MATTER

THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of small particles that are
invisible. There are three states of matter:
 Liquid
 Solid
 Gas

PROPERTIES OF THE 3 STATES OF MATTER

1. SOLID
 Particle arrangement: Particles are closely packed in a regular pattern
- Solids have a definite shape and cannot be compressed.
 Particle Movement: Particles just vibrate in their fixed positions.
-Solids have defined volume.
 Forces of attraction holding particles: Are very strong.
-Solids and cannot flow.

2. LIQUID
 Particle Arrangement: Particles are loosely packed, but closer to each other.
-Liquids have no definite shape (They take the shape of the container).
They cannot easily be compressed.
 Particle movement: Particles moves around and slide over each.
- Liquids have a fixed volume.
 Forces of attraction holding particles: Are not very strong.
- Liquids can flow

3. GAS
 Particle Arrangement: particles are far apart from each other.
- Gases have no definite shape. They take the shape of the container.
-Gases can easily be compressed.
 Particle movement: particles are free to move
- Gases have no fixed volume. They fill the volume of the container.
 Forces of attraction holding particles: There are no forces of attraction between
particls.
- Liquids can flow

1
THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

Matter is made up of tiny particles that are invisible and these particles are always in motion.
The movement of particles depend on:

1. TEMPERATURE
 When temperatures are high, particles gain kinetic energy and move faster. At low
temperatures, particles have less kinetic energy and move slowly.

CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER

A B
SOLID LIQUID GAS
D C
E

A=Melting
B= Evaporation
C= Condensation
D=Freezing
E=Sublimation
F=Deposition/Desublimation

a. SOLID TO LIQUID (MELTING)

To move from a solid to a liquid, heat energy is applied and particles gain kinetic energy.
These particles vibrate vigorously. Continuous heating leads to forces of attraction between
particles breaking because they become weaker compared to the energy of movement. The
particles will then break loose from their neighbouring particles and when this happens, the
solid starts melting. The point at which the solid starts melting is called the melting point.
This temperature remains constant until all the particles are free from their neighbours.
(Because heat energy is still used to break bonds between particles is a solid).

b. LIQUID TO GAS (EVAPORATION)

 Heat energy is applied and particles gain kinetic energy.
 They move around and over each other with more energy.
 Forces of attraction holding particle together break.
 Particles break lose.
 When the gas starts to form inside a liquid it is called BOILING,

2
  The temperature at which this happens is called the boiling point.

C. GAS TO LIQUID (CONDENSATION)

 Heat energy is lost
 Particles lose kinetic energy
 Particles move slowly
 Force of attraction is regained
 Particles come closer to each other
 The temperature at which this happens in called the condensing point.

c. LIQUID TO SOLID (FREEZING)

 Heat energy is lost
 Particles lose kinetic energy
 Particles move slowly
 Force of attraction is regained
 Particles come closer to each other
 The temperature at which this happens in called the freezing point.

d. SOLID TO GAS (SUBLIMATION)

 This is a rapid change from solid to gas without passing through liquid state.
 When solid particles are heated they gain sufficient energy, vibrate faster and move
far apart.

3
HEATING CURVES AND COOLING CURVES (HC)

A B

A=Solid
B=Solid and Liquid
C=Liquid
D=Liquid and Gas
E= Gas only

HEATING CURVE
A= Temperature increases with time
 Solid only
 Particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate vigorously.
 Forces of attraction between particles breaking.

B= Temp is constant
 Heat energy is still used to break bonds between particles in solid
 Solid and liquid
 Gives the melting point of a substance

C= Temperature is rising
 Liquid only
 Particles gain more kinetic energy and move around and over each other with more
energy.
 Forces of attraction holding particle together break.

4
D= Temperature is constant.
 Heat energy is still used to break bonds between particles in liquid.
 Liquid and Gas
 Gives the boiling point

E. = Temperature is rising
 Gas only
 Particles break lose and move even faster.

COOLING CURVE

A
B

T
0
C D

Time

A=Gas only
B=Gas and Liquid
C=Liquid
D=Liquid and solid
E=Solid

Note: for a pure substance, the melting and freezing points are the same. The boiling and
condensing points are the same.
e.g.:
 Pure water melts and freezes at 00C
 Pure water boils and condenses at 1000C

5
Effect of Impurities

The presence of an impurity in a substance lowers the melting point and raises the boiling
point of the substance.
Heating Curve of:

(a) pure substance (b) Impure substance

(a) has specific/fixed melting and (b) The melting point and boiling point
boiling point. Are not specific/not fixed.

EXERCISE Questions:

PURE ( half page) DOUBLE (Full page)

(Chem. Expression) (Cambridge Low Price Edition)
Page 53 -54, Q 1,2,8 Page 41 , Q 2.1, 2.2

DIFFUSION
It is the movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration until they are evenly distributed.
 Diffusion occurs in gases and liquids only.

DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS

Copper (II) sulphate solution (blue)

Water (colourless)
Ο
Copper(II) sulphate crystal
Before diffusion takes place (blue) after diffusion takes
place.

6
 DIFFUSION IN GASES

Diffusion in gases can be demonstrated by using a perfume spray. When the perfume is
sprayed at one corner of the lab, after several seconds the smell is detected all over the
laboratory.

It can also be demonstrated by using nitrogen dioxide (NO2). One gas jar is filled with the
nitrogen dioxide gas and the other with air.

Brown colour
spreads throughout
both gas jars.

Nitrogen dioxide gas

(Brown)

Beginning of the experiment End of the experiment

Observation at the end of the experiment:

The brown colour spreads throughout both gas jars.

Explanation
The brown gas moved has from its area of high concentration (bottom jar) to an area of low
concentration(top jar) until the gases were evenly distributed.

FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION

1. Temperature: Higher temperature will result in the higher rate of diffusion or faster
diffusion. The lower the temperature, the lower the rate of diffusion or slower diffusion.

2. Relative Molecular mass, Mr: The bigger the relative molecular mass the slower the
diffusion rate of diffusion or Lower diffusion. The smaller the relative molecular mass, the
faster the diffusion.

Calculating the Relative molecular Mass, Mr

Exercise;
Calculate the relative molecular mass of the following compounds;

Carbondioxide Methane Glucose( C6H12O6)

7
DEPENDENCE OF DIFFUSION ON MOLECULAR MASS
(releases ammonia gas, NH3)

(releases hydrogen chloride gas,

HCl)

 Soak a piece of cotton wool in a concentrated ammonia solution and insert it into one
end of the glass tube.
 Soak another piece of cotton wool in a concentrated hydrochloric acid and insert it
into the other end of the glass tube.
 Seal both ends of the glass tube with rubber stoppers and leave the tube horizontally.
 Observe what happens after a few minutes.

Observation:
A white disc/cloud of a powdery substance (called Ammonium chloride) is formed inside the
glass tube closer to the end where concentrated hydrochloric acid is placed.

Explanation:

Ammonia gas (released from concentrated aqueous ammonia) diffused faster than hydrogen
chloride gas (released from concentrated hydrochloric acid) because ammonia gas has
smaller relative molecular mass (17) than hydrogen chloride gas ( 36.5).

Exercise: The diagram shows how an experiment was set up.

The solutions released hydrogen sulphide gas, H2S and suphur dioxide gas, SO2 respectively.

(i) Calculate the relative molecular mass of hydrogen sulphide, H2S [1]
[Ar: H;1, S;32]
(ii) Calculate the relative molecular mass of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2. [1]
[Ar: S;32, O;16].
(iii) At which point, X,Y or Z will the yellow powder be formed? [2]
Explain your answer.
(iv) Name the process being demonstrated by this experiment. [1]
(v) Explain what would happen if the experiment was repeated at a slightly lower
temperature. [2]

8
 SEPARATING TECHNIQUES
Mixtures are made up of different substances and we can separate them into pure substances.
The following methods can be used to separate mixtures.

Filtration Evaporation Crystallisation

Sublimation Simple distillation Fractional distillation

Paper chromatography Use of a separating funnel Centrifuging

Decanting Use of Magnets

Filtration

It is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. E.g chalk from water or sand from
water. Chalk can be separated from water by filtering the suspension through the filter paper.
The chalk gets trapped in the filter paper as the residue, while water passes through as the
filtrate.

Suspension
of chalk and
water Filter paper

Filter funnel

beaker

Residue (chalk) Water (filtrate)

9
 Evaporation

The method used to separate a soluble solid (solute) from a liquid (solvent). E.g Sodium
chloride from water.
The solution is heated in an evaporating dish. The water evaporates leaving the sodium
chloride behind.

Salt + water solution

Evaporating dish

Evaporation is only suitable for salts that do not decompose when heated and those that do
not contain water of crystallisation.

Crystallisation

It is similar to evaporation. It is used to obtain pure crystals from a solution. E.g sodium
chloride from water. The solution is not heated to dryness; heating is stopped when most of
the solvent is boiled off. Then solution is then allowed to cool. The solid appears as pure
crystals. The crystals may be dried by pressing them between sheets of filter paper.

Sublimation

A method used to separate a substance that sublimes from the one that does not sublime. E.g
iodine from a mixture of iodine and salt.

Heat the mixture in a fume cupboard (because iodine vapour is poisonous). The iodine
sublimes and reforms on the cool inverted funnel.

Inverted funnel

Liquid iodine Salt + iodine mixture

Heat

10
Simple Distillation
This is a method used to a get pure solvent out of a solution. E.g pure water from a salt
solution.
 The solution is heated in the flask. It boils and steam rises into the condenser. The salt
is left behind.
 The condenser is cold, so the steam condenses to water in it.
 The water drops into the beaker. It is called a distillate.

Note: (i) Cold water enter at the bottom of the condenser and leaves at the top of the
condenser. Why?
(ii) The bulb of the thermometer should be positioned at the neck of the flask. Why?
Fractional Distillation
If the two liquids are miscible, they can be separated by fractional distillation. The method
relies upon the liquids having different boiling points. E.g ethanol and water. Ethanol boils at
780C and water boils at 1000C.
 The mixture is heated. At about 780C ethanol begins to boil. Some water evaporates
too, so a mixture of water vapour and ethanol vapour rises up the column.
 The vapours condenses on the glass beads in the column making them hot.
 When the temperature on the beads reach about780C, ethanol no longer condenses on
them. Only the water vapour does. The water flows back into the flask.
 In the condenser, ethanol vapour condenses. Liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.
 When all the ethanol has distilled over , the temperature reading on the thermometer
rises steadily to 1000C. At this point, the receiver can be changed and the water can
now be collected.

11
Use of a separating funnel.

The method is used to separate liquids that do not mix (immiscible liquids). e. g water and
oil.

When a mixture of oil and water is poured into the the funnel, the oil floats at the top as
shown.
To separate the mixture:

(1) Remove the lid

(2) Open the tap and collect liquid at bottom (water).
(3) Then collect the liquid at the top (oil)

Paper chromatography

It is a technique used to separate two or more substances that are both soluble in the same
solvent. E.g dyes in ink. The method is done as follows:

1. About 2 cm from the bottom of the paper, a line called the baseline is drawn using a
pencil. Pens are not used because they can dissolve in the solvent and interfere with
the sample.
2. The baseline is where samples are placed. – The known and unknown samples are
placed on the baseline.
3. The chromatography paper is then placed into the solvent such that the baseline is
above the solvent. The baseline should not be dipped in the solvent because it might
wipe away the samples. Examples of solvents used: water, ethanol, propanol,
methanol, benzene e.t.c.
4. The solvent soaks up the paper and moves up along with the samples and the samples
separate into their components.
The chromatographic paper is then dired. It is called the chromatogram.
The distance travelled by the solvent (known as the solvent front) and the distance
travelled by solute are then measured.

12
 Chromatography paper samples
Beaker +lid
baseline

1 2

Sovent front
solvent
Factors that affect the distance travelled by the solute:

(i) Solubility of the solute in the solvent. Components which are more soluble in the
solvent travel further up than those which are less soluble.
(ii) Absorption of the solvent by the chromatography paper.

Visualising colourless components:

In some cases, separated components are not coloure3d and therefore, invisible.
Substances called locating agents are used to make them visible. Examples of locating
agents are:
-1% iodine solution in methanol
-Iron (ii) chloride
-U.V radiation

Analysing the chromatogram

Example: 1. The following chromatogram was obtained in an analyte of two different

inks. Four dyes A,B,C and D were tested at the same time in ink 1 and ink 2.
Use the following diagram to answer the questions;

A B C D 1 2

13
(a) Why must the baseline line, on which a small drop of each sample was placed at the
beginning of the experiment be drawn above the level of the solvent?
(b) Use the chromatogram to decide which of the dyes A,B,C and D were
(i) present in ink 1
(ii) present in ink 2
(iii) not present in either ink.
2. F is a mixture of dyes. It has been suggested that F might be used as a food colouring.
Paper chromatography was used to identify the dyes in F. The resulting
chromatograms are shown below. Dyes A and C have a bad effect in some people.

F Dye A Dye B Dye C Dye D

(a) Which of the dyes, A,B,C and D are present in F?

(b) Suggest which of the dyes is insoluble in water?
(c) Suggest why the mixture F should not be used as a food colouring.
(d) Dye B contains two components. Suggest how you could change this
chromatographic technique so as to separate these components.

Identifying components of chromatography using Rf values:

The retardation factor (Rf) = distance travelled by the solute/ distance travelled by the
solvent.
The distance is measured from the middle of the spot.
The Rf values of various substances in a given set of conditions are known. You can
measure Rf values of separated components and then compare them with known Rf
values, hence a known component can be identified.

Example: Take a situation in which a protein sample has been hydrolysed and its
components separated by chromatography. The table below shows names of amino acids
and their known Rf values;

Amino Acid Rf value

Valine 0.5
Glycine 0.4
Alanine 0.2
Cystine 0.8
Tyrosine 0.6
Leucine 0.7

14
 Threonine 0.3
Glutamine 0.9

Use the chromatogram below to identify the amino acids that make up the hydrolysed
protein sample.

Uses of chromatography

1. To separate and identify very small quantities of unknown substances

2. To analyse and identify artificial dyes in foods
3. To detect the consumption of illegal drugs by people.
4.
Exercise

15
16
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atom –The smallest particle of an element that cannot be divided into anything further.
Element- It is a substance made up of the same type of an atom.
Compound- It is a substance made up of two or more atoms of different elements chemically
combined.
Molecule- It is a substance made up of two or more atoms of the same or different elements
chemically combined.

Structure of an atom
An atom is spherical in shape. It contains three sub-atomic particles which are:
-Protons
-Neutrons
-Electrons

Particle Symbol Relative mass in Charge Location

atomic mass unit
(a.m.u)
Proton
Neutron
Electron

Electron X
X Shell/energy level

Neutrons

Nucleus
X

protons
In an atom, the number of electrons is equals to the number of protons.
The number of shells depends on the number of electrons
1st shell always accommodates a maximum of 2 electrons.
2nd and other shells accommodate a maximum of eight (8) electrons.

Charge of a nucleas – Is always positive because the neutrons have a charge of 0 while the
protons are positively charged.

Overall charge of an atom: Neutral because the numbers of protons are always equal to the
number of electrons.

Mass of an atom: is contributed by protons and neutrons

Mass number / nucleon number: is the total number of protons and neutrons.

17
Atomic number: - The number of protons.

Representation of atoms or elements in the periodic table.

Atoms are represented in the periodic table as follows:

A
Z
x
Where:
- X is the symbol of an element
- Z is the atomic number
-A is the mass number

Calculating the number of sub-atomic particles

Mass number (A) = Atomic number(Z) + number of neutrons)

 Number of neutrons = mass number (A) – Atomic number (Z)
 Number of electrons in an atom = number of protons = atomic number.

