Pulse width modulation

• We use Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to

control the voltage magnitude across the
load.
• For example, in the half bridge circuit we
would like to control the output voltage
across the load.
• This is possible by turning on and off the
switches.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 26

Pulse width modulation
• In this technique the output voltage is
controlled by pulses of voltage.
• More is the width of pulse, more is the
average voltage in a cycle.
• A high frequency carrier (or triangular)
wave is compared with a low frequency
reference (or modulating) wave. The low
frequency reference wave can be DC.
• The height of the triangular wave is
assumed 1. The height of the reference
wave is assumed to be m.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 27

Pulse width modulation
• We follow the logic as:
If mod_wave > tri_wave,
S1=on;
else,
S2=on;
• What is the average voltage of vAO during the
switching cycle Ts?

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 28

Pulse width modulation
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐸
• From geometry, =
𝐵𝐷 𝐸𝐶
1−𝑚 1
• So, 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑇𝑆
2
−𝑇𝑜𝑛 2

𝑇𝑜𝑛
• Thus, 𝑚 = 𝑇𝑆 = duty ratio.
2
• The average voltage of vAO during the
switching cycle Ts is:
𝑇𝑆
𝑇𝑜𝑛 2
−𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝐴𝑂(𝑎𝑣) = 𝑉𝐷 𝑇𝑆 + 0. 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑚𝑉𝐷
2 2

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 29

 Pulse width modulation
• Note that 𝑣𝐴𝑂(𝑎𝑣) is the average voltage in a switching cycle TS.
• If m varies slowly from cycle to cycle, then the average voltage will also vary
from cycle to cycle.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 30

 Sinusoidal PWM
• If m varies sinusodially and ‘slowly’ over time, then 𝑣𝐴𝑂(𝑎𝑣) will vary
sinusodially with time.
• Hence, we can generate a sinusoidal output from the converter.
• The triangle frequency should be high enough compared to modulating wave.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 31

Voltage obtained
• What is the expression of output voltage with sine-PWM?
𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
• 𝑣𝐴𝑂 𝑡 = +
2 2
• Note that we have used VD/2 as the multiplying factor since sin 𝜔𝑡 varies
from +1 to -1.
• m usually varies from 0 to 1, sometimes can be more than 1.
• Additional harmonics are also generated (to be covered later).

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 32

Linear modulation
• The instantaneous value of output voltage (𝑣𝐴𝑂 𝑡 ) of the half bridge
converter always fluctuates between 0 to VD
• However, the fundamental output voltage of the converter is linearly
proportional to m. When m varies from 0 to 1 it is called linear modulation
region of operation of the half bridge converter.
• If m=0, 𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘 = 0. If m=1, 𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘 = VD/2 .
• If m=1, 𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑟𝑚𝑠 = VD/(2√2)= 0.35VD .
Taking VD = 600 V.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 33

Over-modulation
• If m>1, 𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑 > VD/2 so we can get more output voltage from the
converter.
• This region of operation is called over-modulation.
• However, over-modulation generates lower order harmonics (5th, 7th etc.).
Usually overmodulation operation of converter is avoided.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 34

Square wave operation
• When m becomes very large, square wave operation of the converter is
reached. Each switch of the half bridge switches only once in the cycle.
• We can get maximum output voltage of the half bridge which is given by
4 𝑉𝐷
𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘_𝑠𝑞 = = 1.27 times that obtained with sine-PWM.
𝜋 2
• However, substantial lower order harmonics (5th, 7th etc.) are generated.
Usually square wave operation of converter is avoided.
Taking VD = 600 V.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 35

Full bridge circuit
• In a half bridge, 𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘 = VD/2.
• How much voltage can be obtained from a full
bridge converter?
• 𝑣𝐴𝐵_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘 = 𝑣𝐴𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘 − 𝑣𝐵𝑂_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘
• Leg B can produce a voltage which is 1800
phase shifted from Leg A voltage.
• Thus we get double the voltage from a full
bridge converter.
• 𝑣𝐴𝐵_𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑_𝑝𝑘 = VD.
• Leg B can be controlled independent of leg A.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 36

Full bridge circuit waveform

Taking VD = 600 V.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 37

3 phase circuit
• 3 phase circuit is an extension of the half
bridge concept.
• There are three half bridges working
together. The modulating waveforms for
three half bridges are usually three balanced
sine waves having equal amplitude and phase
shifted by 1200.
• The modulating waveforms for three half
bridges need not be balanced.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 38

