the loss is of the order of 0.5 to 2 mm per shower and it is greater in the case of light showers
than when rain is continuous. Fig. 3.1 shows the Horton’s mean curve of interception loss for different showers.
Effective rain = Rainfall – Interception loss

EVAPORATION
Evaporation from free water surfaces and soil are of great importance in hydro-meterological studies.
Evaporation from water surfaces (Lake evaporation)
The factors affecting evaporation are (i). air and water temperature, (ii). relative humidity, (iii). wind velocity, (iv). surface
area (exposed), (v). barometric pressure and, (vi). salinity of the water. The last two having a minor effect.
The rate of evaporation is a function of the differences in vapour pressure at the water surface and in the atmosphere, and the
Dalton’s law of evaporation is given by

Higher the temperature and wind velocity, greater is the evaporation, while greater the humidity and dissolved salts, smaller is
the evaporation. The annual evaporation from irrigation tanks in south India is of the order of 160 to 180 cm, the highest
evaporation being in the summer months of April and May. The monthly evaporation from Krishnarajasagara reservoir (near
Mysore, south India) is given below:

Methods of Estimating Lake Evaporation

Evaporation from water surfaces can be determined from the following methods:
(i) The storage equation

(ii) Auxiliary pans like land pans, floating pans, colarado sunken pans, etc.
(iii) Evaporation formula like that of Dalton’s law
(iv) Humidity and wind velocity gradients
(v) The energy budget—this method involves too many hydro-meteorological factors (variables) with too much sophisticated
instrumentation and hence it is a specialist approach
(vi) The water budget—similar to (i)
(vii) Combination of aerodynamic and energy balance equations—Penman’s equation (involves too many variables)

EVAPORATION PANS
(i) Floating pans (made of GI) of 90 cm square and 45 cm deep are mounted on a raft floating in water. The volume of water
lost due to evaporation in the pan is determined by knowing the volume of water required to bring the level of water up to the
original mark daily and after making allowance for rainfall, if there has been any.
(ii) Land pan. Evaporation pans are installed in the vicinity of the reservoir or lake to determine the lake evaporation. The
IMD Land pan shown in Fig. 3.2 is 122 cm diameter and 25.5 cm deep, made of unpainted GI; and set on wood grillage 10 cm
above ground to permit circulation of air under the pan. The pan has a stilling well, vernier point gauge, a thermometer with
clip and may be covered with a wire screen. The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan can be directly measured
by the point gauge. Readings are taken twice daily at 08.30 and 17.30 hours I.S.T. The air temperature is determined by
reading a dry bulb thermometer kept in the Stevenson’s screen erected in the same enclosure of the pan. A totalising
anemometer is normally mounted at the level of the instrument to provide the wind speed information required. Allowance
has to be made for rainfall, if there has been any. Water is added to the pan from a graduated cylinder to bring the water level
to the original mark, i.e., 5 cm below the top of the pan. Experiments have shown that the unscreened pan evaporation is 1.144
times that of the screened one.

Fig. 3.2 IMD land pan

(iii) Colarado sunken pan. This is 92 cm square and 42-92 cm deep and is sunk in the ground such that only 5-15 cm depth
projects above the ground surface and thus the water level is maintained almost at the ground level. The evaporation is
measured by a point gauge.
Pan coefficient—Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surfaces directly but must be adjusted for the
differences in physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is larger and deeper and may be exposed to different
wind speed, as compared to a pan. The small volume of water in the metallic pan is greatly affected by temperature
fluctuationsnin the air or by solar raditions in contrast with large bodies of water (in the reservoir) with little temperature
fluctuations. Thus the pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual evaporation from water surfaces of lakes
and reservoirs, i.e., by multiplying by a coefficient called pan coefficient and is defined as

and the experimental values for pan coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of 0.7.
What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area = 640 ha) in
the vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?
 Piche Evaporimeter
It is usually kept suspended in a Stevenson screen. It consists of a disc of filter paper kept constantly saturated with water
from a graduated glass tube Fig. 3.3. The loss of water from the tube over a known period gives the average rate of
evaporation. Though it is a simple instrument, the readings obtained are often more erratic than those from standard pans.