Exercise: Complete the table below:

Element Symbol Atomic Number of Number of Mass Number of

number protons electrons number Neutrons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
VALENCE ELECTRONS
-Electrons found in the outer shell. The outer most shell is called the valence shell.
Valence electrons are important in chemistry because they are the ones involved in chemical
reactions.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
-This gives us the number of electrons in each shell.
-It also gives us the number of shells in an atom.
-It also give us the number of valence electrons.

Electron configuration can also give us the group number and period number
Number of shells for any atom gives the period number
Number of valence electrons gives us the group number
18
STRUCTURES OF ATOMS OF ELEMENNTS:

Draw structures of element 1-20.

ISOTOPES
-Atoms of the same elements which have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons. OR Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers.
Examples:
(i)Isotopes of Carbon

CARBON -12 CARBON -13 CARBON -14

Symbol
Mass number 12 13 14
Proton no. 6 6 6
Neutron no. 6 7 8
Electron no. 6 6 6

(ii) Isotopes of chlorine

CHLORINE -35 CHLORINE -37

Symbol
Mass number 35 37
Proton no. 17 17
Neutron no. 18 20
Electron no. 17 17

(iii) Isotopes of Hydrogen

HYDROGEN(PROTIUM DEUTERIUM TRITIUM

)
Symbol
Mass number 1 2 3
Proton no. 1 1 1
Electron no. 1 1 1
Neutron no. 0 1 2

Calculating the Relative Atomic Mass, Ar

Relative atomic mass = ( % abundance of 1st isotope x its mass) + ( % abundance of 2nd
isotope x its mass)
Example: Chlorine has two isotopes: chlorine-35 ; % is 75%
Chlorine-37; % is 25%
Relative atomic mass =( 75/100 x 35) + (25/100 x 37) = 35.5

19
EXERCISE Questions:

PURE (Half page) DOUBLE

(GCSE Chem) (Cambridge Low Price Edition)
Page 52, Q 4a(i), (ii), Q7) Page 63 , Q 2.18 (b) (i), (ii)

PERIODIC TABLE
-Classification of elements in order of their atomic numbers.
-A periodic table arranges an element in order of their increasing proton numbers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

-A vertical column of elements in the periodic table is called A GROUP. There are 8 groups
in the periodic table (1 – 8)
-The horizontal rows are called PERIODS. There are seven periods in the periodic table.
-Between group 2 and 3 there is a block of elements called TRANSITION ELEMENTS /
METALS.
-The left side of the table is composed of METALS and the right side is of NON - METALS
-There is a bold line separating metals from non-metals
-Elements which lie along the dividing line are METALLOIDS (behave as metals and non-
metals)
-Elements beyond uranium (proton number 92) do not occur naturally. They have been
prepared in laboratories.

SOME GROUP NAMES

Group 1 – alkali metals
Group 2 – alkaline earth metals
Group 7 – Halogens
Group 0 – Noble gases

PERIODIC TRENDS / PATTERNS

THE METALLIC CHARACTER DECREASES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT ACROSS

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The metallic character decreases. This means that most metallic elements are found on the far
left in the periodic table and the most non- metallic on the far right.

ATOMIC SIZE

Atoms become smaller from left to right across a period because the nuclear attractions
increases from left to right across the periodic table. Going down the group, atomic size
increases with increasing number of shells.

20
ELECTROPOSITIVITY

(the ability form positive ions). The left side on the periodic table elements are
electropositive and the right are electronegative. Therefore electro positivity decreases from
left to right while electro negativity increases.

GROUP TRENDS
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because there are determined by
their valency (outermost electrons). In a group of metals, reactivity increases down a group
e.g. in group 1 Francium is the most reactivity. In a group of non- metals, reactivity increases
up the group e.g. in group 7 fluorine is the most reactive.

GROUP 1 (ALKALI METALS)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
-They are a collection of relatively soft metals which have low melting point. Melting point
and boiling point decreases moving down the group.
-They have low density; they float in water. Density increases moving down the group.
-They are soft; they can easily be cut by a knife, to reveal a shiny surface which quickly
tarnishes. Softness increases moving down the group.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
-The alkali metals have one electron each on the outer shell. This gives them the similar
chemical properties, since they each loose one electron to become stable.
- They are generally very reactive
 They react with water to produce an alkaline solution and hydrogen gas. This reaction
is exothermic (releases heat energy).

metal + water → alkaline solution + hydrogen gas

e.g. sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Sodium hydroxide is an alkali, so group 1 elements are called alkali metals because they form
alkali solutions when they react with water.

To test for hydrogen gas produced;

Introduce the gas to the burning split.
Results; Pop sound is produced.

 They react with oxygen to form metal oxides

e.g sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide.
Note: Alkali metals are stored under oil or paraffin to prevent them from reacting with
oxygen and water vapour in air.

 They react with halogens to form salts (metal halides)

e.g sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

21
 Trend in Reactivity

The ease at which an atom loses or gains an electron determines its reactivity.
Very reactive elements lose or gain electrons easily.
 In group 1, the reactivity of elements increases down the group.

Li (LEAST REACTIVE)
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr (MOST REACTIVE)
 Moving down the group, the number of shells increases, hence the electron to be lost
experiences less nuclear force of attraction. It can be lost easily.

Exercise: (TEACHER DEMONSTATION )-Learners are advised to take notes during

the demonstration.

 A piece of sodium is dropped into a beaker containing water as shown:

Piece of Sodium

water

State observations that are going to be made

-Sodium metal floated
-Effervescence bubbles produced
-Fumes produced
-Sodium moves around
-It melts
-Solution formed turned a red litmus paper blue
-If a universal indicator was used a purple colour would be shown from the solution.

 What will be the difference in observations if potassium is used instead of sodium?

-Flames produced
-Potassium melts quicker
-moves around faster more fumes produced
More bubbles produced.
 Why is sodium less reactive than potassium?
Because Sodium has less number of shells than Potassium, So the electron to be lost by
sodium experiences more nuclear force of attraction than the one lost by Potassium.

22
Table showing some properties of group 1 elements
ELEMENT MELTING POINT BOILING POINT DENSITY REACTION WITH H2O
(0C) (0C) (g/L)
Lithium 180 1330 0.53 Reacts slowly to produce
hydrogen gas and LiOH
solution
Sodium 98 392 0.97 Reacts vigorously to
produce hydrogen NaOH
solution
Potassium 64 760 0.9 Reacts violently to produce
hydrogen gas + KOH
solution.

GOUP 2 (ALKALINE EARTH METALS)

Properties:
-They are harder than those in group 1.
- They are silver grey in colour when pure and clean. They tarnish quickly when exposed to
air due to the formation of metal oxides.
- They burn in oxygen with coloured flames to form solid white oxides.

e.g magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

- They react with water but less vigorously than group 1 metals.
-The further down the group you go, the more the reactive the elements becomes.

GROUP 7 (HALOGENS)

-A group of elements that exist as diatomic molecules.

- This means they are molecules made up of two atoms. eg. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.
-They show trend in colour, reactivity and physical state at room temperature and pressure.
- They form coloured gases which are poisonous.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Element State at room Colour Boiling point Melting point
temperature
Fluorine Gas Yellow -220 -188
Chlorine Gas Pale green -101 -35
Bromine Liquid Red brown -7 58
Iodine Solid Purple black 114 183
Astatine Solid Black 120 200

Trend in Colour.

The colour darkens down the group.

e.g F2 -Yellow
Cl2 - Pale green
Br2- Red brown
I2 - Purple black

23
Physical state at room temperature

F2 - Gas
Cl2 - Gas
Br2- Liquid
I2 - Solid
Changes from gas through liquid to solid.

Halogens dissolve in water to form coloured solutions.

e.g F2 - Gas
Cl2 - Gas
Br2- orange solution
I2 – brown solution.

Trend in Reactivity

 In group 7, the reactivity of elements decreases down the group.

F2 most reactive
Cl2
Br2
I2 least reactive
 Moving down the group, the number of shells increases, hence the electron to be
gained experiences less nuclear force of attraction. It cannot be gained more easily.

Exercise: Why is fluorine more reactive than chlorine?

Fluorine has less number of shells than chlorine. The electron to be gained experiences more
nuclear force of attraction in fluorine than in chlorine.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 They react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides, which dissolves in water to form
acidic solutions.

e.g hydrogen + chlorine →hydrogen chloride.

hydrogen chlorine + water →hydrochloric acid.

 They undergo displacement reactions; where by a more reactive halogen displaces a

less reactive halogen from its compound.
 E.g 1. When chlorine is bubbled through a colourless solution of potassium bromide,
the solution turns orange as bromine solution forms.
Potassium bromide + chlorine →potassium chloride + bromine

e.g 2. Potassium Bromide + Iodine → NO REACTION (WHY?)

Iodine is less reactive than Bromine. It cannot displace bromine from potassium
bromide compound.

24
EXERCISE Questions:

PURE(half page) DOUBLE (half page)

(Chem. Expression) (Cambridge Low Price Edition)
Page 307, Q 3), Q5, Q 10 (a,b,c) Page 63 , Q 2.18 (b) (i), (ii)

NOBLE GASES (GROUP 0)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
-Are unreactive gases because they have a completely filled outermost shells
-They are all colourless gases at room temperature
-they occur as mono atomic (consist of single atoms)

USES OF NOBLE GASES

(1)ARGON
-It is used to fill electric bulbs as it provides an inert atmosphere inside the bulb to prevent the
filament from burning / evaporating.

(2)NEON
-It is used in advertising lights / signs

(3)HELIUM
-It is used in filling up airships and weather balloons because it is light.
- Provide an inert atmosphere for welding.
- Used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.

TRANSITION METALS

Physical properties
-They are stronger and harder than group 1 and group 2 metals.
-They have a higher melting and boiling points (except mercury) than group 1 and group 2
metals.
-They have high densities than group 1 and group 2 metals.

Chemical Properties
-They form coloured compounds e.g. CuSO4 is blue in colour.
-They are less reactive compared to group 1 and group 2 metals.
-They act as catalysts e.g. a. iron is used as a catalyst in the manufacture of ammonia.
b. nickel is used in the manufacture of margarine
-They form more than one simple ions (have variable valencies).e.g Copper form Cu+ and
Cu2+, Iron forms Fe2+ and Fe3+.

25
CHEMICAL BONDING
Atoms join together in order to attain a stable configuration i.e to have a completely filled
valence shell.
There are there types of chemical bonding:
-Ionic bonding
-Covalent Bonding
-Metallic bonding

IONIC / ELECTROVALENT BONDING

It occurs between metal atoms and non-metal atoms.
It involves the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms.
It results in the formation of ionic compounds.
It is defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Formation of ions

An ion is a charged particle formed by an atom when it loses or gains electrons.

Ions can either be cations or anions.

Cations:
Formed from metal atoms when they lose all their valence electrons.
They have a positive charge (which is equals to the number of electrons lost).
Their names are derived from the name of the metal atom used to make them.
E.g Sodium forms Sodium ions
Zinc forms zinc ions
Lithium forms Lithium ions
Anions:
Formed from non-metal atoms when they gain electrons to complete their outermost shell.
They have a negative charge (which is equals to the number of electrons gained)
They are named by putting the suffix -ide to the stem of the name of the non-metal atom used
to make them.
E.g chlorine forms chloride ions
Oxygen forms oxide ions
Nitrogen forms nitride ions

26
Ions of group 1 elements
They lose one electron to be stable. E.g formation of Lithium ions
7
3 Li

Li – 1e Li+
OR
Li 1e + Li+

Atom Ion

3 protons = +3 3 protons = +3
3 electrons = -3 3 electrons = -2
4Neutrons = 0 4 Neutrons = 0
Overall =0 Overall = +1
Charge charge

Lithium atom Lithium ion

7 7
3 Li 3 Li+

x
x
x
-
- 1e
Atomsx bond toge

All group 1 elements lose 1 electron to form cations with a charge of +1.
Ions of group 2 elements
They lose two electrons to be stable. E.g formation of Beryllium ions
9
4 Be

Be – 2e Be 2+
OR
Be 2e + Be 2+
Atom Ion

4 protons = +4 4 protons = +4
4 electrons = -4 2 electrons = -2
5Neutrons = 0 5 Neutrons = 0
Overall =0 Overall = +2
Charge charge

Diagram:

27
All group 2 elements lose 2 electrons to form cations with a charge of +2.

Ions of group 3 elements

They lose 3 electrons to be stable. E.g formation of Boron ions
11
5 B

B – 3e B 3+
OR
B 3e + B 3+
Atom Ion

5 protons = +5 5 protons = +5
5electrons = -5 2 electrons = -2
6 neutrons = 0 6 Neutrons = 0
Overall =0 Overall = +3
Charge charge

Diagram:

All group 3 elements lose 3 electrons to form cations with a charge of +3.

Ions of group 5 elements

They gain 3 electrons to be stable. E.g formation of Nitride ions
14
7 N

N + 3e N 3-
Atom Ion

7 protons = +7 7 protons = +7
7electrons = -7 10 electrons = -10
7 neutrons = 0 7 Neutrons = 0
Overall =0 Overall = -3
Charge charge
Diagram:

28
All group 5 elements gain 3 electrons to form anions with a charge of -3.

Ions of group 6 elements

They gain 2 electrons to be stable. E.g formation of oxide ions
16
8 O

O + 2e O2-
Atom Ion

8 protons = +8 8 protons = +8
8electrons = -8 10 electrons = -10
8neutrons = 0 8 Neutrons = 0
Overall =0 Overall = -2
Charge charge
Diagram:

All group 6 elements gain 2 electrons to form anions with a charge of -2.

Ions of group 7 elements

They gain 1 electron to be stable. E.g formation of Fluoride ions
19
9 F
F + 1e F-
Atom Ion

9 protons = +9 9 protons = +9
9electrons = -9 10 electrons = -10
10 neutrons = 0 10 Neutrons = 0
Overall = 0 Overall = -1
Charge charge
Diagram:

29
All group 7 elements gain 1 electron to form anions with a charge of -1.

Group 8 elements

They are stable because they have a completely filled outermost shell.
They do not form ions.

EXERCISE Questions:

PURE (Quarter page)

(Chem. Expression)
Page 86, Q 8 (a,b,c)

Ionic Compounds
-They contain ions.
-Ions are formed when metal atoms transfer electrons to non-metal atoms (in order to have
completely filled valence shells).
- These ions are held in place by a strong electrostatic force of attraction (ionic bond).

Example: Use the “dot and cross diagrams” to show bonding in the following
compounds:

a. Sodium chloride

Sodium + oxygen -------> sodium ion + chloride ion

b. Calcium oxide

Calcium atom + oxygen atom -------> calcium ion + oxide ion

c. Magnesium chloride

Magnesium atom + chlorine atom -------> magnesium ion + chloride ion

d. Lithium oxide

Lithium atom + oxygen atom -------> Lithium ion + oxide ion

30
IONIC STRUCTURES
These are giant structures of ionic compounds. They are solid at room temperature. The ions
are packed together in a regular arrangement called the Lattice. Within the lattice, oppositely
charged ions attract one another strongly.

THE LATTICE STRUCURE OF SODIUM CHLORIDE

 One sodium ion should be bonded to six chloride ions and one chloride ion should be
bonded to six sodium ions. This makes the lattice arrangement.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

- They have high melting and boiling points

Reason: because of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely
charged ions, hence too much heat energy is needed to break them.
-They are good conductors of electricity when molten or dissolved in water but not in solid
state.
Reason: because ions are free to move in aqueous or molten state, while in solid state ions are
not mobile.
-They are often soluble in water.
Reason: because ions can bond with water molecules.
-They exist as solids at room temperature.
Reason: because particles are regularly arranged and closely packed. These particles are held
together by a strong electrostatic force.

Question: Magnesium chloride and sodium chloride are both ionic compounds. The melting
point of magnesium chloride is higher than that of sodium chloride.
Give a reason: In magnesium chloride, there is a strong electrostatic force of attraction
between ions (because of high charges) than in sodium chloride (with low charges) hence
too much heat energy is needed to break them.