3 phase circuit
• What is the load voltage?
• 𝑣𝐴𝑛 = 𝑣𝐴𝑂 + 𝑣𝑂𝑛
• 𝑣𝐵𝑛 = 𝑣𝐵𝑂 + 𝑣𝑂𝑛
• 𝑣𝐶𝑛 = 𝑣𝐶𝑂 + 𝑣𝑂𝑛
(𝑣𝐴𝑛 +𝑣𝐵𝑛 +𝑣𝐶𝑛 )
• Now, =0
𝑍
(𝑣𝐴𝑂 +𝑣𝐵𝑂 +𝑣𝐶𝑂 )
• Thus, 𝑣𝑂𝑛 = −
3
2 1 1
• 𝑣𝐴𝑛 = 𝑣𝐴𝑂 − 𝑣𝐵𝑂 − 𝑣𝐶𝑂
3 3 3
2 1 1
• 𝑣𝐵𝑛 = 𝑣𝐵𝑂 − 𝑣𝐶𝑂 − 𝑣𝐴𝑂
3 3 3
2 1 1
• 𝑣𝐶𝑛 = 𝑣𝐶𝑂 − 𝑣𝐴𝑂 − 𝑣𝐵𝑂
3 3 3

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 39

3-phase circuit waveform

Taking VD = 600 V.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 40

 Example
𝑉 𝑉𝐷 2𝜋 𝑉𝐷
• Let 𝑣𝐴𝑂 = 𝐷 (1 + 𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ), 𝑣𝐵𝑂 = (1 + 𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )), 𝑣𝐶𝑂 = (1 +
2 4𝜋 2 3 2
𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ))
3
2 1 1 𝑉𝐷
• Then 𝑣𝐴𝑛 = 𝑣𝐴𝑂 − 𝑣𝐵𝑂 − 𝑣𝐶𝑂 = 𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑣𝐴𝑂
3 3 3 2
• Thus the fundamental voltage across the load is the same as the
fundamental pole voltage from the 3 phase converter.
• Note that there is always an instantaneous voltage difference (𝑣𝑂𝑛 ) between
the load neutral and the negative terminal of the DC bus. So we cannot short
them.
• Note that VD/2 is the common mode voltage in the output of the converter.
There can be other values of common mode voltage also (to be explored
later).

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 41

 Load voltage magnitudes
Circuit Peak Pole voltage RMS load voltage RMS line voltage
Half Bridge mVD/2 mVD/(2√2)=0.35VD
Full Bridge mVD mVD/(√2)=0.7VD
3 phase mVD/2 mVD/(2√2)=0.35VD (per √3mVD/(2√2)=0.6VD
phase)

• The modulation index m can vary between 0 and 1 with sinusoidal PWM
avoiding over modulation operation.
• 3-phase RMS load voltage (per phase) can be increased by another 15% by
addition of common mode voltage (to be covered later).

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 42

 Sinusoidal PWM in half bridge converter
• From a half bridge converter, we can generate a variable sinusoidal output voltage.
𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
• 𝑣𝐴𝑂 𝑡 = +
2 2
• What about the harmonics?
A

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 43

Harmonics in sinusoidal PWM
• Suppose fc is the carrier frequency and f1 is the modulating frequency.
• Harmonics reside around mf , 2mf , 3mf … with sidebands where mf=fc/f1.
• Sidebands exist at h = jmf ± k
• If j=1, k=2,4,6 etc.
• If j=2, k=1,3,5 etc.
• If j=odd, k=even.
• If j=even, k=odd.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 44

Harmonics in sinusoidal PWM 𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
• 𝑣𝐴𝑂 𝑡 = +
2 2
• VDC=600V, m = 0.98, so the
fundamental voltage is
600*0.5*0.98=294V.
• mf =21, harmonics reside
around mf , 2mf , 3mf …
• Sidebands exist at
(17,19,21,23,25 …),
(41,43,45,47,39 …) and so
on.
• There is a DC of 300V.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 45

Harmonics in sinusoidal PWM
• What should be the value of mf?
• It should be an integer otherwise subharmonics will be produced. So synchronization
is needed.
• It should be an odd value so that no even harmonics are produced.
• It should be an odd multiple of 3 to maintain 3 phase symmetry.
• The above points are valid only for small values of mf (mf~=21). For large
values of mf, we can relax these criteria.

ANANDARUP DAS, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI, INDIA 46