UNIT 1: ETHICS

2. A religious belief may also quality as a moral

ETHICS standard.
 Generally speaking, it is about matters such as the
good thing that we should pursue and the bad thing 3. In the same vein of ideas, an act is a moral problem if
that we should avoid; the right ways in which we it violates certain moral principles. The examples
could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. below of some moral principles will clarify this
 Ethics as a subject for us to study is about perspective.
determining the grounds for the values with particular a. "That we should not use people."
and special significance to human life. b. "That we should not kill one person to save
another."
A. MORAL AND NON-MORAL PROBLEMS c. "That every life is sacred."
d. "That it is wrong to discriminate against the
When does a rule a problem become a moral problem or handicapped" (Rachels, 2003)
enter the domain of morality?
WHO CAN BE ETHICAL?
KINDS OF VALUATIONS THAT DO NOT IMPLY
MORAL JUDGMENT OR ARE NOT PART OF WHY ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL?
ETHICS
 From the point of view of St. Thomas Aquinas, the
1. Aesthetic Valuation. These valuations or judgments human being is ethical because the human person has
require a sense of approval or disapproval depending the rational soul. Rationality which individuals or
on whether they have good appeal to the senses. But human beings possess allows them to be aware of
they are not valuations in the realm of ethics. their situation and their environment. Their
consciousness and their ability to think make them
2. Technical Valuations. Things that are considered capable of making judgment. These capacities all
right or wrong depending on whether the proper them to foresee the consequences of their actions and
manner of doing them has been respected. make a judgment about the rightness or wrongness of
their actions. Only human beings have this capacity.
3. Etiquette. These ways of doing are judged to be the Hence, according to St. Thomas, we can ascribe
proper observation of certain standards or etiquette morality only to human beings.
but are not judged according to ethical standards.
Individuals who demonstrate the proper etiquettes are  The ethical assumptions, namely, free will and
appreciated and those who lack them are not. reason are important bases that determine why only
However, there is a need to properly distinguish what human beings can be ethical. Reason or rationality
is in the realm of etiquette and one which is beyond and freedom are important elements to determine
this realm. whether actions are within the realm of morality or
not. For without such assumptions no amount or
4. Acts of Man versus Human Acts. The distinction degree of ethical valuation can be ascribed to an act.
between acts of man versus human acts will further Only human beings have them, which make them the
help to consider certain activities that absolutely only ethical beings.
imply no coloration of ethical concern and one which
is clearly within the domain of morality.  We also add the element of conscience or the inner
a. Acts of Man. The involuntary activities that are voice that tells one about the rightness or wrongness
necessary to sustain human life, like in the case of of an act. It is an aspect only true to human beings.
breathing, the continuous beating of the heart and
involuntary movements of the intestines and WHAT IS MORAL EXPERIENCE AND HOW
lungs. MORAL RULE IS BORN?

b. Human Acts. Voluntary activities such as helping  A moral rule constitutes a moral situation that calls
someone in need and other gestures that relieve for or requires moral judgment to do good or the
people from their sufferings or the opposite. opposite. This knowledge of what constitute moral
Those that fall under the category of human acts problems as well as the parameters to identity them is
call for moral or ethical considerations. significant so that individuals are guided when they
make decisions.
VALUATIONS THAT INVOLVE MORAL OR  If people think that whatever actions they do are just
ETHICAL VALUATIONS any other action, there is a danger of ignoring their
actual responsibility over the action. Without having
Moral problems according to Bulaong Jr. et al. (2018) "involve to make distinction between those morally loaded and
valuations that belong to the sphere of human actions those that carry no moral significance, people make
characterized by certain gravity and concern the well-being or instant decisions and act instinctively knowing that
human life itself." Furthermore, acts that may not be directly an they have no responsibility over them.
affront to human life but if their consequences clearly indicate
serious threat to it, may demand ethical consideration. B. MORAL DILEMMA

1. Something is also about moral problem when it  Moral dilemma is a situation of conflict. This occurs
violates certain standards. when two moral points are in conflict and are
 confused or it is a "more complicated situation to the more radical claim that the individual is the
wherein one is torn between choosing one of two sole determining agent of what is morally good or
goods and choosing between the lesser of two evil... bad, right or wrong.
We have a moral dilemma when there are a number of - "No one can tell me what is right and wrong."
possible actions and there are compelling ethical - "No one knows my situation better than
reasons for the various choices" but only one can be myself."
given preference and set aside all the rest (Bulaong Jr. - I am entitled to my own opinion."
et al., 2018) - “It is good, if l say that it is good."