31
COVALENT BONDING

It occurs between non-metal atoms.

It involves the sharing of electrons by non-metal atoms (in order to have completely filled
valence shells)
It results in the formation of covalent compounds.
-
There is always equal number of electrons shared between any 2 atoms
-A single covalent bond is equivalent to 1 pair of shared electrons.
Represented by a single line between 2 atoms
-A double covalent bond = 2 pairs of shared electrons.
Represented by 2 lines between atoms
-Triple covalent bond = 3 pairs of shared electrons
Represented by 3 lines

Covalent compounds

Examples: Use the “dot and cross diagrams” to show bonding in the following
compounds:

a) Hydrogen(H2)
Hydrogen atom + Hydrogen atom ------>Hydrogen molecule

b) Chlorine (Cl2)
Chlorine atom + Chlorine atom ------>Hydrogen molecule

c) Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

Hydrogen atom + Chlorine atom ------>Hydrogen chloride molecule

d) Water (H2O)
Hydrogen atom + Oxygen atom + Hydrogen ------>water molecule

32
 e) Ammonia (NH3)

Hydrogen atom + Nitrogen Atom + Hydrogen atom

+

Hydrogen atom

f) Methane

g) Methanol

h) Oxygen
i) Carbon dioxide
j) Ethene
k) Nitrogen.

Covalent Structures
Compounds containing covalent bonds can either have a:
1. simple molecular structure or
2. giant molecular structure

Simple molecular structures: -Formed by a few covalently bonded atoms. They have strong
intramolecular forces and weak intermolecular forces. E.g water, methane, carbon dioxide

-
Giant molecular structure Formed by thousands of atoms bonded together by strong
Intramolecular force and weak Intermolecular forces.
e.g Diamond and Graphite

Intermolecular forces and Intramolecular forces

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES

Weak Strong

Acts between molecules Acts within the molecule

Properties of Covalent Compounds

-Have low melting and boiling point

Reason: because the intermolecular forces are weak, so not much energy is needed to
break them.
-
They are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol or methyl
benzene
Reason: because they do not have ions that can bond with water molecules.

33
-They do not conduct electricity.
Reason: because there are no ions present to carry current.
-They could be liquid, gases and solids at room temperature.

EXERCISE Questions:

PURE (Half page)

(Chem. Expression)
Page 97, Q 1,2,4

Metallic Bonding

-Atoms in metals are held together by metallic bonds.

-It is defined as a lattice of positive ions in a sea of mobile electrons.
-The electrons in the outermost shell of atoms in a metal are loosely held. They detach from
the atoms and become delocalised (spread throughout the entire structure). The atoms
become positively charged. This results in positive ions surrounded by a sea of mobile
electrons.

 Metals are good conductors of electricity because have a mobile sea of electrons.

ALLOTROPY/POLYMORPHISM

Allotropes: These are different structural forms of an element in the same physical state.

Allotropes of Carbon:
-Diamond
-Graphite

Diamond
Structure:
In diamond, every carbon atom is joined by covalent bonds (intramolecular forces) to four
others and the four atoms are arranged tetrahedrally.
diagram)Chem expression pg 100

34
Graphite
Structure:
Each carbon atom is bonded to three others by strong covalent bonds. There are lone (free)
pair of electrons which are delocalised and mobile. Atoms are arranged in layers which slide
over each other. Between the layers are weak intermolecular forces of attraction.
(diagram)Chem expression pg 101

Physical Properties of Allotropes

Property Diamond Graphite
Appearance Colourless Crystal which Dark grey solid
sparkles in light
Electrical conductivity Does not conduct electricity Conducts electricity because
because all electrons are used of the lone (free) pair of
for bonding mobile electrons.
Strength Very hard because of strong Soft because of weak bonds
and rigid bonds
Density More dense than graphite Less dense than diamond
Melting point High because of strong bonds Low because of weak bonds
that requires more heat that require less heat energy
energy to break to break.

Uses of Graphite
-Used to make electrodes because it can conduct electricity
-Used to make pencil leads because it is soft and have a slippery feel
-Used to make lubricants because it is soft and have a slippery feel.

Uses of Diamond
-Used to make jewellery and ornamental objects because it is shiny
-Used to make drill bits, diamond saws and glass cutters because it is hard and strong.

Silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2):

Structure:

35
Atoms are strongly and covalently bonded. One silicon atom is covalently bonded to four
oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom is bonded to silicon atoms forming an interlocking
structure which is strong.

Diagram

Uses of Silicon (IV) oxide

-Making window glasses and Ceramics.
-Used to make laboratory apparatus.
-Used in construction.

Silicon and Diamond:

-They both have hard structures.
-They both form a tetrahedral arrangement.
-They both cannot conduct electricity.

EXERCISE Questions:

PURE (half page)

(Chem. Expression)
Page 106, Q 1,3,4

CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

Element: a substance made up of only one type of atoms. Each element is represented by a
symbol.

Valency: this is the number of electrons gained, lost or shared by an atom during chemical
bonding. Valency gives us the bonding power of an atom.

Ions: electrically charged particles

36
Compound: substances that contain more than one sort of atoms that are chemically
combined.

Chemical Formulae: A short hand method showing how many atoms of each element
present in a compound.

Chemical Formulae of ionic compounds

To come up with the formulae of the ionic compound, one must know the ions involved and
follow certain steps.

.Steps followed when determining formulae of ionic compounds

 Name the compound
 List ions in the compound (cations and anions)
 Write the valency(number equal to the charge)
 Cross multiply
 Write the formula in its reduced simplest ratio.

NOTE: The overall charge in the formula of the compound should always be 0 because the
charges of cations and anions must balance.

Formulae of ions of some group elements in the periodic table

Group number Valency Charge of ion Formula of ion Example

1 1 +1 M+ Na+,K+,Li+
2 2 +2 M2+ Mg2+, Be2+, Ca2+
3 3 +3 M3+ Al3+, B3+,
5 3 -3 M3- N3-,P3-
6 2 -2 M2- O2-,S2-
7 1 -1 M- Cl-,F-,Br-

Example:

(a) Magnesium fluoride (b) Potassium oxide (c) Calcium oxide

EXERCISE: Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds:

(a) Calcium chloride (b) Sodium Oxide (c) Calcium sulphide

(e) Barium iodide (e) Aluminium oxide (f) Magnesium nitride

Formulae of Ions of the transition Metals

37
The ions of transition metals depend on the valency provided.

Element Valency Symbol Charge Formula

Zinc 2 Zn +2 Zn2+
Lead 2 Pb +2 Pb2+
Copper(I) 1 Cu +1 Cu+
Copper(II) 2 Cu +2 Cu2+
Nickel 1 Ni +1 Ni+
Iron(II) 2 Fe +2 Fe2+
Iron(III) 3 Fe +3 Fe3+
Manganese 4 Mn +4 Mn4+
Chromium 3 Cr +3 Cr3+
Silver 1 Ag +1 Ag+

Formulae of compounds with Ions of the transition Metals

The name of a compound that have transition metal ion has a roman figure that shows the
charge of that ion.

Example: (a) Copper (II) oxide (b) copper (I) oxide

EXERCISE: Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds:

(a) Iron(II) oxide (b) Iron(III) chloride (c) Chromium (III) bromide

(b) Copper (I) sulphide (e) Zinc oxide (f) Silver chloride

(f) Cobalt (II) chloride (h) Lead (IV) oxide

Formulae of Polyatomic Ions

These are ions made up of a group of atoms bonded together.

Note that the charge of a polyatomic ion belongs to the group as a whole and not one
particular atom.
Name of the Polyatomic ion Formula Valency
-
Hydroxide ion OH 1
Nitrate ion NO3- 1
2-
Sulphate ion SO4 2
Carbonate ion CO32- 2
3-
Phosphate ion PO4 3
-
Ammonium ion NH4 1
Permanganate ion MnO4- 1
2-
Dichromate ion Cr2O7 2
Hydrogen carbonate ion HCO3- 1

38
Formulae of compounds involving polyatomic ions
If a polyatomic ion is multiplied by a number more than 1, the polyatomic ion should be
placed in brackets and the number written as a subscript outside the brackets.
e.g OH X 2= (OH)2
NO3- x 3 = (NO3-)3

Examples (a) Iron (III) sulphate (b) Calcium carbonate

Exercise: Write the chemical formulae of the following:

(c) Calcium nitrate (b) Sodium sulphate (c) Copper(II) carbonate

(d) Iron(III) phosphate (e) Barium hydroxide (f) Ammonium phosphate

(g) Silver nitrate (h) Lead (II) nitrate

Alternative method of writing chemical formula of ionic compounds: (FOR PURE)

 Name the compound
 List ions in the compound (cations and anions)
 Balance the charges
 Write the formula in its reduced simplest ratio (only if possible)

Example:
(a) Barium sulphate b) aluminium oxide c) Iron(III) phosphate
Ions Cation Anion
Ba2+ SO42-
Balanc Ba++ SO4--
e 1 x Ba2+ 1 x SO42-
charges
Reduced formula: BaSO4

39
ACTIVITY: Advise learners to use method for the previous problems.

Formulae of common acids

HCl--------Hydrochloric acid
H2SO4----Sulphuric acid
HNO3--------Nitric acid
H2CO3--------------Carbonic acid
H3PO4 ---------------Phosphoric acid

Formulae of common gases

H2-------Hydrogen
O2-------Oxygen
Cl2--------Chlorine
Br2---------Bromine
F2----------Fluorine
N2--------------Nitrogen
NH3--------Ammonia
CO2----------Carbon dioxide
CO-------------Carbon monoxide
SO2-----------------Sulphur dioxide
SO3---------------Sulphur trioxide

Writing Chemical Equations

A chemical reaction is a summary of a reaction.
It shows how reactants are converted to products.

REACTANTS PRODUCTS

Examples:
(a) Word equation: expressed in words
sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water starch + oxygen
Chlorophyll

(b) Symbol equation: reactants and products expressed in their symbols.

sunlight
40
 6CO2 +6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
(c) Ionic equation: Is expressed in terms of ions (cations and anions).
e.g H+ + OH- H2O

Converting word equations into symbol equations

Example:

magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

Exercise: Convert the following word equations into symbolic equations.

(a) Zinc + Copper(II) Sulphate Zinc Sulphate + Copper

(b) Magnesium + Sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate + hydrogen

(c) Sodium hydroxide + Copper(II) Sulphate sodium sulphate + Copper(II)

hydroxide

(d) Calcium carbonate + Sulphuric acid calcium sulphate + water + carbon

dioxide
(e) Barium nitrate + Sodium sulphate Barium sulphate + sodium sulphate

(f) Iron(III) chloride + Ammonium hydroxide Iron(III) hydroxide +

Ammonia + chlorine
(g) Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
Balancing Chemical equations

ALL chemical equations should be balanced.

All balanced chemical equations respect the “LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS”

which states that there is no observable change in the overall mass during a chemical
reaction. i.e in chemical reactions, atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but only re-
arranged.

In a balanced equation, there should be equal number of each atom on both sides of the
equation.

41
Consider the following points when balancing an equation:

 Write the skeleton equation (an balanced equation with the correct formula of
reactants and products)
 Use coefficients to balance the equation (A coefficient is a whole number which is
placed behind a substance and it must multiply its whole formulae)
 Balance the atoms which appear in the fewest formulas first.
 Balance which appears in the most formulas last.
NOTE: Never change, add or delete any subscript in the formula of a substance

Example: Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

(a) Cu + O2 CuO

(b) CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

(c) Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2

EXERCISE:

Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

1. N2 + H2 N H3

2. Mg + HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2

3. Al + O2 Al2O3

4. FeCl3 + NH4OH Fe(OH)3 + NH4Cl

5. SO2 + O2 SO3

ACTIVITY: Advise learners to balance the equations under subtopic: Converting word
equations into symbol equations.

Assignment

Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

a) Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

b) Potassium bromide + chlorine potassium chloride + bromine

42
 State symbols in equation

A chemical equation can be made more useful by including symbols that give

Solid – (s)

Liquid – (l)

Gas - (g)

Aqueous (g)

GENERAL RULES FOR ASSIGNING STATE SYMBOLS:

1. METALS- solids
2. NON-METALS-gases that exist as DIATOMIC molecules.
3. METAL OXIDES- solids e.g CuO, MgO
4. NON-METAL OXIDES-gases e.g CO2,CO,SO2,SO3
5. CHLORIDES: all aqueous EXCEPT AgCl, PbCl2, and Mercury (HgCl2) which are
solids.
6. SULPHATES: all aqueous EXCEPT CaSO4, BaSO4, and PbSO4 which are solids.
7. PHOSPHATES AND CARBONATES-solids EXCEPT those of group 1 and
ammonium which are aqueous.
8. HYDROXIDES: solids EXCEPT of group 1, 2 and ammonium hydroxides.
9. NITRATES: All aqueous
10. ACIDS: all aqueous.

ACTIVITY: Advise learners to assign state symbols to all the equations given in the
previous exercises.

Ionic Equations

These equations show ions that take part in a chemical reaction.

How to write ionic equations

1. Write a balanced chemical equation with correct state symbols

2. Split or separate ONLY aqueous substances into ions (cations and anions).
3. Identify and cancel spectator ions. (Ions that do not take part in a reaction and appear
on both sides of the equation).
4. Write the net ionic equation.

Separating ions
(Refer to the Alternative method of writing chemical formula of ionic
compounds)

43
 Fomula: BaSO4

Ions Cation Anion

Ba2+ SO42-
1 x Ba2+ 1 x SO42-

MgF2 = 1 x Mg+2 + 2F-

H2SO4 = 2H+ + SO4-2
2HNO3 =2H+ +2NO3-
CuO =
BaCl2 =
CaCO3 =
(NH4)2SO4 =
Al(OH)3

Example: Write ionic equations for the following reactions:

(1) Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu

(2) CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
(3) MgSO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + MgCl2

Exercise: Write ionic equations for the following reactions:

(1) Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

(2) BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

(3) KCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl(s) + KNO3 (aq)

(4) NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl (aq) NaCl(aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l)

ACTIVITY: Advise learners to assign state symbols to all the equations given in the
previous exercises.

MOLE

-One mole is defined as the amount of a substance containing 6.02 x 1023 particles.

-Units of mole is mol.

-The number 6.02 x 1023 is known as the Avogadro’s number (constant), which is
represented by symbol NA.
44
 number of particles = NA x moles.

This equation can also be re-arranged to find the number of moles.

Particles can either be atoms, molecules or ions.

Example:

1) Calculate the number of water molecules in 0.1 moles of water.

2) Calculate the number of atoms in 2 moles of Carbon.
3) Calculate the number of moles in 3.01 x 1023 carbon dioxide molecules.

EXERCISE

(a) Calculate the number of particle in:

I. 0.125 moles of N2
II. 1 mole of SO2
III. 2.5 mole of C
(b) Calculate the number of moles in 12.04 x 1023

Moles and mass

 The relative atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is equal to the mass of one
mole of that element.

e.g

Number of moles Number of particles mass

1 mol Ca atoms 6.02 x 1023 40g
1 mol of Na atoms 6.02 x 1023 23g

 The relative molecular mass of a compound expressed in grams is equal to the mass
of one mole of that compound.

e.g

Number of moles Number of particles mass

45
1 mol O2 6.02 x 1023 32g
1 mol of H2O 6.02 x 1023 18g

 The mass of one mole of a substance is called its Molar Mass.The units for molar
mass is g/mol.

The relationship between mass, number of moles and molar mass is:

Moles (mol) = mass (g) /molar mass (g/mol)

(Triangle space)

Examples:
1) Calculate the number of moles in 80g of NaOH.
2) Calculate the mass of 1 mole of nitrogen.