Measures to Reduce Lake Evaporation

The following are some of the recommended measures to reduce evaporation from water surfaces
:
(i) Storage reservoirs of more depth and less surface area, i.e., by choosing a cross section of the reservoir like a deep gorge
Fig. 3.4; while the surface water is exposed to temperature gradients the deeper waters are cool; from this standpoint a large
reservoir is preferable to a number of small reservoirs (while it is the reverse from the point of flood control).
ii) By growing tall trees like Causerina on the windward side of the reservoirs to act as wind breakers.
(iii) By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of films. By spreading a manomolecular layer of acetyl alcohol
(hexadecanol) C16H33OH over the reservoir surface (from boats)—a film is formed on the surface which is only 0.015 micron
(approx.) in thickness. It is
a polar compound and it has great affinity for water on one side (hydrophylic) and repels water on the other side
(hydrophobic). The film will only allow precipitation from the top into it but will not allow water molecules to escape from it.
This method is readly effective when the wind
velocities are less. If the wind velocity is more, it will sweep the film off the water surface and deposit it on the bank.
However, the film is pervious to O2 and CO2. About 2.2 kg (22 N) of acetyl alcohol is required to cover an area of 1 ha of
reservoir surface. It is best suited for small and medium size reservoirs.
(iv) By allowing flow of water, temperature is reduced and evaporation is reduced; i.e., by designing the outlet works so that
the warmer surface water can be released.
(v) By removing the water loving weeds and plants like Phreatophytes from the periphery of the reservoir.
(vi) By straightening the stream-channels the exposed area of the water surface (along the length) is reduced and hence
evaporation is reduced.
(vii) By providing mechanical coverings like thin polythene sheets to small agricultural ponds and lakes.
(viii) By developing undergound reservoirs, since the evaporation from a ground water table is very much less than the
evaporation from a water surface.
(ix) If the reservoir is surrounded by huge trees and forest, the evaporation loss will be less due to cooller environment.

Fig. 3.3. Piche evaporimeter

 Fig. 3.4 Reservoir in a deep gorge

SOIL EVAPORATION
The evaporation from a wet soil surface immediately after rain or escape of water molecules with more resistance when the
water table lies within a metre from the ground is called soil evaporation. This, expressed as a percentage of evaporation from
free water surface is called
evaporation opportunity.

Soil evaporation will continue at a high rate for some time after the cessation of rainfall, then decreases as the ground surface
starts drying, until a constant rate is reached which is dependent on the depth of the water table and nature of the soil in
addition to meteorological conditions.
Measurement of soil evaporation can be done with tanks (lysimeters) filled with earth and with the surface almost flush with
the ground Fig. 3.5. To measure the evaporation from a soil whose surface is within the capillary fringe, tanks equipped to
maintain the water table at any desired elevation may be used. The soil evaporation is determined by weighing the tanks at
stated intervals and knowing the amount of water that was added in the interim.
 Fig. 3.5 Lysimeter for soil evaporation

SOIL EVAPORATION
The evaporation from a wet soil surface immediately after rain or escape of water molecules with more resistance when the
water table lies within a metre from the ground is called soil evaporation. This, expressed as a percentage of evaporation from
free water surface is called
evaporation opportunity.

Soil evaporation will continue at a high rate for some time after the cessation of rainfall, then decreases as the ground surface
starts drying, until a constant rate is reached which is dependent on the depth of the water table and nature of the soil in
addition to meteorological conditions.
Measurement of soil evaporation can be done with tanks (lysimeters) filled with earth and with the surface almost flush with
the ground Fig. 3.5. To measure the evaporation from a soil whose surface is within the capillary fringe, tanks equipped to
maintain the water table at any desired elevation may be used. The soil evaporation is determined by weighing the tanks at
stated intervals and knowing the amount of water that was added in the interim.

Fig. 3.5 Lysimeter for soil evaporation

 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration (Et) or consumptive use (U) is the total water lost from a cropped (or irrigated) land due to evaporation
from the soil and transpiration by the plants or used by the plants in building up of plant tissue. Potential evapotranspiration
(Ept) is the evapotranspiration from the short green vegetation when the roots are supplied with unlimited water covering the
soil. It is usually expressed as a depth (cm, mm) over the area.
Estimation of Evapotranspiration
The following are some of the methods of estimating evapotranspiration:
(i) Tanks and lysimeter experiments
(ii) Field experimental plots
(iii) Installation of sunken (colarado) tanks
(iv) Evapotranspiration equations as developed by Lowry-Johnson, Penman, Thornthwaite, Blaney-Criddle, etc.
(v) Evaporation index method, i.e., from pan evaporation data as developed by Hargreaves and Christiansen.