THREE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF MORAL 2. Egoism. A doctrine that individual self-interest is the
DILEMMA valid end of all actions and all forms of egoism
require explication of "self-interest".
1. Personal Dilemma. It pertains to choices affecting
the individual himself or herself. Personal dilemma a. Psychological Egoism. It is a theory that
may also involve problems between individuals. describes the underlying dynamic behind all
human actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not
2. Organizational Dilemma. Examples of this type of direct one to act in a particular way. Instead, it
dilemma would refer to business, medical, and public points out that by nature, humans are self-
sector/company situations. The organizational interested and are after their own satisfaction and
dilemma as a broader scope and would tend to affect therefore in all their undertakings they are
every member of the organization. Solutions arrived ultimately looking for self-fulfillment and
at also have an impact on the life of each member. satisfaction, aware or unaware. As such, the ego
or self has its desires and interests, and all actions
3. Structural Dilemma. This dilemma would include an are geared toward the satisfaction of these
entire network of an institution and operative interests.
theoretical paradigm.
b. Ethical Egoism. Ethical egoism differs from
C. MORAL ASSUMPTIONS psychological egoism where the latter does not
suppose that all actions undertaken are self-
1. Reason is the first element of a human act. We serving. But ethical egoism is a position that self-
assume e that any person is a thinking being. By that, interest and personal ends are the single
he or she is aware of the purpose of his or her action. overriding concern. Ethical egoism is totally
Furthermore, this assumption is also true about the driven by selfish motive with no interest or
consequences of such action. Meaning, the person is concern for another.
also aware of the effects of the act. In other words, the
person can make judgment whether an action is right
or wrong. Through reason, one can assess the
rightness or the wrongness of an act.

2. The second element or assumption is freedom. It is

considered an important element in making moral
valuation and without which, no amount of reasoning
can justify the ethical value of an act. Moral action
can only emanate from individuals who act according
to their choice or free will to do good. Moral
valuation and moral responsibility cannot, therefore,
be ascribed to actions devoid of the freedom to act UNIT 2: MORAL AGENT
and as such they are not qualified as moral action.
Theory of Moral Development
D. THE MINIMUM REQUIREMENT
(ELEMENTS) OF MORALITY: REASON AND The necessary growth, which is a maturation in moral
IMPARTIALITY reasoning has been the focus of study of many theorists.
One of them is the American moral psychologist
"Morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 - 1987).
conduct by reason - that is, to do what there are the best
reasons for doing - while giving equal weight to the Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that
interests of each individual who will be affected by what focuses on how one develops morality and moral
one does." (Rachels, 2003) reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral
development occurs in a series of six stages which he
E. STANDARDS OF MORAL VALUATION BASED divided in three levels.
ON THE SELF

1. Subjectivism. It suggests that the individual thinking

person is at the heart of all moral valuations. The
person is the one confronted with the situation and is
burdened with the need to make decision or
judgment. From this point of view, subjectivism leaps
 those of the peer group because by doing so will best
serve his or her interests to be part of the group. They are
also more open and give more importance to the
expectations of larger groups in their community or in
school.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)

PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
It is the growing understanding of the significance of
The pre-conventional level corresponds to how infants societal norms. By this time, the individual has
and children think. The type of reasoning at this level is discovered that following norms is not only advantageous
centered on the consequences of one's action and the level to them but also vital for society as a whole. The majority
is divided into two stages. of the laws, norms, and regulations of one's society are
therefore accepted and valued by the individual at this
The pre-conventional stage symbolizes the stage when stage. The moral reasoning of this stage is shaped by duty
children have not yet understood the importance of rules to the social norms represented in its rules and laws. In
in their lite. The consequences of their acts are most this stage, adolescents place such a high value on
important as they may lead to either punishment or to upholding laws and rules that when others break them,
their satisfaction or pleasure their interests having been such as when laws are improperly or wrongly
served. What is right or wrong is not determined by implemented, they are capable of rebelling against a
following rules but by what their actions bring them. system that disregards the laws.