EXERCISE:

1) How many moles are there in

(a) 11g of carbon dioxide molecule?
(b) 16 g of Oxygen
2) What is the mass of
(a) 3 moles of chlorine
(b) 4 moles of hydrogen chloride
3) Calculate the number of particles in
(a) 36 g of water
(b) 170 g of Ammonia
(c) 0.3 g of methane
(d) 16g of NH4NO3

moles and volume (in gases)

 It has been found that 1 mole of ant gas occupies a volume of 24dm3 at room
temperature and pressure(r.t.p)

e.g

Number of moles Number of particles Volume occupied at r.t.p

1 mol O2 6.02 x 1023 24dm3
1 mol of CO2 6.02 x 1023 24dm3

46
  24dm3/mol is the molar gas volume (the volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas)
 1dm3 = 1l = 1000cm3 =1000ml


Moles of any gas = volume (dm3)/24dm3/mol

Example

1) Calculate the number of moles in

a) 48 dm3 of oxygen
b) 240cm3 of nitrogen

EXERCISE

1) Calculate the number of moles in 12 dm3 of CO2

2) What is the volume occupied by
a) 0.5 moles of Ammonia?
b) 3.01 x 1023 molecules of sulphur dioxide.
3) Calculate the mass of
a) 12 dm3 of carbon dioxide molecules
b) 60 cm3 of chlorine molecules.

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

Empirical formula: This shows the simplest the simplest ratio of atoms present in a
compound.

Molecular formula: This shows the actual number of atoms present in a compound.

Example

Structure of the Compound Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

Ethene

Ethyl ethanoate

47
We can also find the empirical formula from the mass % composition or from the actual
masses of each element in a sample of the compound.

Example:

1) An oxide of magnesium contains 0.24g of magnesium and 0.16g of oxygen. Find the
empirical formula of the oxide.

Atoms in the compound Mg O

Masses
Moles
Divide by the small
number
Mole ratio
Empirical formula:

2) A sample of silicon oxide is found to contain 47% silicon by mass. Find its empirical
formula.
Atoms in the compound Si O
Masses
Moles
Divide by the small
number
Mole ratio
Empirical formula:

EXERCISE:

1) A sample of an oxide of copper contains 16g copper and 2 g of oxygen. Find the
empirical formula.

Atoms in the compound Cu O

Masses
Moles
Divide by the small
number
Mole ratio
Empirical formula:

2) A compound of sodium contains the following % composition by mass; 32.4% of

sodium, 22.6% of sulphur and 45.0% of oxygen. Find the empirical formula of this
compound.
Atoms in the compound Na S O
Masses
Moles
48
Divide by the small
number
Mole ratio
Empirical formula:
 3) A compound was found to contain 48.6% of Carbon, 43.2% of oxygen and the
remainder was oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

Atoms in the compound C O H

masses
Moles
Divide by the small
number
Mole ratio
Empirical formula:

DETERMINING EMPIRICAL FORMULA FROM EXPERIMENTS

When silicon is heated strongly, it burns to form an oxide of silicon. Use the following
experimental information to determine the empirical formula of an oxide of silicon.

Draw a labelled diagram of Apparatus used: (IGCSE Chem p.g 74)

(DEMONSTRATION

Mass of crucible 18.20g

Mass of crucible + silicon 18.48g
Mass of crucible + oxide 18.80g
of silicon
Mass of silicon used ________
Mass of oxygen which ________
49
reacted with silicon
Molecular formula : This shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in one
mole of a substance.

The molecular formula is normally a multiple of the empirical formula.

Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

Where n is a whole number.

n = Mr of a compound/ Mr of the empirical formula.

Example:

1) a) A hydrocarbon contains 80% Carbon and 20% hydrogen by mass.

Find the empirical formula.
Atoms in the compound C
Masses
Moles
Divide by the small
number
Mole ratio
Empirical formula:
c) If a compound has a relative molecular mass of 30, find its molecular formula.

EXERCISE

1) Deduce the empirical formula and the molecular formula of caffeine, a stimulant
found in coffee or tea. The mass of carbon =49.4g, oxygen = 16.5g, hydrogen = 5.2g
and nitrogen =28.9g in coffee. The molecular mass of caffeine is 194g/mol.
2) A compound is made up of 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen. Its relative molecular
mass is 30.
a) What is the empirical formula of the compound?
b) What is its molecular formula?

50
MOLES AND SOLUTIONS

If a substance is added to a liquid, it may dissolve to form a solution. The dissolved substance
called the solute and the liquid it has dissolved in is called the solvent.

CONCENTRATION /MOLARITY is the number of moles of a solute dissolved in a

certain volume of solvent.

Concentration = moles (mol) /volume (dm3)

Units of concentration: mol/dm3 or M.

Moles = concentration (mol/dm3) x volume (dm3)

Example:

a) Calculate the concentration of 0.1 moles in 25cm3 of HCl solution

b) Calculate the number of moles in 250ml solution of 0.1 mol/dm3 of calcium chloride.
c) Calculate the volume of 2.5 moles in a 0.1 M sodium chloride solution.

EXERCISE:

1) Calculate the amount of moles in

51
 a) 250 cm3 of 1.00M of NaOH
b) 0.75 dm3 of 1.25 M of Ca(OH)2
2) Calculate the volume of
a) 0.5 moles in a 0.2 mol/dm3 of CaCl2 solution
b) 1.0 moles in 1.00M of NaOH solution.
3) Calculate the concentration of
a) 0.5 moles in 250 ml of NaCl solution
b) 0.1 moles in 0.5 L of H2SO4 solution.
c) a solution of 20g of NaOH dissolved in 250cm3
d) a solution of 1.325g of KNO3 dissolved in 25cm3

ASSIGNMENT:

PURE: (Half page)

(IGCSE Chem p.g 74 Q 1b,2b, 3b, 4b,5b,6b,7b,8b.

Standard solutions: A solution of known concentration.

The instruments used to measure precise volume of liquids in the laboratory are:

-pipette

-Burette

-Volumetric flask

How to prepare a standard solution:

Example: Preparing 250 cm3 of a 1.0 M NaOH solution (DEMONSTRATE).

1) Calculate the mass to be weighed (if not given)

(Show calculations).

2) Weigh exactly 10.0 g of NaOH using a balance.

3) Dissolve the weighed NaOH in a beaker containing distilled water. Stir with a glass
rod until all the solid dissolves.
4) Pour the solution into a 250ml volumetric flask.

52
 5) Wash the beaker and the glass rod atleast twice with distilled water and pour the
washings into the volumetric flask.
6) Fill volumetric flask up with distilled water to the mark.
7) Close the flask and shake well. The solution will be exactly 1.0 M NaOH.

Making Solutions of Different Concentrations by Dilution

Dilution is reducing is reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent.

Formula used to solve problems involving dilution is:

M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = Concentration of the initial solution

V1 = Volume of the initial solution

M2 = Concentration of the final solution

V2 = Concentration of the initial solution.

Example: (DEMONSTRATE)

A 25.0 cm3 volume of 1M hydroxide was transferred to a volumetric flask and diluted to 250
ml.

a) Calculate the final concentration of the solution.

b) What is the volume of water added to dilute the solution to the concentration in (a)
above?

Top up to the mark

Transfer 50 cm3 with distilled water.

Volume added?

1 M NaOH standard solution

50 ml 250 ml
M1V1 = M2V2

53
M1 =

V1 =

M2 =

V2 =

EXERCISE

a) What volume of 0.788M Na2CO3 should be diluted to 150ml with water to reduce its
concentration 0.023M?
b) A 10.0 cm3 volume of 3M potassium hydroxide was transferred to a volumetric flask
and diluted to 250 ml. Calculate the final concentration of the solution.

c) Calculate the volume of 98 mol/dm3 sulphuric acid needed to make 500cm3 of 0.5
mol/dm3 sulphuric acid.

d) 32 mol/dm3 of HCl is available. 50 cm3 of this solution is diluted to reduce its

concentration to 6.4. What is the volume of water added?

e) How much water must be added to 100 cm3 of 80 mol/dm3 so that its concentration
becomes 5 mol/dm3.

54
STOICHIOMETRIC REACTING MASSES AND VOLUMES OF MATTER

From a balanced chemical equation we are able to calculate quantitatively the amount of
reactants required and products formed.

Steps to follow:

a) You need a balanced chemical equation (showing the relative number of moles of
each particle involved).
b) Identify any given parameter (mass, volume or concentration) of all substances.
 Calculate the number of moles of a substance with a given parameter.
 Mass of a solid/gas : use moles = mass/molar mass
 Volume of a gas use: moles = volume (dm3)/24dm3/mol
 Concentration and volume of a solution use : moles = concentration x
volume
c) Use the mole ratio to find the number of moles of a substance with an unknown
parameter. Note: mole ratio is given by balancing coefficients.

d) Calculate either the volume mass or volume by rearranging equations in (b) above.

55
Example 1: Calculate the volume of sulphur dioxide needed to produce 72.0 cm3 of sulphur
dioxide by combustion with oxygen.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)

Volume= 72.0cm3

Example 2:

Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide produced when 2.4g of magnesium reacts with
oxygen.

2Mg + O2 2MgO

Mass= 2.4 g

(a) Find the number of moles of Mg that reacted.

(b) Find the number of moles of MgO produced.

(c) Find the mass of MgO produced.

Example 3: 24.2 cm3 of a solution containing 0.20mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid completely

reacts with just 25.0.cm3 of a potassium hydroxide solution.

Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide in the solution.

56
 HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + H2O (g)

Volume= 24.2cm3 Volume= 25.0.0cm3

Concentration = 0.20
mol/dm3

EXERCISE:

1) 21.0 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate decomposes according to the reaction equation

below:

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

(d) Find the number of moles of NaHCO3 that decomposed.

(e) Find the number of moles of carbon dioxide produced.

(f) Find the volume of CO2 produced.

(g) Find the number of moles of Na2CO3 produced.

(h) Find the mass of Na2CO3 produced.

57
2) Hydrogen gas was burnt in oxygen to form 960 cm3of steam. The equation for the
reaction is shown below:

2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g)

(a) Calculate the number of moles of steam produced.

c) Find the number of moles of hydrogen burnt.

d) Find the volume of hydrogen burnt.

3) 5.3 g of sodium carbonate was reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. The equation
for the reaction is given below:

Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (g)

Calculate the volume of CO2

4) Given that 80cm3 of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) reacts with sulphur dioxide (SO2) to
form sulphur and water as shown by the equation below:

2 H2S (g) + SO2 (g) 3S (s) + H2O (l)

(a) Find the volume of CO2 produced.

58
 5) Calculate the mass of copper produced when 10g of copper (II) oxide reacts with
hydrogen.
CuO(s) + H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (l)

6) When 22.4 cm3 of a solution containing 0.10mol/dm3 of sulphuric acid completely

reacts with just 25.0.cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution.

Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide in the solution.

HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + H2O (g)

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS

% composition by mass of an element can be calculated using the equation below:

% composition = total mass of an element / mass of a compound x 100

Examples: Calculate the percentage of the following elements in CaCO3:

a) Calcium

b) Carbon

c) Oxygen

59
EXERCISE:

1) Calculate the % of the following elements in (NH4)2SO4

a) Nitrogen
b) Hydrogen
c) Sulphur
d) Oxygen

2) Calculate the % of water in CuSO4.5H2O.

Percentage yield

YIELD is the amount of product.

There is:

a) Theoretical yield: This is the expected amount of product according to a reaction

stoichiometry given the amount of reactants used. It should be calculated.
b) Actual yield: This is the amount of product obtained from the experiment. It is
usually less than the theoretical yield.

% yield = Actual yield / Theoretical Yield x 100

Examples:

1) 12g of magnesium is burnt in air to form magnesium oxide.

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

(b) Find the number of moles of Mg that reacted.

(c) Find the number of moles of MgO produced.

60
 (d) Calculate the mass of MgO produced.

e) If only 18g of MgO is produced, calculate the % yield.

EXERCISE

1) 20g of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is heated to form calcium oxide (CaO) and CO2.

CaCO3(s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

(e) Find the number of moles of CaCO3 that reacted.

(f) Find the number of moles of CaO produced.

(g) Calculate the mass of CaO produced.

f) If only 10g of CaO is produced, calculate the % yield.

2) 10g of copper (II) oxide was reduced in hydrogen.

CuO(s) + H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (l)

a) Calculate the expected mass of copper.

b) In an experiment, 7.4 g of copper was produced. Calculate the % yield.

61
 3) If 28g nitrogen was reacted with hydrogen, 3.4 g Ammonia was formed. Calculate the
% yield.

N2 (g)+ 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)

PERCENTAGE PURITY

Reactants are seldom pure, so the purity of a certain reactant can be calculated as:

% purity = mass of a pure substance/mass of an impure substance x 100

Example:

1) 15 g of impure magnesium was burnt in oxygen. It produced 20g of magnesium

oxide.

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

(h) Find the number of moles of MgO were produced.

(i) Find the number of moles of Mg that reacted.

(j) Calculate the mass of Mg that reacted.

62
 g) Calculate the % purity of Mg.

Exercise:

1) Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc according to the reaction equation:

Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 + H2

When 135g of impure zinc was reacted, it produced 48000cm3 of hydrogen gas.
Calculate the % purity of zinc.

Titration

This is a technique used to determine the unknown concentration of a solution. A common

example is the acid-base titration which involves the neutralisation reaction. (reaction
between an acid and alkali)

Acid – Base titration

Solutions used:

-Acid solution e.g HCL

-Alkali e.g NaOH

H+ Cl-

H+ Cl- HCl in a burette

(STANDARD SOLUTION)

63
 H+ Cl-

H+ Cl-

H+ Cl-

Na+ OH-
25.0 cm3 of 0.1 NaOH in a
Na+ OH-
conical flask

When the tap is opened, the acid flows into the conical flask.

 H+ + OH- H2O
 Na+ + Cl- NaCl

When the H+ has combined with all the OH-, the end point is reached and the tap should be
closed. The volume of the acid used is then recorded and used for calculations.

An indicator is used to detect the end point.

The colour of methyl orange in

 Acid = pink/red
 Neutral solution= orange
 Alkali = yellow

Apparatus

-Pipette

-Burette

-Pipette filler

-Filter funnel

-White tile

-Retort stand

-Conical flasks

-Beakers

(DEMONSTRATION)

64
 Advice learners to read the procedure on IGCSE CHEMISTRY (Page 107)

Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading/cm3
Initial burette reading/cm3
Volume used/ cm3
Best titration results(tick)
Average volume of the acid: ______________________

 Advice learners to identify titrated amounts before doing any calculation.

titrated Acid Alkali

amounts
Volume

concentration

Stoichiometry Calculations involved in titrations:

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:

1) MOLES
a) Mole ratio.
b)

Solids and gases Mole = mass/molar mass

Gases only Mole = volume (dm3)/24dm3/mol
Solutions only Mole= concentration x volume

2) PERCENTAGE

Composition % composition = total mass of an element / mass of a compound x

100

Yield % yield = Actual yield / Theoretical Yield x 100

Purity mass of a pure substance/mass of an impure substance x 100

EXAMPLE

65
titrated Acid Alkali
amounts
Volume

Concentration

66
(iii)Calculate the concentration of the acid.

(iv) Name a suitable piece of apparatus to measure 25.0 cm3 of sodium

hydroxide solution.

EXERCISE:

1. 8.5 g of impure sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water to make 1.0 dm3 solution S. To
determine it purity, 25cm3 of this solution was titrated with 0.1mol/dm3 of sulphuric acid.
24cm3 of sulphuric acid neutralized 25cm3 sodium hydroxide.

titrated Acid Alkali

amounts
Volume

Concentration

a) Calculate the number of moles of sulphuric acid that reacted.

c) The equation for the reaction is :

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)

Use your answer to (a) and the equation to calculate the number of moles of
sodium hydroxide that reacted.

d) Using your answer (b) calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide in 1.0
dm3 of solution S.