(i) Blaney-Criddle method. This method is used throughout the world for the consumptive use determinations and is given by:

Working Example
Determine the evapotranspiration and irrigation requirement for wheat, if the water application efficiency is 65% and the
consumptive use coefficient for the growing season is 0.8 from the following data:
Solution

(ii) Evaporation Index method. Analysis of data on consumptive use indicate a high degree of correlation between pan
evaporation values and consumptive use. The relationship between the evapotranspiration (Et) and pan evaporation (Ep) is
usually expressed as
 Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration
From the above equations it can be seen that the following factors affect the evapotranspiration:
(i) Climatological factors like percentage sunshine hours, wind speed, mean monthly temperature and humidity.
(ii) Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage growing season.
(iii) The moisture level in the soil.

INFILTRATION
Water entering the soil at the ground surface is called infiltration. It replenishes the soil moisture deficiency and the excess
moves downward by the force of gravity called deep seepage or percolation and builds up the ground water table. The
maximum rate at which the soil in any given condition is capable of absorbing water is called its infiltration capacity (fp).
Infiltration (f) often begins at a high rate (20 to 25 cm/hr) and decreases to a fairly steady state rate (fc) as the rain continues,
called the ultimate fp (= 1.25 to 2.0 cm/hr) (Fig. 3.6). The infiltration rate (f) at any time t is given by Horton’s equation.
The infiltration depends upon the intensity and duration of rainfall, weather (temperature), soil characteristics, vegetal cover,
land use, initial soil moisture content (initial wetness), entrapped air and depth of the ground water table. The vegetal cover
provides protection against rain drop impact and helps to increase infiltration.

Methods of Determining Infiltration

The methods of determining infiltration are:
(i) Infiltrometers
(ii) Observation in pits and ponds
(iii) Placing a catch basin below a laboratory sample
(iv) Artificial rain simulators
(v) Hydrograph analysis
(i) Double-ring infiltrometer. A double ring infiltrometer is shown in Fig. 3.7. The two rings (22.5 to 90 cm diameter) are
driven into the ground by a driving plate and hammer, to penetrate into the soil uniformly without tilt or undue disturbance of
the soil surface to a depth of 15 cm. After driving is over, any disturbed soil adjacent to the sides tamped with a metal tamper.
Point gauges are fixed in the centre of the rings and in the annular space between the two rings. Water is poured into the rings
to maintain the desired depth (2.5 to 15 cm with a minimum of 5 mm) and the water added to maintain the original constant
depth at regular time intervals (after the commencement of the experiment) of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 min, etc. up to a period
of atleast 6 hours is noted and the results are plotted as infiltration rate in cm/hr versus time in minutes as shown in Fig. 3.8.
The purpose of the outer tube is to eliminate to some extent the edge effect of the surrounding drier soil and to prevent the
water within the inner space from spreading over a larger area after penetrating below the bottom of the ring
Tube infiltrometer: This consists of a single tube about 22.5 cm diameter and 45 to 60 cm long which is driven into the ground
atleast to a depth up to which the water percolates during the experiment and thus no lateral spreading of water can occur (Fig.
3.9). The water added into the tube at regular time intervals to maintain a constant depth is noted from which the infiltration
curve can be drawn.

ii) Observation from infiltration pits and ponds. By noting the depression in the level of water in the pits and ponds and
deducting the loss due to evaporation, an idea about the infiltration rates in such soils can be obtained.
(iii) By placing a catch basin called a lysimeter under a laboratory sample or at some depth below the land surface, the
infiltrating water can be measured and the infiltration rate in the soil can be obtained.
(iv) Artificial rain simulators on a small area of land of 0.1 to 50 m2, water is applied by artificial showers at a uniform rate.
The resulting surface runoff is measured and the infiltration capacity of the soil is determined.
(v) Hydrograph analysis. By knowing accurately, the varying intensities of rainfall during a storm and the continuous record
of the resulting runoff, the infiltration capacity can be determined.
 RUNOFF

COMPONENTS OF STREAM FLOW

When a storm occurs, a portion of rainfall infiltrates into the ground and some portion may evaporate. The rest flows as a thin
sheet of water over the land surface which is termed as overland flow. If there is a relatively impermeable stratum in the
subsoil, the infiltrating water moves laterally in the surface soil and joins the stream flow, which is termed as underflow
(subsurface flow) or interflow, Fig. 4.1. If there is no impeding layer in the subsoil the infiltrating water percolates into the
ground as deep seepage and builds up the ground water table (GWT or phreatic surface). The ground water may also
contribute to the stream flow, if the GWT is higher than the water surface level of the stream, creating a hydraulic gradient
towards the stream. Low soil permeability favours overland flow. While all the three types of flow contribute to the stream
flow, it is the overland flow, which reaches first the stream channel, the interflow being slower reaches after a few hours and
the ground water flow being
the slowest reaches the stream channel after some days. The term direct runoff is used to include the overland flow and the
interflow. If the snow melt contributes to the stream flow it can be included with the direct runoff (from rainfall).