According to Kohlberg, those who believe that the most

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment) they can do is just adhere to second stage of the
conventional level. They tend to adopt a legalistic attitude
In the earliest stage of moral development, obedience and in which the rightness or wrongness of an action depends
punishment are especially common in young children. At on whether or not one complies with rules and regulations
this stage, a child reasons out that actions are "good" if because they are unable to comprehend the reasons
they are able to avoid punishment and actions are "bad" if behind why there are laws and rules to obey.
they result in punishment. By that, we understand that
children's action as thought of is not that they have found It is not the objective of Kohlberg's theory to define what
what the best thing to do is, rather, they have found what constitutes a good or morally upright deed. Instead of
to do in order to evade getting scolded or punished. putting forth a specific ethical theory, he describes the
According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as growth of moral reasoning at various phases of
fixed and absolute. development.

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange)

POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of At the post-conventional level, people understand that it
view and judge actions based on how they serve is no longer important to simply obey the rules of the
individual needs. Hence, what is "good" for children of society. By this point, the moral agent is aware that what
this age is what brings them pleasure or satisfaction. is more important is acting in accordance with one's own
Characteristically, at this stage, children still have principles or convictions. The new dilemma for the
difficulties making a distinction between them and others. individual moral agent is whether what they do is what
Others are considered extensions of who they are that's they do is what they ought to do.
why reciprocity is possible only if it serves one's own
interests. Stage 5 (Social Contract)

CONVENTIONAL LEVEL People in this stage start to take other people's different
values, opinions, and beliefs into consideration due to the
At this stage, older children, adolescents, and young concepts of a social contract agreements that rational
adults learn o conform to societal expectations. agents have reached, whether explicitly or implicitly, in
Conventions acquire significance for the individual and order to serve what can be considered the common good
learns to follow them. They now understand the are what one ought to follow). A society needs rules of
importance of conventions in their life. Level Il is law to function, but these laws must be agreed upon by all
subdivided into two stages. members of the society. The common good is something
that rational agents recognize as their calling and should
Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal respect and uphold.
Relationships)
Stage 6 (Universal Principles)
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation,
this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral Kohlberg's final level of moral reasoning is based on
development is focused on living up to social universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning I
expectations and roles. The more common tendency for "higher laws" that go beyond conventional socially
the individual is to conform especially to the values of the imposed laws, and that these higher laws encompass
immediate group like the family, playmates, and later to abstract philosophical ethical principles). A commitment
to justice entails a duty to disobey unjust laws, as laws are • The human individual never exists in a vacuum as if she
only legitimate in as much as they are founded on justice. were a pure rational entity without any embodiment and
Decisions are made in an absolute, categorical manner as historicity.
opposed to a hypothetical, conditional manner. The
decision made is the consequence of the consensus. In • The moral agent is not a calculating, unfeeling machine
this approach, action is never a means but always an end that produces completely objective and absolutely correct
in itself; one does something because it is right, not solutions to even the most complex moral problems.
because it is expected, legal, or predetermined.
CULTURE AND MORALITY
Kohlberg’s theory helps to point out the differences in
moral reasoning: the more mature kind is seen in people • Culture “is that complex whole which includes
who are not anymore dictated by the logic of reward and knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
punishment, or pain and pleasure. Simply following rules capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
even if, theoretically, they are the correct ones, does not society." (Tylor 1958).
necessarily qualify as morally mature behavior. One must • It is "... a historically transmitted pattern of meanings
make free use of her own power of reasoning in cases of embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions
moral choice and not remain a creature of blind obedience expressed in symbolic forms through which men
to either pain and pleasure or to the demands of the communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge
groups, if one aspires to moral maturity. about and attitudes toward life" (Geertz 1973: 89)

THE MORAL AGENT AND CONTEXTS • Culture shapes and forms the person more particularly
in terms of moral development. Along with personal
• Individual choices, decisions, plans and needs even identity, the human person also develops moral identity
when initiated and originated from the individual himself which can be defined as “the degree to which being a
or herself may seem not to be products of purely moral person is important to an individual” (Hardy &
individual nature. Many variables of external origins may Carlo, 2005)”
be at play.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
• Filipino philosopher Ramon C. Reyes (1935-2014),