67
 e) Using your answer to (c), calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide in 1.0 dm3 of
solution S.

f) Calculate the percentage purity of the original 8.5 g sodium hydroxide used to
make 1.0 dm3 of solution S.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids: A substance that produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. OR a proton/H+
donor. All acids are aqueous and have a sour taste.

Examples

68
 acid Ions produced when dissolved in water
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) H+ and Cl-
Nitric acid (HNO3) H+ and NO3-
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 2H+ and SO42-
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 3H+ and PO43-

Basicity of an acid
It refers to the number of moles of hydrogen ion (H+) produced by one molecule of an acid.

HCl: mono basic

HNO3: mono basic
H2SO4: di basic
H3PO4: tri basic

Strength of an acid

Strength: refers to the ability to ionize/dissociate (forming ions)

Strong acids: Completely ionize/dissociate into ions when dissolved in water.

Examples: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4.

water
HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

 All HCl molecules dissociate and the resulting solution contains H+ + Cl- only.

Weak acids: Partially ionize/dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.

Examples: citric acid, carbonic acid and most organic acids like ethanoic acid. (CH 3COOH)
water
CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO- (aq) + H+(aq)

 Some CH3COOH molecules ionize and the resulting solution contains H+ , CH3COO-
ions and CH3COOH molecules.

Bases: Any substance that react with an acid to form salt and water only OR a proton/H+
acceptor.
-They have a bitter taste and a soapy feel.
-A base can either be a metal oxide, carbonate or metal hydroxide.
There are soluble bases and insoluble bases.

69
Examples:
Soluble bases Insoluble bases
Metal hydroxides of group 1, 2 and All other metal hydroxides
ammonium hydroxides
Carbonates of group 1 metals All other metal carbonates
Metal oxides of group 1 metals All other metal oxides

Soluble bases that produce OH- ion when dissolve in water are called alkalis.

Metal hydroxides of group 1, 2 and ammonium hydroxides are examples of alkalis.

Alkali Ions produced when dissolved in

water
Sodium hydroxide Na+ and OH-
(NaOH)
Lithium hydroxide(LiOH) Li+ and OH-
Potassium hydroxide K+ and OH-
(KOH)
Ammonia solution (NH3) NH4+ and OH-
(aq)

Strong akalis: Completely ionize/dissociate into ions when dissolved in water.

Examples: group 1 metal hydroxides: NaOH, LiOH, KOH.

water
NaOH (aq) Na+(aq) + OH- (aq)

 The resulting solution contains Na+ and OH- ions only.

Weak akalis: partially ionize/dissociate into ions when dissolved in water.

Example: Ammonia solution/aqueous ammonia.
water
NH3(g) NH+4 + OH- (aq)
(Ammonia)

 The resulting solution contains NH4+, OH- ions and NH3 molecules.

Concentration of an acid/alkali

It is defined as the number of moles of a solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent.

A concentrated acid/alkali contains more acid/alkali particles and fewer amounts of water
molecules.

70
A dilute acid/alkali contains more water molecules than the acid/alkali particles.

Effects of Acids and alkalis on indicators.

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkaline Colour in neutral

solution solution
Blue litmus paper Red Red Blue
Red litmus paper Red Blue Red
Methyl orange Pink Yellow Orange
Screened methyl Red Green Red
orange
phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless

The universal indicator.

It’s a mixture of indicators which gives different colours in solutions of different pH.

It does not only show whether a substance is acidic or alkaline, but also show the strength of
an acid/alkali.

Strong acid--------red

Weak acid---------yellow/orange

Neutral--------------green

Strong alkali--------violet/purple

Weak alkali---------blue

pH (Potential Hydrogen)

This is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It actually measures the
amount of hydrogen ions.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red yellow/ green violet/ blue
Orange purple
neutral
strong acids weak acids weak alkalis strong alkalis

Exercise: State the approximate pH and the color of the universal indicator in which of the
following substances:

Substance pH Color of the universal indicator

Citric acid
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

71
Dilute sulphuric acid
Ammonia solution
Dilute sodium hydroxide
Distilled water

ASSIGNMENT Match the following solutions with their approximate pH values. pH values
are 2, 6, 31, 1, 5, 9, 10, 14.
Solution
0.1 M HCl(aq)
1.0 M HCl (aq)
0.1 M CH3COOH(aq)
1.0 M CH3COOH(aq)
0.1 M KOH(aq)
1.0 M KOH(aq)
0.1 M NH3(aq)
1.0 M NH3(aq)

REACTIONS OF ACIDS

1) acid + metal
2) acid + metal carbonate
3) acid + metal oxide
4) acid + alkali

1) Acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.

E.g Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Methods of collecting H2 (g) produced:

Downward displacement of air Over water

72
Test for Hydrogen gas
Introduce the gas to the burning splint
Results: It will produce a pop sound

2) Acid reacts react with carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide.

e.g CaCO3(s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Methods of collecting CO2 (g)

Upward displacement of air Over water

Test for Carbon dioxide

Bubble the gas in limewater (calcium hydroxide solution)
Results: It will turn limewater milky/ white precipitate formed.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

If CO2 is bubbled for a longer period of time, the white precipitate (CaCO3(s)) dissolves to
form calcium hydrogen carbonate (Ca(HCO3)2)(s).

This is how the calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca (HCO3)2 is formed:

1) H2O(l) + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)

2) CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca(HCO3)2 (s) + H2O(l)

73
 3) Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water.

e.g CuO (s) + 2HCl (aq) CuCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

4) Acids react with alkalis to form salt and water. This reaction is called neutralization.

e.g NaOH (aq) + 2HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

REACTIONS OF ALKALIS

1) Alkalis react with acids to form salt and water (neutralization reaction).

e.g NaOH (aq) + 2HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

2) Alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce salt, ammonia gas, and water.

e.g NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) NaCl(aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O(l)

Method of collecting NH3 (g)

Downward displacement of air

Test for Ammonia gas

Introduce a gas to a damp red litmus paper.

Results
The damp red litmus paper turns blue.

EXERCISE

Complete the following equations:

74
 1) HCl (aq) + KOH(aq)

2) H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s)

3) Na2CO3(aq) + HCl (aq)

4) KOH (aq) + (NH4)SO4 (aq)

APPLICATION OF ACID/BASE REACTION IN DAILY LIFE

1) Treatment of Indigestion: Excess acid in the stomach leads to indigestion. This can
be neutralised by using anti-acids. e.g milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2).

2) Brushing teeth with toothpaste: toothpaste is alkaline it is therefore used to

neutralize the acid in the mouth produced by bacteria.

3) Treatment of Acidic Soils: acidic soils can be treated using quick lime (CaO) or
limestone Ca (CO3)2, which neutralize the acid in the soil.
4) Descaling kettles. Scale is caused by hard water. When you heat the water, deposits
of calcium carbonate form on the kettle element. Weak acid (vinegar) is used to
remove the scale.

5) Treatment of bee sting stings: Bees inject an acidic liquid into the skin (methanoic
acid). This can be neutralised baking soda (NaHCO3).

OXIDES
All metal oxides are solids.
Non-metal oxides are gases.

Classification of oxides.
a) Acidic oxides
b) Basic oxides
c) Amphoteric oxides
d) Neutral oxides

a) Acidic oxides:
-An acidic oxide is an oxide that reacts with a base to form salt and water as the only
products.

e.g 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) 1st stage

Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) 2NaHCO3 (s) 2nd stage

75
 - Acidic oxides are usually oxides of non-metals. Those that dissolve in water form
acidic solutions.
Examples: CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2, SiO2

Acidic Oxide In water Name of the solution

formed
Carbon dioxide (CO2) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 Carbonic acid
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) SO2 + H2O H2SO3 Sulphurous acid
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) SO3 + H2O H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) NO2 + H2O HNO2 + Nitric acid + nitrous acid.
HNO3
b) Basic oxides:

- An oxide that reacts with an acid to form salt and water as the only products.
Examples: Fe2O3, CaO.

CaO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

They are usually metal oxides. Group 1 metal oxides dissolve in water to form
alkaline solutions.
Basic Oxide In water Name of the solution
formed
Sodium oxide (Na2O) Na2O + H2O 2 NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Lithium oxide (Li2O) Li2O + H2O 2 LiOH Lithium hydroxide
Potassium oxide (K2O) K2O + H2O 2 KOH Lithium hydroxide

c) Amphoteric Oxides:
These are oxides that react with both bases and acids: e.g ZnO, Al2O3, PbO.

Reaction with alkalis

When reacted with alkalis, they give the following:
ZnO- Form salts called Zicates
Al2O3- Form salts called Aluminates
PbO- Form salts called Plumbates

Reaction with acids

e.g ZnO(s) + HCl (aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O (l)

d) Neutral oxides:
They do not react with either bases or acids.
e.g CO, NO, H2O, N2O5

ASSIGNMENT

Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride, carbon dioxide
and water as shown by the equation below.

76
CaCO3(s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Carbon dioxide produced is bubbled through calcium hydroxide solution (limewater).

Describe the color change that takes place when carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into limewater
containing universal indicator.

SALTS

A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal ions or
ammonium ions.

Parent Acids and Salts formed

Acid Salt formed

Hydrochloric acid Chlorides
Nitric acid Nitrates
Sulphuric acid Sulphates
Phosphoric acid Phosphates
Carbonic acid Carbonates

Types of salts
Normal salts – Formed when all H+ ions are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
Acidic salts- Formed when some of the H+ ions are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.

Solubility of salts
Salts can be soluble or insoluble.

Salt Soluble Insoluble

Chlorides Mostly soluble AgCl2, PbCl2, HgCl2
Nitrates All soluble None
Sulphates Mostly soluble CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4
Phosphates and Carbonates Group 1 and ammonium Mostly insoluble

Preparation of Salts
1) Soluble salts)

Soluble salts can be prepared by reacting:

77
 a) acid + insoluble base
b) acid + metal
c) acid + soluble base

Remember:

Soluble bases Insoluble bases

Metal hydroxides of group 1, 2 and All other metal hydroxides
ammonium hydroxides
Carbonates of group 1 metals All other metal carbonates
Metal oxides of group 1 metals All other metal oxides

a) Acid + Insoluble base

Example: Preparation of Copper (II) Sulphate:

Prepared by reacting copper (II) oxide (black solid) and sulphuric acid. Water will
also be produced.
CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Steps involved

1) Warm the acid. Avoid boiling otherwise the acid will dry up quikly.
Reason: To speed up the reaction

heat

2) Add copper (II) oxide in excess with constant stirring until it does not dissolve
anymore.
Reason: To ensure that all the acid has reacted.

Observations made when CuO is added to the acid:

-CuO dissolves
-Blue solution formed
-Bubbles produced

78
 3) Filter
Reason: To remove unreacted CuO

4) Collect the filtrate in an evaporating dish and heat it gently. Stop heating when
crystals start to appear.
Reason: To remove excess water

5) Leave the concentrated copper(II) sulphate to cool and crystallise.

6) Add a small amount of distilled water to wash the crystals.
(Small amount is used so that the crystals do not dissolve and form a solution)
7) Dry the crystals between sheets of filter paper.

b) Acid + metal
Example: Preparation of Magnesium chloride:
It can be prepared by reacting magnesium metal and hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen gas
will also be produced.

Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Steps involved

The method is generally the same as that for an insoluble base an acid.

c) acid + soluble base.

The method used is titration. The reaction between an acid and an alkali is a
neutralization reaction.

79
 Example: Preparation of Sodium chloride from sodium hydroxide and sulphuric
acid.

NaOH(aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Steps involved:

1) Pipette 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution in a conical flask and add few drops
of an acid-alkali indicator.
2) Add the hydrochloric acid with the burette until the end point is reached.
3) You can either add some charcoal to the mixture to remove the acid-base indicator
then filter to remove the charcoal
OR
Discard the solution and freshly pipette 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution in a
conical flask without the indicator and add the volume of the hydrochloric acid equal
to the end point.
4) Heat to concentrate the solution
5) Leave the concentrated solution to cool and crystallize.
6) Wash and dry the crystals.

ASSIGNMENT: Describe how the following salt can be prepared. Under each case, write
the name and the formula of the reactants used.

a) Potassium nitrate from an acid and a carbonate

Name of the acid:_______________ Formula:_________________

Name of the Carbonate_____________ Formula__________________

Balanced chemical equation:

Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

2) Insoluble salts
Insoluble salts are prepared by the PRECIPITATION method. This involves mixing
two solutions prepared from soluble salts. An insoluble + soluble salt will be formed.
A precipitate is a solid that forms in a solution.

80
Example: Preparation of Lead (II) sulphate using Lead (II) nitrate and sodium
sulphate.

Steps:

1) Prepare solutions (Lead (II) nitrate and sodium sulphate solutions)

2) Mix the solutions together. The insoluble salt will precipitate as the solid.

3) Filter to separate the insoluble salt from the soluble salt.

4) Wash the solid with little distilled water to remove impurities.

81
 5) Dry the salt.

Exercise:
Write the names of the reactants that can be used to prepare the following salts: Under each
case, write the balanced chemical equation and ionic equation for the reaction.

a) Lead(II) chloride

Reactants:__________________and_______________________

Balanced chemical equation:

Ionic equation:

b) Copper (II) carbonate.

________________ and___________________

Balanced chemical equation:

Ionic equation:

Water of crystallization
This is water molecules trapped inside the crystals. Water of crystallization gives crystals

82
shape and color.
When salt crystals have water of crystallization, they are called hydrated salts. Salt crystals
without water of crystallization are called unhydrous salts.

Examples:
a) Copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate
CuSO4.5H2O (Blue in colour)
b) Cobalt chloride hexahydrate
COCl2.6H2O (pink crystals)

Investigating the water of crystallization

Heat in
a) CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
Heat out

b) COCl2.6H2O COCl2 + 6H2O

Heat out

Test for ions:

83
We can conduct test to analyze and find out which ions (cations and anions) the salt contains.
Example:

84
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

This is the chemistry of carbon and its compounds. The compounds are called organic
compounds. They are found naturally in plants and animals.

Uniqueness/abilities of carbon
-Its atoms can link by covalent bonds which can be
.single
.double or
.triple

85
-The atoms can also link together to form long chains. These chains can be straight, branched
or cyclic (rings).

A homologous series

This is a family of carbon compounds that follow the same general formular. E.g alkanes,
alkenes, alkanols/alcohols, alkanoic acids/carboxylic acids, esters.
Homologous series General formula Functional group
Alkane CnH2n+2 Single bond
Alkene CnH2n -C=C- double bond
Alcohols CnH2n+1OH -OH (hydroxyl group)
Carboxylic acids C(n-1)H(2n-1)COOH -COOH(Carboxyl group)

Properties of a homologous series

Members of an homologous series have the following characteristics;
i. Similar chemical properties,
ii. Same general formular
iii. Consecutive members of a series increase by –CH2
iv. Methods of preparing compounds in the same series are the same.
v. Melting points, boiling points and density increase with increasing molecular mass.