Fig. 4.1 Disposal of rain water

Direct surface flow can be analyzed for relatively large drainage areas by the unit hydrograph method and for smaller areas by
overland flow analysis. The direct runoff results from the occurrence of an immediately preceding storm while the ground
water contribution, which takes days or months to reach the stream, in all probability has no direct relation with the
immediately preceding storm. The ground water flow into the stream would have continued even if there had been no storm
immediately preceding. It is for this reason it is termed as base flow in hydrograph analysis.
When the overland flow starts (due to a storm) some flowing water is held in puddles, pits and small ponds; this water stored
is called depression storage. The volume of water in transit in the overland flow which has not yet reached the stream channel
is called surface detention or detention storage. The portion of runoff in a rising flood in a stream, which is absorbed by the
permeable boundaries of the stream above the normal phreatic surface is called bank storage, Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2 Bank storage

CLASSIFICATION OF STREAMS
Streams may be classified as:
(i) Influent and Effluent streams
(ii) Intermittent and perennial streams

(i) Influent and Effluent streams. If the GWT is below the bed of the stream, the seepage from the stream feeds the ground-
water resulting in the build-up of water mound (Fig. 4.6). Such streams are called influent streams. Irrigation channels
function as influent streams and many rivers which cross desert areas do so. Such streams will dry up completely in rainless
period and are called ephemeral streams. The ephemeral streams, generally seen in arid regions, which flow only for a few
hours after the rainfall, are of no use for conventional hydropower. However, they can occasionally be used in pure pumped
storage schemes, where the actual consumption of water is only marginal.
 Fig. 4.6 Influent streams

When the GWT is above water surface elevation in the stream, the ground water feeds the stream, Fig. 4.7. Such streams are
called effluent streams. The base flow of surface streams is the effluent seepage from the drainage basin. Most of the perennial
streams are mainly effluent streams.

Fig. 4.7 Effluent streams

(ii) Intermittent and perennial streams. If the GWT lies above the bed of the stream during the wet season but drops below the
bed during the dry season, the stream flows during wet season (due to surface runoff and ground water contribution) but
becomes dry during dry seasons. Such streams are called intermittent streams.
While in the case of perennial streams, even in the most severe droughts, the GWT never drops below the bed of the stream
and therefore they flow throughout the year. For power development a perennial stream is the best; power can also be
generated from intermittent streams by providing adequate storage facilities.
 FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
The various factors, which affect the runoff from a drainage basin depend upon the following characteristics:

Low intensity storms over longer spells contribute to ground water storage and produce relatively less runoff. A high intensity
storm or smaller area covered by it increases the runoff since the losses like infiltration and evaporation are less. If there is a
succession of storms, the runoff will increase due to initial wetness of the soil due to antecedent rainfall. Rain during summer
season will produce less runoff, while that during winter will produce more.
Greater humidity decreases evaporation. The pressure distribution in the atmosphere helps the movement of storms. Snow
storage and specially the frozen ground greatly increase the runoff. Peak runoff (if expressed as cumec/km 2) decreases as the
catchment area increases due to higher time of concentration. A fan-shaped catchment produces greater flood intensity than
a fern-shaped catchment.
Steep rocky catchments with less vegetation will produce more runoff compared to flat tracts with more vegetation’s. If the
vegetation is thick greater is the absorption of water, so less runoff. If the direction of the storm producing rain is down the
stream receiving the surface flow, it will produce greater flood discharge than when it is up the stream. If the catchment is
located on the orographic side (windward side) of the mountains, it receives greater precipitation and hence gives a greater
runoff. If it is on the leeward side, it gets less precipitation
and so less runoff. Similarly, catchments located at higher altitude will receive more precipitation and yield greater runoff.
The land use pattern—arable land, grass land, forest or cultivated area, greatly affect runoff.
The storage in channels and depressions (valley storage) will reduce the flood magnitude.
Upstream reservoirs, lakes and tanks will moderate the flood magnitudes due to their storage effects. For drainage basins
having previous deposits, large ground water storage may be created, which may also contribute to the stream flow in the form
of delayed runoff.

ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF
Runoff is that balance of rain water, which flows or runs over the natural ground surface after losses by evaporation,
interception and infiltration.
The yield of a catchment (usually means annual yield) is the net quantity of water available for storage, after all losses, for the
purposes of water resources utilization and planning, like irrigation, water supply, etc.
Maximum flood discharge. It is the discharge in times of flooding of the catchment area, i.e., when the intensity of rainfall is
greatest and the condition of the catchment regarding humidity is also favourable for an appreciable runoff.

Runoff Estimation
The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the following methods:
(i) Empirical formulae, curves and tables
(ii) Infiltration method
(iii) Rational method
(iv) Overland flow hydrograph
(v) Unit hydrograph method
(vi) Coaxial Graphical Correlation and API

METHODS OF MEASURING STREAM FLOW

The most satisfactory determination of the runoff from a catchment is by measuring the discharge of the stream draining it,
which is termed as stream gauging. A gauging station is the place or section on a stream where discharge measurements are
made.
 CURRENT METER GAUGINGS
The current meter is an instrument, which has a rotating element which when placed in flowing water, the speed of revolutions
has a definite relation with the velocity of flow past the element. There are three types of current meters:
(i). pigmy current meter, whose cup vane assmbly is about 5 cm in diameter and is used for measuring velocities in streams of
depth 15 cm or less,
(ii). the cup type, which consists of a wheel with conical cups revolving on a vertical axis, and
(iii). the screw or propeller type consisting of vanes revolving on a horizontal axis.
Price, Ellis, Ottwatt meters are of vertical axis type while Off and Haskel, Amslar, Ott and Aerofoil meters are of horizontal
axis type. The Price meter is regarded as a universal meter and is equipped with a pentahead, a device for indicating every
fifth revolution. The meter may be used for velocities from 1 to 4.5 m/sec in depths of 1-15 m from a boat, bridge, cable or
wading. A counter weight (stream lined) is fixed below the meter to prevent it from swaying, Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.3 Price current meter

 GROUND WATER

TYPES OF AQUIFERS AND FORMATIONS

Ground water is widely distributed under the ground and is a replenish-able resource unlike other resources of the earth. The
problems in Ground Water Investigation are the zones of occurrence and recharge. The modern trends are to create more
opportunity for recharge of ground water from natural sources like rain, percolation dams, etc. The ground water is free from
pollution and the ground water storage is free from atomic attacks. Ground water can be developed at a small capital cost in
least possible time, and intensive irrigation can be practiced with double and triple cropping including commercial crops;
ground water can be used for supplemental irrigation during periods of deficient surface supply, for the year-round irrigation
practice.
A water bearing geologic formation or stratum capable of transmitting water through its pores at a rate sufficient for economic
extraction by wells is called ‘aquifer’. Formations that serve as good aquifers are:
1. unconsolidated gravels, sands, alluvium
2. lake sediments, glacial deposits
3. sand stones
4. limestones with cavities (caverns) formed by the action of acid waters (solution openings in limestones and dolomites)
5. granites and marble with fissures and cracks, weathered gneisses and schists
6. heavily shettered quartzites
7. vescicular basalts
8. slates (better than shales owing to their jointed conditions)

(i). A geologic formation, which can absorb water but cannot transmit significant amounts is called an ‘aquiclude’. Examples
are clays, shales, etc.
(ii). A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence can neither absorb nor transmit water is called an
‘aquifuge’. Examples are basalts, granites, etc.
(iii). A geologic formation of rather impervious nature, which transmits water at a slow rate compared to an aquifer
(insufficient for pumping from wells) is called an ‘aquitard’. Examples are clay lenses interbedded with sand.

Specific yield: While porosity (n) is a measure of the water bearing capacity of the formation, all this water cannot be drained
by gravity or by pumping from wells as a portion of water is held in the void spaces by molecular and surface tension forces.
The volume of water, expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the saturated aquifer, that will drain by gravity when
the water table (Ground Water Table (GWT) drops due to pumping or drainage, is called the ‘specific yield (Sy)’ and that
percentage volume of water, which will not drain by gravity is called ‘specific retention (Sr)’ and corresponds to ‘field
capacity’ i.e., water holding capacity of soil (for use by plants and is an important factor for irrigation of crops).
Thus,
Porosity = specific yield + specific retention
n = Sy + Sr ...........................................................................(7.1)
Specific yield depends upon grain size, shape and distribution of pores and compaction of the formation. The values of
specific yields for alluvial aquifers are in the range of 10–20% and for uniform sands about 30%.

CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

If there is homogeneous porous formation extending from the ground surface up to an impervious bed underneath (Fig. 7.1),
rainwater percolating down in the soil saturates the formation and builds up the ground water table (GWT). This aquifer under
water table conditions is called an unconfined aquifer (water-table aquifer) and well drilled into this aquifer is called a water
table well.

Fig. 7.1 Types of aquifers and location of wells

On the other hand, if a porous formation underneath is sandwiched between two impervious strata (aquicludes) and is
recharged by a natural source (by rain water when the formation outcrops at the ground surface—recharge area, or outcrops
into a river-bed or bank) at a higher elevation so that the water is under pressure in the aquifer (like pipe flow), i.e., artesian
condition. Such an aquifer is called an artesian aquifer or confined aquifer. If a well is drilled into an artesian aquifer, the
water level rises in the well to its initial level at the recharge source called the piezometric surface. If the piezometric surface
is above the ground level at the location of the well, the well is called ‘flowing artesian well’ since the water flows out of the
well like a spring, and if the piezometric surface is below the ground level at the well location, the well is called a non-flowing
artesian well. In practice, a well can be drilled through 2-3 artesian aquifers (if multiple artesian aquifers exist at different
depths below ground level).
Sometimes a small band of impervious strata lying above the main ground water table (GWT) holds part of the water
percolating from above. Such small water bodies of local nature can be exhausted quickly and are deceptive. The water level
in them is called ‘perched water table’.
Storage coefficient. The volume of water given out by a unit prism of aquifer (i.e., a column of aquifer standing on a unit
horizontal area) when the piezometric surface (confined aquifers) or the water table (unconfined aquifers) drops by unit depth
is called the storage coefficient of the aquifer (S) and is dimensionless (fraction). It is the same as the volume of water taken
into storage by a unit prism of the aquifer when the piezometric surface or water table rises by unit depth. In the case of water
table (unconfined) aquifer, the storage coefficient
is the same of specific yield (Sy).
Since the water is under pressure in an artesian aquifer, the storage coefficient of an artesian aquifer is attributable to the
compressibility of the aquifer skeleton and expansibility of the pore water (as it comes out of the aquifer to atmospheric
pressure when the well is pumped) and is given by the relation.
 FLOODS-ESTIMATION AND CONTROL

SIZE OF FLOODS
A flood is an unusual high stage of a river due to runoff from rainfall and/or melting of snow in quantities too great to be
confined in the normal water surface elevations of the river or stream, as the result of unusual meteorological combination.
The maximum flood that any structure can safely pass is called the ‘design flood’ and is selected after consideration of
economic and hydrologic factors. The design flood is related to the project feature; for example, the spillway design flood
may be much higher than the flood control reservoir design flood or the design flood adopted for the temporary coffer dams.
A design flood may be arrived by considering the cost of constructing the structure to provide flood control and the flood
control benefits arising directly by prevention of damage to structures downstream, disruption communication, loss of life and
property, damage to crops and under-utilization of land and indirectly, the money saved under insurance and workmen’s
compensation laws, higher yields from intensive cultivation of protected lands and elimination of losses arising from
interruption of business, reduction in diseases resulting from inundation of flood waters. The direct benefits are called tangible
benefits and the indirect benefits are called intangible benefits. The design flood is usually selected after making a cost-benefit
analysis and exercising engineering judgement.
When the structure is designed for a flood less than the maximum probable, there exists a certain amount of flood risk to the
structure, nor is it economical to design for 100% flood protection. Protection against the highest rare floods is uneconomical
because of the large investment and infrequent flood occurrence.
In the design flood estimates, reference is usually made to three classes:
(a) Standard Project Flood (SPF). This is the estimate of the flood likely to occur from the most severe combination of the
meteorological and hydrological conditions, which are reasonably characteristic of the drainage basin being considered, but
excluding extremely rare combination.
(b) Maximum Probable Flood (MPF). This differs from the SPF in that it includes the extremely rare and catastrophic floods
and is usually confined to spillway design of very high dams. The SPF is usually around 80% of the MPF for the basin.
(c) Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP). From the observations of air moisture from the maximum due-point and
temperature recorded and air-inflow (from the wind speed and barometric pressure recorded), the moisture inflow index in the
storm is determined. The best known upward adjustment to be applied to the historical and hypothetical major storms is the
maximization with respect to moisture charge. The adjusted storm rainfall is assumed to bear the same ratio to the observed
storm rainfall, as the maximum moisture charge over the basin to the moisture charge of the observed storm. From the critical
combinations of storms, and moisture adjustment the PMP is derived which, after minimizing losses, when applied on the
design unit hydrograph for the basin, will produce the MPF. Occasionally when enough storm data for the given basin is not
available, PMP can be estimated by adopting a severe storm over neighboring catchment (which is meteorologically
homogeneous) and transposing it to the catchment under consideration.
(d) Design Flood—It is the flood adopted for the design of hydraulic structures like spillways, bridge openings, flood banks,
etc. It may be the MPF or SPF or a flood of any desired recurrence interval depending upon the degree of flood protection to
be offered and cost economics of construction of structures to the desired flood stage; the design flood is usually selected
after making a cost-benefit analysis, i.e., the ratio of benefit to cost may be desired to be
the maximum.

ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD

The maximum flood discharge (peak flood) in a river may be determined by the following methods:
(i). Physical indications of past floods—flood marks and local enquiry
(ii). Empirical formulae and curves
(iii). Concentration time method
(iv). Overland flow hydrograph
(v). Rational method
(vi) Unit hydrograph
(vii). Flood frequency studies

The above methods are discussed below:

(i) Observations at nearby structure. By noting the flood marks (and by local enquiry), depths, affluxes (heading up of water
near bridge openings, or similar obstructions to flow) and other items actually at an existing bridge, on anecut (weir) in the
vicinity, the maximum flood discharge may be estimated. The flood marks are connected by levelling, the profile is plotted
and HFL marked on it, and the cross sectional area is determined. The surface fall at HFL is calculated from the difference in
HFL at known distance apart. maximization with respect to moisture charge. The adjusted storm rainfall is assumed to bear
the same ratio to the observed storm rainfall, as the maximum moisture charge over the basin to the moisture charge of the
observed storm. From the critical combinations of storms, and moisture adjustment the PMP is derived which, after
minimizing losses, when applied on the design unit hydrograph for the basin, will produce the MPF. Occasionally when
enough storm data for the given basin is not available, PMP can be estimated by adopting a severe storm over neighboring
catchment (which is meteorologically homogeneous) and transposing it to the catchment under consideration.
(d) Design Flood—It is the flood adopted for the design of hydraulic structures like spillways, bridge openings, flood banks,
etc. It may be the MPF or SPF or a flood of any desired recurrence interval depending upon the degree of flood protection to
be offered and cost economics of construction of structures to the desired flood stage; the design flood is usually selected after
making a cost-benefit analysis, i.e., the ratio of benefit to cost may be desired to be the maximum.
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
The maximum flood discharge (peak flood) in a river may be determined by the following methods:
(i). Physical indications of past floods—flood marks and local enquiry
(ii). Empirical formulae and curves
(iii). Concentration time method
(iv). Overland flow hydrograph
(v). Rational method
(vi). Unit hydrograph
(vii). Flood frequency studies

The above methods are discussed below:

(i). Observations at nearby structure. By noting the flood marks (and by local enquiry), depths, affluxes (heading up of water
near bridge openings, or similar obstructions to flow) and other items actually at an existing bridge, on anecut (weir) in the
vicinity, the maximum flood discharge may be estimated. The flood marks are connected by levelling, the profile is plotted
and HFL marked on it, and the cross sectional area is determined. The surface fall at HFL is calculated from the difference in
HFL at known distance apart.
ii). Empirical Flood Formulae

(iii). Envelope Curves. Areas having similar topographical features and climatic conditions are grouped together. All available
data regarding discharges and flood formulae are compiled along with their respective catchment areas. Peak flood discharges
are then plotted against the drainage areas and a curve is drawn to cover or envelope the highest plotted points. Envelope
curves are generally used for comparison only and the design floods got by other methods, should be higher than those
obtained from envelope curves. For Indian rivers, enveloping curves from observed floods have been developed by Kanwar
Sain and Karpov.
(iv). Concentration Time Method. The concentration time method of estimating the peak discharge consists of two steps:
(a) Determination of the concentration, time, etc.
(b) Selection of the period of maximum net rainfall for the concentration time duration. This method can be used for design
storms or in conjunction with intensity-duration frequency Curves.