▪ Time. Something that is part of culture must endure

succinctly explained in his essay "Man and Historical
Action", that "who one is" is a cross point. By this he
means that one's identity or who one is, is a product of time. If it does not last, it might just be a fad.
many forces and events that happened outside of one's
choosing ▪ Place. A culture is limited in its coverage. It is limited
to a particular place. It cannot be a practice in all places,
THE FOUR CROSS POINTS otherwise it is a universal phenomenon, and it does not
reflect the culture of a particular place.
• Physical – "Who one is", is a function of physical
events in the past and material factors in the present that ▪ Player (persons). In the same manner as the place,
one did not have a choice in. culture is also limited to particular persons living the
particular culture. There has to be a people practicing the
• Interpersonal - "Who one is", is in the sense of one's culture.
character, manners, thinking, and mindset as influenced
by how one is brought up in the family. One’s personality ▪ Dynamism. A culture is not dead. It is alive. Cultures
is shaped by the people around especially by those who
continue to develop or evolve to become another culture
influence the person during the early years of existence.
THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
• Societal - "Who one is", is molded in large part by the
DEVELOPMENT
kind of society and culture-which, for the most part, one
did not choosethat one belongs to.
The pattern of the person’s life is conditioned by the
moral standards present in his or her culture. Individuals
• Historical - " Who one is", is shaped by one's people's
learn the moral codes of the right behavior and their
history or the events that one's people has undergone.
opposites within that context of social interaction. The
people around the individual transmit those codes that the
According to Reyes, "who one is" is a cross point, but in
individual acquires as he matures and develops
an existential level, he argues that the meaning of one's
intellectually, psychologically, and socially.
existence is in the intersection between the fact that one's
being is a product of many forces outside her choosing
Culture defines the normative principles and behavior of
and her ideal future for herself.
the society. Within the culture are sets of principles that
are encouraged to guide the manner in which people will
WHO ONE IS?
have to live. As such, there are behaviors that are
recommended by the culture and the society that practices
• The human individual always exists in the tension
them. This includes the moral norms that the society
between being conditioned by external factors and being
nurtures allowing the members live and define what is
a free agent.
right and wrong.
Culture sets the restrictions and boundaries in the lives of Normative Moral Relativism: It states that all societies
people as they relate and live in their community. In any ought to accept each other's differing moral values, given
society, not everything is tolerable as there are restrictions that there are no universal moral principles.
in order to maintain a certain order to guarantee that each
member is protected in the same manner that the same
member can protect others. Restrictions and boundaries
are important to any society because delinquent manners
may always be present. As such, they serve as guide to
people’s behavior.

Culture helps generate the character and identity of its

people and that includes their moral character. The
manners in which people live together give them their
identity as a unique group. The way people dress up, the
way they greet each other, their food and even the type of
houses symbolize their uniqueness which outsiders notice
with ease.

Culture identifies the authorities. They are the symbol of

guidance and control. During the earlier times, the elders
had the great honor of having been looked up to because
of their experience. As such they were the “talisman” of
their community who offered wise and appropriate
decisions to resolve conflicts and issues.

ETHICS AND CULTURE

What is the relationship between ethics and one's own

culture?

A common opinion many people hold is that one’s culture

dictates what is right or wrong for an individual. For such
people, the saying “when in Rome, do as the Romans do”
by St. Ambrose applies to deciding on moral issues.

MORAL RELATIVISM

▪ is used to describe several philosophical positions

concerned with the differences in moral judgments across
different peoples and cultures.

▪ the view that moral judgments are true or false only

relative to some particular standpoint (for instance, that of
a culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is
uniquely privileged over all others.

▪ Moral relativism is on the opposite end of the

continuum from moral absolutism which says that there is
always one right answer to any ethical question.

VARIATIONS OF MORAL RELATIVISM

Cultural Relativism: It is the observation that different

cultures have different moral standards, and that culture is
the defining factor of moral judgments. All beliefs,
customs, practices, and every action we hold as moral are
rooted in the culture we have.

Meta-Ethical Moral Relativism: It states that there are

no objective grounds for preferring the moral values of
one culture over another. Societies make their moral
choices based on their unique beliefs, customs, and
practices. And, in fact, people tend to believe that the
“right” moral values are the values that exist in their own
culture.