ALKANES

Alkanes belong to an homologous series with the general formular C nH2n+2. They are referred
to as saturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated means –They consist of c-c single bonds
and Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only.
The names of the alkanes have the suffix –ane.
The following are the first five members:

Name Molecular Structural formular Condensed structural

86
 formular formular
Methane CH4
CH4

Ethane C2H6
CH3CH3

propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3

butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3

Pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

STRUCTURAL ISOMERS

Isomers are compounds which have the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae.
(Draw the isomers and indicate the isomer with high boiling point with a reason)

Butane, C4H10, has two isomers. One of them is;

87
n-butane
Draw the second isomer of butane. What is its name? (2- methyl propane)

Draw and name the isomers of Pentane, C5H12; (2,2-dimethyl propane and 2 –methyl
propane)

Properties of alkanes

Physical properties

1. Alkanes with longer chains have higher melting and boiling points than those with
short chains. If the length of the chain is equal, a molecule containing less number of
branches will have higher melting and boiling points.
This is because of greater intermolecular forces in molecules with long chains and
those that are less branched, that requires more heat energy to break.
2. Density increases from methane to the longest alkane (because of increasing
molecular mass).
3. Physical state at room temperature changes from gas to liquid and then solid.
eg. C1 to C4 = gases
C5 to C17 = liquids
C18 and above = Solids

Chemical properties of alkanes (ie. Their Reactions )

88
Alkanes are not very reactive because they are made up of single covalent bonds. They
undergo few reactions.

1) COMBUSTION.

a. Complete combustion: Alkanes burn in a plentiful supply of oxygen to form

carbon dioxide and water.
Eg. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -------- CO2 (g)+ 2H2O(g)
b. Incomplete combustion: When the supply of air is limited, a poisonous gas
called carbon monoxide is produced.
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) -------- 2CO (g)+ 4H2O(g)

2) SUBSTITUTION.
A substitution reaction is the one in which an atom of one element is replaced by an atom of
another element. Eg.

Reaction of methane with chlorine (chlorination of methane)

Methane reacts with chlorine in ultraviolet (U.V) light to form monochloromethane and
hydrogen chloride gas

 CH4(g) + Cl2(g) ------- CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

This reaction does not usually stop here, Some of the monochloromethane formed reacts with
more chlorine to form dichloromethane and hydrogen chloride gas.

 CH3Cl (g) + Cl2 (g)------ CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)

Some of the dichloromethane formed reacts with more chlorine to form trichloromethane and
hydrogen chloride gas.

 CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2 (g) ----- CHCl3(g) + HCl(g) kmk

89
Some of the trichloromethane formed reacts with more chlorine to form tetrachloromethane
and hydrogen chloride gas.

 CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) ----- CCl4(g) + HCl (g)

Compounds formed when alkanes react with halogens are known as halogenoalkanes. They
are of commercial importance. Trichloromethane, also known as chloroform, is used as an
anaesthetic. Tetrachloromethane is used to put off electrical fires.

Sources of alkanes

They are obtained from fossil fuels. These are fuels made from plants and animals that died
millions of years ago. They are:

- natural gas(which is mainly methane and very small quantities of ethane, propane and
butane).
-Petroleum (also known as crude oil).

Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons. These are separated by a method called fractional

distillation.
Fractional distillation of petroleum

In this procedure, components are separated because they have different boiling points.
Alkanes with longer chains have higher boiling points and are collected at the top of the
fractionating column. Those with shorter chains have lower boiling points and are collected at
the top of the column.

Low Temperature Petroleum gases

Petrol/gasoline

Paraffin/kerosene

Diesel

Crude oil Lubricating oil

(Petroleum)

90
 Bitumen
Question: The diagram above shows the levels at which come fractions condense.
1) Give the name of the fraction with
a) the lowest boiling point: Petroleum gases
Explain your answer: It consists of smallest molecules with weaker intermolecular
forces that require less heat energy to break.
b) Highest boiling point: Bitumen
Explain your answer: It consists of largest molecules with greater intermolecular
forces that require more heat energy to break.

Fraction Uses

Petroleum gases Fuel for stoves and lamps

Fuel for cars

Petrol
Fuel for jet planes, fuel for lamps and stoves
Paraffin
Fuel for heavy transport
Diesel oil
Make lubricants, waxes and polishes
Lubricating oil
Road making, roofing
Bitumen

Exercise:
1) Which one of the following is not an alkane?
A C2H6 B C4H10 C C6H14 A C8H16
2) The hydrocarbon, propane, is an important constituent of the fuel, liquid petroleum
gas (LPG). For the burning of propane in excess of air, give:
a) a word equation
b) a balanced symbol equation
c) Use you answer to part (a) to give the number of moles of water formed when
when 1 mole of propane is burned in an excess air.
3) Three fuels are petroleum gases, petrol, kerosene and diesel. Why are they used as
fuels? Because they consist of smallest molecules with lower boiling points (due to
weaker intermolecular forces). This makes them to burn easily and release lot of heat
energy during combustion.
4) Fluorine reacts with alkanes in a similar way to chlorine. Hydrogen fluoride gas is
made in the substitution reaction between propane and fluorine.
Propane + Fluorine Fluoropropane + hydrogen fluoride

91
 a) Draw the structure of fluoropropane.
b) Hydrogen fluoride (HF) dissolves in water to form aqueous hydrofluoric acid.
Use a dot and cross diagram to show bonding in aqueous HF.

ALKENES
-They have the general formula CnH2n
-They are unsaturated hydrocarbons. unsaturated means they contain C=C double bond
-Their names end with -ene
Name Molecular Structural formular Condensed structural
formular formular
Ethene C2H4 CH2CH2

C2H6 CH2CHCH3

Butene C4H8 CH2CHCH2CH3

Pentene C5H10 CH2CHCH2CH2CH3

Hexene C6H12 CH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH3

Structural Isomers of alkenes

Draw and name two structural isomers of the alkene butene

92
Properties of Alkenes

Physical properties

1) Alkenes with longer chains have higher melting and boiling points than those with
short chains. If the length of the chain is equal, a molecule containing less number
of branches will have higher melting and boiling points.
This is because of greater intermolecular forces in molecules with long chains and those
that are less branched, that requires more heat energy to break.
2) Density increases from ethene to the longest alkene.

Chemical properties of Alkenes

Due to the presence of the double bond, alkenes are very reactive. Other atoms can add at the
double bond.

They undergo the following reactions

2) COMBUSTION.

a. Complete combustion: Alkenes burn in a plentiful supply of air to form

carbon dioxide water
eg. C2H4 (g) + 3O2(g) -------- 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
b. Incomplete combustion: When the supply of air is limited, a poisonous gas
called carbon monoxide is produced.
e.g C2H4 (g) + 2O2(g) -------- 2CO(g) + 2H2O(g)

93
NB. Alkenes burn with a yellow sooty flame. This is because they have high carbon content.

3) ADDITION REACTIONS

(a) With Halogens

When ethene is shaken with bromine water, the bromine water is decolourised(changes from
brown to colourless). This particular reaction is used as a test for unsaturation. The new
compound formed is called 1,2-dibromoethane.

C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq) -------- C2H4Br2 (l)

Structural:

(b) With Hydrogen

Alkenes react with hydrogen to produce alkanes. This reaction needs nickel, palladium or
platinum as catalyst. A temperature of 1500C - 3000C is needed.

eg. Ethene will react with hydrogen to form ethane.

1500C - 3000C
C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) --------------- C2H6 (g)
Ni/Pt/Pd catalyst

structural

Hydrogenation reactions similar to the reaction with ethene are used in the manufacture of
margarine from vegetable oils.

(c) With Steam(Catalytic hydration of alkenes)

Alkenes react with steam to produce alkanols. This reaction needs:

- a catalyst of phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

-a temperature of 3000C
-a pressure of 60atm.

eg. Ethene reacts with steam to produce ethanol.

3000C + 60 a.t.m
C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) --------------- C2H5OH (l)

94
 H3PO4

3000C + 60 a.t.m
C4H8 (g) + H2O (g) --------------- C4H9OH (l)
H3PO4

Addition polymerization
The C=C double bond in an alkene enables many small molecules of that alkene to join to
each other to form a large molecule called polymer.

High pressure
e.g ethene-------------poly(ethene)
Heat,catalyst

Diagram:
Chemical test for unsaturation
-Shake the compound in bromine water/aqueous bromine (brown in color).
Results: If the compound is unsaturated, aqueous bromine changes from brown to
colourless.
-If the compound is saturated, aqueous bromine remains brown.
Sources of alkenes

Alkenes are obtained from long chain alkanes by a method called catalytic cracking.
Cracking is defined as the breaking down of long chain alkanes to shorter chain alkenes and
alkanes. This conditions required for this reaction is high temperature(5000C) and a catalyst
of chromium oxide or aluminium oxide.
eg. The cracking of dodecane in the laboratory. (copy diagram from GCSE Chem. Pg179,
figure 12.13.)

3000C

C12H26(g) C8H16 (g) + X (g)

Al2O3 /Cr2O3

Formular of X = --------------------------

Short alkanes obtained from cracking are of economic importance because they are mainly
used as fuels. This is because they consist of smallest molecules with lower boiling points
(due to weaker intermolecular forces). This makes them to burn easily and release lot of heat
energy during combustion.

95
 EXERCISE:
1) Propene gas is bubbled through aqueous bromine to form 1,2-dibromopropane is as
shown by the reaction below.
H H H

C C C + Br Br ?

H H

a) Draw the structure of 2-dibromopropane.

b) What is the name given to this type of reaction?

c) State the colour change when propene is bubbled through aqueous bromine?

Turns from________________ to __________________________

d) Write a symbol equation for the reaction between propene and steam, indicating
conditions required for the reaction.

SUMMARY (ALKANES AND ALKENS)

Homologous REACTION Condition/catalyst Examples

Series
Alkanes(C- C) a) Combustion
(saturated) -___________ Excess air/oxygen CH4 +2O2 CO2+2H2O
(CnH2n+2) -Incomplete _______________ 2CH4 +3O2 2__+4___
b) Substitution U.V Light CH4+Cl2 _____+HCl
( (monochloromethane)

Alkenes (C=C) a) Combustion

(CnH2n) -Complete ______________ C2H4 +3O2 2CO2+2H2O
(unsaturated) -Incomplete Limited air/oxygen C2H4 +2O2 2CO+2H2O
b) Addition reactions
C2H4 +Br2 ________
-With _______ NONE (1,2-dibromoethane)
(used to test for unsaturation
with (aq) Bromine)
__/Ni/__ catalyst, C2H4 +H2 ____
-With hydrogen 150-3000C ( _____)

C2H4 +H2O C2H5OH

96
 -With steam H3PO4 catalyst, ( ______)
____0C, ___ a.t.m

Addition polymerization
High pressure, heat,
catalyst

ALKANOLS (ALCOHOLS)

- Have the general formula CnH2n+1OH.

- Contain the hydroxyl group (-OH).
- Their names end with –ol

The following are the first 5 members of the alkanols

Name Molecular Structural formular Condensed structural

formular formular

Methanol CH3OH CH3OH

Ethanol CH3CH2OH
C2H5OH

97
 C2H7OH CH3CH2CH2OH
Propanol

Butanol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
C4H9OH

CH3CH2 CH2CH2CH2OH
Pentanol C5H11OH

Structural Isomers of alcohols

.Draw and name two structural isomers of butanol

Ethanol

Production of ethanol

It can be produced in two ways

1. Fermentation of simple sugars

- Glucose (sugar) can be converted to ethanol in a process called fermentation.

Glucose ------------- ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6H12O6(aq) -------- 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(aq)

This reaction needs a. warmth(temperature of 40oC)

b. Yeast enzymes(zymase and invertase)

2. Hydration of ethene

Ethene + steam ----------- ethanol

C2H4(g) + H2O(g) -----------C2H5OH(g)

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 - about 10% conversion / yield is achieved. Unused ethene and steam are recycled.
- The reaction needs
- Phosphoric acid catalyst,
- a pressure of 60atm and
- temperature of 300oC.

Reactions of Alkanols

1. COMBUSTION

-Alkanols undergo both complete and incomplete combustion.

Complete combustion.

C2H5OH(l) +3O2 (g) -------------2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Complete combustion.

C2H5OH(l) +2O2 (g) -------------2CO(g) + 3H2O(g)

2. OXIDATION

- Alkanols are oxidised to alkanoic acids (carboxylic acids) when

i. Reacted with acidified potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or acidified

potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7). Potassium dichromate changes colour from
orange to green and the permanganate changes from purple to colourless.
ii. Exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere(air)

C2H5OH(l) +2O2 (g) -------------CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)

3. ESTERIFICATION.

- Alcohols react with alkanoic acids to form a family of compounds called esters. The
reaction needs concentrated sulphuric acid and heat. The other product of this reaction is
water.

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Ethanol + Ethanoic acid ----- Ethyl ethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) ----- CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O(l)
Ethyl ethanoate(an ester)

Structural:

Esters have a sweet, pleasant smell and therefore are used in perfumes and as food
flavourings.

4. DEHYDRATION.

Ethanol can be dehydrated to form ethene by passing its vapor over heated aluminum oxide.

-H2O
C2H5OH (aq)---------------------C2H4(g)
Al2O3 + heat

5. REACTION WITH SODIUM

Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas.

C2H5OH (aq) + Na (s) ---------------------C2H5ONa(aq) + H2 (g) (balance the equation)

USES OF ETHANOL

-As a fuel (mixed with petrol to make fuel for cars)

-As a solvent
-As a constituent of alcoholic beverage

ALKANOIC ACIDS / CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

- have the general formula C(n-1)H2n-1COOH

- contain the carboxyl group (-COOH)
-Their names end with -oic
- Generally referred to as organic acids and are weak acids, but show reactions of acids,
- They are made from the oxidation of alkanols

The following are the first five members

100
Name Molecular Structural formular Condensed structural
formular formular
Methanoi HCOOH
c acid

Ethanoic CH3COOH
acid

Propanoic C2H5 COOH

acid

Butanoic C3H7COOH
acid

Pentanoic C4H9COOH
acid

Some common carboxylic acids

ACID SOURCE USES

-Oxidation of methanol As a solvent

Methanoic acid -Ant stings Used in leather tanning

-Oxidation of ethanol -solvent

Ethanoic acid/vinegar -In the manufacture of
glucose
Grapes -To make fizzy drinks
Tartaric acid -To increase food quality
-Used in metal cleaning
Citrus fruits(oranges and Formation of collagen
Ascorbic acid(vitamin C) lemons) which is used to make
Brightly coloured fruits connective tissue.
such as pepper and brocolli Prevention of scurvy

Citrus fruits(oranges and -To make fizzy drinks

Citric acid lemons) -To increase food quality

101
 Painkiller, reduce
Aspirin from salicyclic acid inflammation and fever

Reactions of Alkanoic acids:

They show reactions of all other acids:

1) acid + metal

CH3CO2H+ Mg Mg (CH3COO)2) + H2O

Magnesium ethanoate

2) acid metal carbonate BALANCE THE EQUATIONS

CH3CO2H+ MgCO3 Mg(CH3COO)2) + H2O + CO2

magnesium ethanoate

1. ESTERIFICATION.

Alkanoic acids react with alkanols to form esters. The reaction needs concentrated sulphuric
acid and heat. The other product of this reaction is water.

Ethanol + Ethanoic acid ----- Ethyl ethanoate + Water

C2H5OH(l) + CH3COOH(l) ----- CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l)
EXERCISE: Chemistry expression page 411 question 8 a) b) c) (quarter page)

SUMMARY

Homologous series Reaction Condition/catalyst Example

Alkanols (-OH) a) Combustion

(CnH(2n+1)OH) -_________ Excess air/oxygen C2H5OH+3O2 2CO2+3H2O
-_________ Limited air/oxygen C2H5OH+2O2 2__+3H2O
b)oxidation Acidified
C2H5OH+O2 CH3CO2H+H2O
_______/K2Cr2O7 or (___________)
atmospheric O2
c)esterification concentrated C2H5OH+ CH3CO2H
(reaction with H2SO4 CH3CO2C2H5 + H2O
alkanoic acid) (______________ ester)

Al2O3 C2H5OH __________

(ethene)
d)Dehydration
NONE C2H5OH+Na C2H5ONa +H2
e) With_________ sodium ethoxide)

102
 a) Esterification Concentrated C2H5OH+ CH3CO2H
Alkanoic acids H2SO4 CH3CO2C2H5 + H2O
(Cn-1H(2n-1)COOH) b) Reaction with (ethyl ethanoate ester)
CH3CO2H+ Mg
metal NONE _______________+H2O
(magnesium ethanoate)

c) Reaction with NONE CH3CO2H+ ______

carbonate Mg(CH3COO)2)+H2O+ CO2
(magnesium ethanoate)

MACROMOLECULES

-These are large molecules formed by joining small units called monomers.
-They are polymers.
Polymers are divided into two, namely;
-Synthetic polymers
-Natural polymers

Synthetic polymers can be synthesized in two ways, namely;

1) ADDITION POLYMERISATION
2) CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION

1) ADDITION POLYMERISATION
-Occurs when monomer units add together to form a long chain polymer.
-Monomer units are unsaturated (have a C=C double bond), with the following basic
structure: H H

C=C

H X

-During the polymerization reaction, the double bonds open up and form links with

103
 adjacent molecules to from a large molecule.