METHODS OF FLOOD CONTROL

A flood is an unusual high stage of a river overflowing its banks and inundating the marginal lands. This is due to severe
storm of unusual meteorological combination, sometimes combined with melting of accumulated snow on the catchment. This
may also be due to shifting of the course of the river, earthquake causing bank erosion, or blocking of river, or breaching of
the river flood banks. Floods have swept vast regions in India, particularly in the basins of rivers Kosi, Brahmaputra,
Godavari, Narmada and Tapti. Floods cause much loss of life and property, disruption of communication, damage to crops,
famine, epidemic diseases and other indirect losses.
Design magnitudes of floods are needed for the design of spillways, reservoirs, bridge openings, drainage of cities and air
ports, and construction of flood walls and levees (flood banks). The maximum flood that any structure can safely pass is called
the ‘design flood’.
The damages due to the devastating floods can be minimized by the following flood control measures, singly or in
combination.
(i). by confining the flow between high banks by constructing levees (flood banks), dykes, or flood walls.
(ii). by channel improvement by cutting, straightening or deepening and following river training works.
(iii). by diversion of a portion of the flood through bypasses or flood ways. In some cases, a fuse plug levee is provided. It is a
low section of levee, which when once over topped, will wash out rapidly and develop full discharge capacity into the flood-
way. In other locations, a concrete sill, weir or spillway controlled by stop logs or needles may be provided so that the
overflow occurs at a definite river stage. Sometimes dynamiting a section of levee is resorted to
bypass the flood.
(iv). by providing a temporary storage of the peak floods by constructing upstream reservoirs and retarding basins (detention
basins).
(v). by adopting soil conservation measures (land management) in the catchment area.
(vi). by temporary and permanent evacuation of the flood plain, and flood plain zoning by enacting legislation.
(vii) by flood proofing of specific properties by constructing a ring levee or flood wall around the property.
(viii) by setting up flood forecasting—short term, long term, rhythm signals and radar, and warning centers at vulnerable
areas.
 FLOOD CONTROL ECONOMICS
In a flood control project, the degree of flood protection (i.e., to the required stage) should be justified by an economic
analysis of the costs involved in raising the structure to the required heights (say, the height of spillway) and the direct and
indirect benefits obtained by flood
protection up to that stage. Generally, the flood stage for which the ratio annual benefits to cost is a maximum is adopted for
the design of the flood protection works (Fig. 8.19). Protection against floods of rare occurrence is uneconomical because of
the large investment (for a small
increase in the benefits) and hence there is always a certain amount of flood risk involved.

The flood control costs include:

(i). Capital costs involved in the construction of the structure to the required flood height (i.e., to offer the required degree of
flood protection, say, by a combination of dam spill way, levees and channel improvement)
(ii). Interest cost on capital expenditure
(iii). Sinking fund, depreciation and taxes
(iv). Operational expenses and maintenance cost
The benefits of flood control include;
(a). Direct or primary benefits accruing from prevention of flood damages to structures downstream, losses arising from
disruption of communication, (and business), loss of life and property, damage to crops, etc.
(b). Indirect benefits resulting from the money saved under insurance and Workmen’s compensation laws, higher yields from
intensive cultivation of protected lands and reduction in flood-prone epidemic diseases, etc.
Assessment of potential flood damage is an important requirement in any organized flood control programme. Generally,
stage-damage curves are plotted to show that damage in a particular region in relation to the rising flood stages in that reach.
Indirect damage by floods deals with the loss of business and services to community. This is a socioeconomic loss and is
difficult to assess because of the various economic and physical factors involved whereas the direct damages can be estimated
in terms of money value. An assessment of the damages caused by floods can be made when the data is collected and
presented in the following form:
(i). Area affected (km2)
(ii). Population affected (lakhs)
(iii). Crops affected; (a). in hectares, and (b). value in rupees
(iv) Damage to property; (a). number of houses damaged, and (b). cost of replacing or repairing in rupees
(v) Loss of livestock; (a). category number, (b). value in rupees
(vi) Human lives lost
(vii) Damage to public works in rupees
Suitable flood indices have to be developed from year to year to enable comparison to be made of the various flood damages.

Combination of Flood Control Measures

The object of a flood-control study is to decide which of the flood control measures, singly or in combination, are most suited
and their location, size, design and costs. The design of flood control works should be closely related to the hydrological
features and economic justification
of the project.
Suppose the flood control project involves the construction of a reservoir, levees and channel improvement works, the factors
governing the final selection of various combinations in fig. 8.20. The cost of construction of reservoir to reduce the design
flood to various lower peaks is indicated by curve (1). The cost of construction of levees and other channel improvement
works for protection against various flood peaks is indicated by curve
(2). The sum of the ordinates of the two curves indicates the combined cost of flood protection by reservoirs, levees and
channel improvement works and is given by the curve
(3). The minimum point P of the combined cost curve represents the most economic combination. The reduced flood peak and
the total cost of works can be read off at this point.

Fig. 8.20 Cost analysis for combination of flood control measures

BEST OF
LUCK