Examples:
1) Formation of Poly(ethene)
Monomer: Ethene, CH2=CH2

OR

when using the repeating unit.

Properties of polyethene

-Strong
-Durable
-Easily moulded.

Uses
-Used in making plastic containers, buckets and plastic bags

2) Formation of Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) or Poly(chloroethene)

Monomer: vinyl chloride or chloroethene, CH2=CHCl

104
Properties
-Strong
-Hard

Uses
To make PVC water pipes, surgical gloves and in electrical insulation

3) Formation of Poly(propene)
Monomer: propene, CH3CH=CH2

Properties
-Tough
-Durable

Uses
To make ropes and for packaging.

4) Formation of Poly(styrene)
Monomer: syrene, CH2=CHC6H5

105
Properties
-Light
-Poor conductor of heat

Uses
To in packaging boxes, to make disposable cups and for electrical insulation.

5) Formation of Poly(tetrafluoroethene)
Monomer: tetrafluoroethene, CF2=CF2

Properties
-Has a non-stick surface
-Can withstands high temperatures

Uses
To coat non-stick frying pans and pots.

ASSIGNMENT:

Chemistry Expression: page 426 question 2, 7 (a), (b), (c). (half page)

SUMMARY
Copy and complete the table below. The first part has been completed for you.

106
Polymer Monomer Use
Poly(ethene) ethene making plastic containers,
H H buckets and plastic bags

C=C

H H

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)

Poly(propene)

Poly(styrene)

(tetrafluoroethene)

2) CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION

Occurs when the monomer molecules which are arranged alternately link together form a
polymer and eliminate water molecules in the process.
Examples:
1) Formation of Nylon
Monomers: diamine and dicarboxylic acid

107
Uses of Nylon (Polyamide)

-Used in fabrics,
-Used to make ropes, fishing lines, jackets, boxes and bags.

2) Formation of Terylene (Polyester)

Monomers: dialcohol and dicarboxylic acid

Uses of Terylene (Polyester)

-Used in fabrics,
-Used to make sails for boats, parachutes and recording tapes.

Pollution problems caused by plastics

108
Plastics cause pollution because they are non-biodegradable, meaning that they cannot be
decomposed by microorganisms.

Advantages of Plastics:

-Cheap
-Easy to work with
-Colorful and attractive
-Protects products from contamination by dust and dirt.

Disadvantages
-Causes pollution
-Catch fire easily
-Kill and affect wildlife

Natural Macromolecules
They are the main constituents of food. E.g proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
They are also condensation polymers. Their monomers are their “end-products” of digestion.

1) Formation of Starch:
Monomer: glucose

Hydrolysis of Starch
-Hydrolysis: The breaking down of a compound by addition of water.
-Starch can be hydrolyzed to get back to glucose. In the lab, this is done by heating it in dilute
hydrochloric acid. The same reaction can be achieved by adding saliva and heating the
mixture at 400C.

2) Formation of Proteins

109
 Monomer: amino acids

Hydrolysis of Proteins
Proteins can be hydrolysed to amino acids by heating in hydrochloric acid. After hydrolysis,
the mixture of amino acids is separated by chromatography. Rf values are used to identify the
amino acids. If the amino acid is not visible on the chromatography paper, a substance called
a locating agent is sprayed on the paper to make them visible. A chemical called ninhydrin is
used. U.V light cabn also make amino acids visible.

Comparing Protein and Nylon

Similarity: They contain the same amide linkage
Difference:Nylon has two different monomers (dicarboxylic acid and diamine) while proteins
have 1 type of a monomer (amino acids)

2. Formation of fats:
Monomers: Fatty acids and glycerol

110
Comparing Fats and Terylene
Similarity: They both have ester linkage
Difference: They are made up of different monomers

Soap Formation
-The process involves making soap by heating or boiling fats in sodium hydroxide.
-The esters are broken down in the presence of water (hydrolysed)
This reaction is called Saponification

Glycerol stearate + sodium hydroxide----------------sodium stearate + glycerol.

ASSIGNMENT:

Chemistry Expression: page 426 question 1, 8 (a), (b), (c), (d). (Quarter page)

SUMMARY
Copy and complete the table below. The first part has been completed for you.

Polymer Monomer(s) Name of linkage

Nylon Dicarboxylic acid Amide linkage

and

Terylene

Protein

Starch

111
Fats

REDOX REACTIONS
A redox reaction is the reaction involving oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation Reduction
-Loss of electrons -Gain of electrons
-Gain of oxygen -Loss of oxygen

Oxidising Agents Reducing agents

-A substance that gains electrons from -A substance that loses electrons to another
another substance in a chemical reaction substance in a chemical reaction
-It gets reduced in a chemical reaction -It gets oxidized in a chemical reaction
-Non-metals are oxidising agents because Metals are usually oxidizing agents because
they usually gain electrons when they react. they lose electrons when they react.

Reactions
1) Fe2O3 +3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

- Fe2O3 is reduced because it has lost oxygen to form Fe

- CO is oxidized because it has gained O and form CO2

2) CuO +H2 Cu + H2O

-CuO is reduced because it has lost oxygen to form Cu /Also it is reduced because Cu2+ has
gained electrons to form Cu.
- H2 is oxidized because it has gained oxygen to form H2O.

Oxidation numbers/state

112
Rules for assigning oxidation numbers/state:
1) The oxidation number of atoms in an ionic compound is equal to the charge of its ions

-e.g NaCl
Na = +1, Cl = -1

2) In a covalent compound, the oxidation number is equal to the charge an atom will
have if it formed an ion.

-e.g H2O
H = +1, O = -2
3) The oxidation number of atoms in their elemental form is 0.

-e.g Zn = 0, Na = 0, Cl2 = 0, Br2 = 0, H2 = 0

4) Hydrogen always has an oxidation state of +1 EXCEPT when combined with metal.

-e.g CaH2
H = -1.
5) The total oxidation number in species such as SO42- is equal to the charge on it.

e.g In SO42- the oxidation number of the S and O will add up to -2.

Exercise:
1) What are the oxidation numbers in:
a) Mg b) Fe c) Cu d) Cl2

a) N2 f) I2

2) What are the oxidation numbers of

a) Sulphur in SO42- b) Nitrogen in N2O4

b) Sulphur in SO3 d) Fe in FeCl3

d) Nitrogen in NO f) Fe in Fe2O3

b) Nitrogen in NH3 h) Cu in CuO

c) Cu in Cu2O j) I in I2

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 k) I in KI l) Cr in K2Cr2O7

m) n) Cr in Cr2O3-2

 OXIDATION IS AN INCREASE IN OXIDATION NUMBER/STATE

 REDUCTION IS A DECREASE IN OXIDATION NUMBER/STATE

Examples:

1) 2Mg + SiO2 2MgO + Si

-Mg is oxidized because the oxidation number increased from 0 to +2.

-SiO2 is reduced because the oxidation number decreased from +4 to 0.

2) Fe + Cl2 FeCl2
- Fe is oxidized because the oxidation number increased from 0 to +2
-Cl2 is reduced because the oxidation number decreased from 0 to -1.

3) Fe2O3 +3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

4) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

5) CuO +H2 Cu + H2O

Testing for oxidising and reducing agents

Test Observation Unknown substance is:

Add an acidified aqueous Potassium iodide solution An oxidising agent
potassium iodide (KI). changes from colorless to
brown/dark brown due to the
formation of iodine.
Add an acidified aqueous Potassium dichromate Reducing agent
potassium dichromate solution changes from orange
(K2Cr2O7). to green
Add an acidified aqueous potassium permanganate Reducing agent
potassium permanganate solution turns from purple to
(KMnO4) colorless.

Common oxidising agents

114
-Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
-potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
-Chlorine (Cl2)
-Manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2)
-Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Common oxidising agents

Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H2).

Common Redox reactions

1) Rusting

4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s)

-Fe is oxisidised because the oxidation number increased from 0 to +3.

- O2 is reduced because the oxidation number decreased from 0 to -2.

2) Reactions of metal oxides with carbon, carbon monoxide or Hydrogen.

CuO +H2 Cu + H2O

3) Reaction of ethanol with air to form ethanoic acid.

C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O

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ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis is the process of breaking down a substance (ionic compounds) using electric
current.
1) Electrolyte: It is a compound that conducts electricity either in molten state or in
aqueous solution. It has to be decomposed. It should contain ions (cations and anions)
which are free to move.
2) Electrotes: Rods or sheets through which current enters and leaves the electrolyte
usually made up of unreactive metals. E.g Copper. Carbon can also be used.
-Anode- is a positive electrode. It attracts anions and it is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.
-Cathode- is a negative electrode. It attracts cations and it is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.
3) Switch- To switch on/off current.
4) Electrochemical cell: A system or apparatus where electrolysis takes place.
5) Non-electrolyte: A compound that does not conduct electricity.
6) Active electrode: Electrode that reacts with an electrolyte or products of electrolysis,
hence affecting the electrolysis process.
7) Active electrode: Electrode that does not reacts with an electrolyte or products of
electrolysis.

Electrochemical Cell

116
-Cations will be attracted to the cathode and anions will be attracted to the anode. This
flow of ions produces electric current inside the electrolyte.
-Electrons flow to the cathode (-ve) and cations receive them.

Ion migration

If the power becomes on, the ions migrate to the electrodes:

 Cations migrate to the cathode (negatively charged electrode)
 Anions migrate to the anode (positively charged electrode)

Ion discharge

Cations will be discharged at the cathode by gaining electrons. They form metal atoms.
e.g Cu+2(aq) + 2e Cu (s)
Hydrogen ion (H+) form hydrogen atoms which combines to give hydrogen molecule.

2H+ (aq) + 2e H2 (g)

These reaction are reduction.

Anions will be discharged at the anode by losing electrons. They form non-metal atoms,
which combine to form molecules.
e.g 2Cl-(aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e

In molten electrolytes, there are only two types of ions involved and they will all be
discharged.

e.g lead (II) iodide contains Pb+2 and I- ions.

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At the cathode At the cathode
Pb+2(aq) + 2e Pb (s) 2I-(aq) I2 (g) + 2e

In aqueous electrolytes, there are four types of ions involved. E.g Aqueous copper (II)
sulphate contains: Cu+2, SO4-2 (from CuSO4) and H+, OH- from H2O.
This means that there will be a completion of ions for the discharge at the electrodes.
i.e. At the cathode: Cu+2 competes with H+ and SO4-2 competes with OH-
Selective discharge of ions will be involved; only one ion should be discharged at each
electrode.

Factors affecting the discharge of ions at the electrodes:

1) Position of the ion in the electrochemical series:

Cations:
K+ NOT EASILY DISCHARGED
+
Na
Ca+2
Mg+2
Zn+2
Fe+2
Pb+2
H+
Cu+2
Ag+ EASILY DISCHARGED
Au
At the cathode, ions of more reactive metals e.g Na+ cannot be easily discharged, while ions
of less reactive metals e.g Cu2+ can be discharged easily.
Ions lower in the electrochemical series will be discharged in preference to the one above it.

Anions
CO3-2
SO4-2
NO3-
Cl-
Br-
I-
OH-

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Ions lower in the electrochemical series will be discharged in preference to the one above it.
CO3-2, SO4-2and NO3- are never discharged.

2) Concentration.
This onlyaffect negatively ions (anions). A more concentrated anion will be discharged in
preference to the less concentrated anion. E.g concentrated aqueous sodium chloride contains
more Na+ and Cl- and less H+ and OH-.
At the anode, Cl- will be discharged in preference to the OH-
Dilute aqueous sodium chloride contains less Na+ and Cl- and more H+ and OH-

3) Nature of the electrode used.

The nature of the electrode used can affect the discharge of ions.
Inert electrodes do not react with electrolyte and reactive electrodes react with the electrolyte.

Examples
1) Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) using carbon electrodes
(inert).
Ions present: Cu+2, H+, SO4-2, OH-

At the cathode: At the anode

-Cu+2 and H+ migrate to the cathode -OH-and SO4-2 migrate to the anode
-Cu+2 is discharged - OH- is discharged
Equation: -Equation:
Cu+2(aq) + 2e Cu (s) 4OH - 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e

Observations Observations:
-Brown deposits around the cathode Bubbles produced around the anode.

The electrolyte changes from blue to colorless due to the copper ions being converted to
copper atoms.

2) Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) using copper electrodes

(active).

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Ions present: Cu+2, H+, SO4-2, OH-

At the cathode: At the anode

-Cu+2 and H+ migrate -OH and SO4-2 migrate
-

-Cu+2 is discharged - OH- is discharged

Equation: -Equation:
Cu+2(aq) + 2e Cu (s) 4OH - 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e

Observations Observations:
- Cathode becomes thick Anode dissolve and become thin.

The electrolyte remains blue and the concentration remains because Cu+2 ions lost at the
cathode are replaced by the Cu+2 ions formed from the dissolving anode.

EXERCISE
3) Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Ions present: H+, Cl-, OH-

At the cathode: At the anode

-___ migrates -____ and ______ migrate
-_______ is discharged - _______ is discharged
Equation: -Equation:

Observations Observations:

-pale green colour

4) Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)

Ions present: Na+, Cl-, OH-, H+

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At the cathode: At the anode
___and___ migrate to the cathod -____ and ______ migrate
-_______ is discharged - _______ is discharged
Equation: -Equation:

Observations Observations:

-pale green colour

The electrolyte will become alkaline (Na+ and OH- ions) left combine to form sodium
hydroxide.

5) Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride (NaCl)

Ions present: Na+, Cl-,

At the cathode: At the anode

___ migrate ______ migrate
-_______ is discharged - _______ is discharged
Equation: -Equation:

Observations Observations:

6) Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) using carbon electrodes

Ions present: Na+, Cl-,

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At the cathode: At the anode
___ migrate ______ migrate
-_______ is discharged - _______ is discharged
Equation: -Equation:

Observations Observations:

Electroplating
It is the covering of an object with a thin layer of metal using electrolysis.

Important points:
-The object to be electroplated is made the cathode
-The metal used for electroplating is made the anode
-The electrolyte is a salt solution that contains ions of the metal used for electroplating.

Example:

Electroplating a nail with gold:

At the cathode: At the anode

Equation: Equation:

Observations Observations:

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Importance of electroplating

-Prevents corrosion
-Improves the appearance of an object.

Calculations in electrolysis

The amount of a substance liberated during electrolysis can be calculated and it depends on

i) the quantity of electricity/charge passed.

Quantity of electricity in coloumbs (C) = current (A) x time (s)

The charge in 1 mol of electron=96500 C

96500 C/mol is known as the faradays constant.
1mol of electron : 96500 C : 1F of charge.

ii) charge of the ion being discharged.

Charge of ion = valency (number of electrons lost/gained)

Things to also remember:

- mole ratio
-moles =mass/molar mass
-moles of a gas =volume (dm3/24dm3/mol

Example:
1) To improve the appearance of a bracelet, a jeweler coats it with silver. The bracelet
was used as an electrode during electrolysis reaction. The electrolyte was a solution of
silver a silver salt.

A steady current of 0.5A was allowed to flow for 32 minutes. A coating of silver was
formed on a bracelet. The faraday’s constant = 96500 coulombs per mole.

d) Name the electrode formed on the bracelet.

e) Calculate the total charge that flowed during the electrolysis in Coulombs.
f) Use your answer in (b) to calculate the number of moles of electrons that passed
through the circuit.
g) The formula of silver ion is Ag+. How many moles of silver were deposited?
h) What mass of silver was deposited?

123
 2) A charge of 144C flows through a solution of Gold (III) nitrate. What mass of the
metal is deposited.

Exercise Q1.

124
125
Q.2 The diagram shows a metal ring being electroplated with nickel.

a)i) From the diagram, identify the cathode and the electrolyte.
Cathode_____________________
Electrolyte_____________________

Nickel sulphate is a green solution which contains Ni2+ and SO42- ions.

ii) Write the ionic equations for the reactions taking pace at each electrode.
Anode:
Cathode:

iii)State two observations made during electrolysis:

b i. How many grams of nickel will be deposited by a current of 1.6 amps flowing for 1 hour
Faraday = 96000 C

ii) How long will it take to deposit one gram of nickel using a current of 6.00A.

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METALS

A metal is an element which aca ionize by loss of an electron.

The number of electrons lost is equal to the valency (charge) of the metal.

Physical properties
-They are hard
-They are shinny when polished
-They are malleable i.e they can be hammered into different shapes.
-They are ductile i.e can be drawn into wires.
-They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
-They are sonorous, produces a melodious sound when struck.
-They have high melting and boiling points and because of this they are usually solids at
room temperature and pressure, except for mercury which is a liquid at room temperature.

Chemical properties
-Metals lose electrons to form positively charged ions. Hence metals are said to be
electropositive.
Cu(s) Cu (aq) + 2e
-Most metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas.
e.g Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
-Metals form basic oxides when react with oxygen.
e.g Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
-Metals react with water to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas

E.g Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Reactivity series of metals

This is the arrangement of metals from the most reactive to the least reactive metal.
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
C
Zn
Fe
Pb
H
Cu
Hg
Ag
Au

To remember the reactivity series easily, try this

Please (K) Send (Na) Charles’s (Ca) Monkey (Mg) And (Al) Zebra (Zn) CARBON(C) In
(Fe) Lead (Pb) HYDROGEN (H) Cage (C) most (Hg) Securely (Ag) Guarded (GU)

127
Position of carbon and hydrogen in the reactivity series
Carbon and hydrogen are often included in the reactivity series of metals even though they
are non-metals.

a) Carbon
Carbon is included to show metals which can be extracted by using carbon as a
reducing agent.
Carbon is more reactive than the metals below it in the reactivity series and therefore
can reduce them from their ores.

e.g Zinc oxide + Carbon zinc metal + carbon dioxide

2ZnO(s) + C (s) 2Zn (s) + CO2 (g)

b) Hydrogen
Hydrogen is included to show the metals that can react with dilute acids and those that
cannot. Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series are unreactive with dilute
acids. These metals can be extracted from their compounds by using hydrogen as a
reducing agent.

e.g Copper (II) oxide + Hydrogen gas copper metal + water

CuO(s) +H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (g)

Apparent Unreactivity of Aluminium

Aluminium is relatively high up in the series, between magnesium and zinc. The expectation
is that it should be a reactive metal, but it behaves like an unreactive metal as aluminium
sauce pans do no react with steam or acids in the food during cooking. This is because
aluminium reacts with oxygen in air forming a layer of aluminium oxide which protects and
prevents further reaction of the metal.

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EXPERIMENTS TO SHOW ORDER OF REACTIVITY

1) Displacement reactions
Reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their solutions.
e.g Reacting a magnesium metal with copper (II) sulphate solution.

CuSO4 (aq) + Mg (s) MgSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Explanation: This is because the metal displaces the copper ions from the copper (II)
sulphate solution (blue) to form magnesium sulphate (colorless solution) and copper
metal (brown substance).

2) Reactivity of metals with water or steam

Most metals in the reactivity series react with either water or steam. The vigor of the
reaction decreases down the series.

metal reactivity water/steam products

K Reacts violently producing a flame Metal hydroxide
Na Reacts vigorously React with cold and Hydrogen gas
Ca React fast water

Mg Only heated metals react Metal oxides and

Al React with steam hydrogen gas
Zn
Fe
Pb NO REACTION Does not react No product is
Cu with steam or being formed
Ag water
Au

129
 3) Reactivity of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid
Most of the metals in the reactivity series react with dilute hydrochloric acid to
produce salt and hydrogen gas. The vigor of the reaction decreases down the series.
Metal + dilute hydrochloric acid salt + hydrogen gas
e.g Calcium + dilute hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + hydrogen gas

metal reactivity with dilute HCl

K Reacts EXPLOSIVELY
Na
Ca Only heated metals react
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe
Pb NO REACTION
Cu
Ag
Au

Exercise: By observing the reactions of metals with water and dilute sulphuric acid, it is
possible to put metals in order of their reactivity. A, B, C and D represent four metals.

a) Put the metals, B, C and D in order of their reactivity starting with the most reactive.
Action of Heat on Metal Compounds
1) Metal Carbonates.

Uses of Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

-It is used to make some drugs
-Used in paper making
-Used to make washing soda
-Used in sewage treatment plants to treat sewage

Uses of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

-Used in iron extraction
-Used to neutralize acidic soils
-Used in glass making
-Used to manufacture cement and concrete.

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 metal Metal Carbonate Examples
K DO NOT DECOMPOSE K2CO3 (s) NO REACTION
Na
Ca CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Mg (white) (White)
Al Decompose on heating to
Zn give a metal oxide and ZnCO3 (s) ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)
Fe Carbon dioxide White) *yellow when hot
Pb *white when cold
Cu
CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
(green) (black)
Ag Readily decompose
Au

Note: Decomposition gets easier down the series.

2) Metal nitrates
metal Metal nitrate Examples
K decompose on heating to 2KNO3 (s) 2KNO2 (s) +O2(g)
Na give a metal nitrite and 2NaNO3 (s) 2NaNO2 (s) +O2(g)
oxygen gas
Ca
Mg 2Zn(NO3)2 (s) 2ZnO(s) +
Al Decompose on heating to 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Zn give a metal oxide, oxygen
Fe gas and nitrogen dioxide
Pb gas 2Cu(NO3)2 (s) 2CuO (s) +
Cu 4NO2(g) + O2 (g)
Note: Decomposition gets easier down the series.

Test for nitrogen dioxide gas:

Test: Contact the gas with a damp blue litmus paper.

Result: The damp litmus paper turns red.

3) Metal hydroxides
metal Metal hydroxides Examples
K DO NOT DECOMPOSE KOH (s) NO REACTION
Na ON HEATING
Ca
Mg Zn(OH)2 (s) ZnO(s) + H2O(g)
Al Decompose on heating to
Zn give a metal oxide and
Fe steam Cu(OH)2 (s) CuO (s) + H2O(g)
Pb
Cu
Note: Decomposition gets easier down the series.

131
 4) Metal oxides
metal Metal oxides Examples
K DO NOT DECOMPOSE K2O (s) NO REACTION
Na ON HEATING
Ca
Mg 2ZnO (s) 2Zn(s) + O2(g)
Al Decompose on heating to
Zn give a metal and oxygen gas
Fe 2CuO (s) 2Cu (s) + O2(g)
Pb
Cu

Method of collecting O2 gas

Test for oxygen gas:

Test: Lower the glowing splint into the gas.

Result: The glowing splint relights if the gas is oxygen.

Exercise: The use of metals depends on their reactivity. The reactions of four metals R, S, T
and U with their metal nitrate solutions are shown. (These letters are not chemical symbols
for the metals)

a) Arrange the metals in order of decreasing reactivity starting with the most reactive.
b) Which metal nitrate from the table will most readily decompose when heated
132
 c) Name two gaseous products of the decomposition of the metal nitrate in (b) above.
d) Suggest which metal nitrate will decompose to a metal nitrite.

Extraction of metals from their ores

133
Metals are extracted from their ores. The methods of extraction are related to the reactivity of
the metals.

metal Methods of Extraction

K
Na
Ca By electrolysis
Mg
Al
Zn By reduction of heated metal oxide with coke (carbon)
Fe
e.g ZnO (s) + C (s) Zn (s) + O2 (g)
Cu By thermal decomposition of the metal sulphide

e.g CuS(s) Cu (s) + SO2 (g)

Ag
Au Occur naturally as free elements

Ores of some metals

An ore is a naturally occurring form of a substance from which a metal is extracted.

Metal Ore Chemical name of the Furmulae of the

ore compound
Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium oxide Al2O3.2H2O
Copper Copper pyrites Copper iron sulphide CuFeS2
Iron Hematite Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
Zinc Zinc Blende Zinc Sulphide ZnS

Extraction of iron
The main iron ore is haematite, form which iron is extracted. Extraction of iron is done in a
steel tower lined with a heat resistant, magnesium oxide bricks. The tower is called the blast
furnace because it is kept at very high temperatures.

Raw materials
-Iron ore-Haematite (which is mainly iron (III) oxide mixed with sand as an impurity)
-Limestone-Calcium carbonate
-Coke (Carbon)
-Hot air

Diagram of the blast furnace

134
The reactions that take place during the extraction of iron are:

1) Coke reacts with oxygen in air giving carbon dioxide gas.

C (s) + O2 CO2 (g)

This reaction is exothermic (releases heat energy).

2) Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke giving carbon monoxide gas.

CO2 (g) + C (s) 2CO (g)

3) Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent and it reduces the iron (III) oxide to iron metal
and carbon dioxide gas.

Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)

The liquid or molten iron trickles to the bottom of the furnace because it has high
density.

Removal of the impurities

Limestone is responsible for the removal of the impurities.

4) Limestone (Calcium carbonate) is decomposed by heat to calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide.
heat
CaCO3(s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Sand impurity (Silicon dioxide, which is an acidic oxide) reacts with Calcium Oxide
(basic oxide) giving slag (calcium silicate)

CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) CaSiO3(l)

The slag also trickles to the bottom of the furnace and float on top of the molten iron
because it is less dense than iron.
The slag is used in making road and buildings foundations.

135
 The iron obtained from the blast furnace is called ‘pig’ or cast iron. It is hard and
brittle, therefore it has limited uses. It is used to make car engine blocks, pots, drain
covers, Bunsen burner bases and gas cylinders. To improve its quality and increase its
uses, it is converted to steel.

The making of Steel

The cast iron produced from the blast furnace contains carbon, Sulphur, Silicon and
phosphorus as the main impurities. These impurities make the iron hard and brittle.
To improve the quality of the iron, the impurities are removed, hence steel is
produced. Steel is an alloy. The impurities are removed in the basic oxygen furnace.

Procedure:

-Molten iron from the blast furnace is poured into the basic oxygen furnace.
-A water cooled pipe is introduced into the furnace and oxygen at 5-15 atmospheric pressure
is blown onto the surface of the molten iron. The impurities are oxidized to their oxides:

Carbon to carbon dioxide gas (CO2)

Sulphur to Sulphur dioxide gas (SO2)
Silicon to solid Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Phosphorus to solid phosphorus (V) oxide (P2O5)
-The gaseous oxides escape into the atmosphere while the solid ones are reacted with calcium
oxide to form slag which is then poured off the furnace.
-Samples of the molten iron are then checked for carbon content
-When the required amount of carbon is reached, the blast of oxygen is stopped.

Types of Steel

136
Extraction of Aluminium

-The main ore of aluminium is Bauxite. It is an impure form of aluminium oxide (Al2O3).

-The impurities in the bauxite are –Iron(III) oxide and sand (silicon dioxide).

-These impurities are removed from the ore before it is electrolyzed.

-They are removed by treating the ore with concentrated sodium hydroxide.

-The pure aluminium oxide is called Alumina.

-Alumina has a very high melting point which is expensive to maintain and dangerous to
work at.

-The melting point of alumina is reduced by dissolving it in molten cryolite (Na2AlF6). This
saves a lot of energy which otherwise will have been used to melt aluminium.

137
The mixture of alumina and cryolite is then heated and electrolyzed in the Hall Herolt Cell as
shown below:

-The anodes are blocks of graphite which are lowered into the mixture of molten alumina and
cryolite.

-The cathode is the graphite lining of the steel vessel.

Ions in the electrolyte: Al +3 and O-2

At the cathode: At the anode

-Al+3 migrate -2
-O migrate
-A+3 is discharged - O-2 is discharged
Equation: Equation:
Al+3(aq) + 3e Al (l) 2O-2 O2 (g) + 4e
The molten aluminium collects at the Oxygen gas produced reacts with
bottom of the cell and it is syphoned the anode blocks. Therefore, are
out a regular intervals eaten up and needs to be replaced

Alloys

An alloy is a mixture of a metal and another element.

Alloys are meant to improve the physical properties of pure metals like strength, resistance to
corrosion and strength. E.g steel.

Other common alloys:

138
Uses of some metals:

1) Aluminium:

-It is used in the manufacture of aircraft bodies because of its low density and high
strength.
-Used for making food containers because of its resistance to corrosion.
-Used to make electrical cables.
-used to make cooking pots.

2) Zinc

-It is used for galvanizing iron because it does not corrode easily.
-In making outer casing of dry cells because it does not corrode easily.
-In making brass because it is decorative

139
3) Copper:

-In making electrical wires, cooking utensils, car radiators, hot water pipes.
-For making brass because it is decorative
-For making money coins because it is less reactive and does not corrode.

4) Iron

- Used in the making of motor car bodies

- Used in making of the construction materials.

-Used in the making of bridges.

-Used in the making of special steel.

140
NON-METALS

Chlorine:

Preparation of Chlorine

It is made by the oxidation of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Manganese (IV)

oxide/Manganese dioxide, MnO2 or potassium permanganate, KMnO4 are used as oxidizing
agents. When MnO2 is used, heat is required.

Thus, 2KMnO4 (s) + 16HCl (aq) 2KCl (aq) + 2MnCl2 (aq) + 5Cl2(g) + 8H2O (l)

OR

MnO2 (s) + 4HCl (aq) HEAT MnCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

Chlorine is passed through water before it is collected remove any hydrogen chloride gas
present and then passed through concentrated sulphuric acid to remove water or dry the
chlorine.

Method of collecting Cl2 (g)

Upward displacement of air

Test for Chlorine: Expose the gas to a damp litmus paper

Results: It bleaches a damp litmus paper.

Chemical properties of chlorine

141
 1) Reacts with all metals to form metal chlorides.

e.g 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl(s)

2) Reacts with water to form two acids; hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid/chloric
acid.

e.g H2O (l) + Cl2 (g) HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)

Hypochlorous acid slowly decomposes to liberate oxygen to the dyed forming a

colorless compound. This process is speeded by light.
HOCl (aq) + dye (dye-O) + HCl.

Question 1: Explain why dry chlorine will not bleach?

-For it to bleach, it needs to react with water to form hypochlorous acid which is
responsible for beaching.
Question 2: Explain why the dye material should be washed with water after it has
been bleached.
-To rinse/wash away the Hydrochloric acid produced during bleaching.

3) React with dilute sodium hydroxide to form sodium hypochlorite which also acts as
bleach.
Thus, Cl2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) NaOCl (aq) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Uses of Chlorine

-To sterilize water

-Used for making domestic bleaches

-Used to make plastics such as PVC

One of the important compounds of chlorine is sodium chloride.

Sources of Sodium Chloride:

-Sea water

-Salt pans e.g Sua pan

Extraction of Sodium chloride

The salt occurs as a saline liquid (brine) below the pan surface. The brines are pumped out
from the ground and poured into several evaporating pans where the water is evaporated by
the sun. Common salt then crystalises and is harvested, washed and dried before being sold.

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Uses of Sodium chloride

-To make table salt

-It is electrolyzed to produce three substances: chlorine gas, sodium hydroxide and hydrogen
gas.

NITROGEN

The Manufacture of Ammonia (Harber Process)

Nitrogen combines with hydrogen to produce Ammonia (Harber process).

Source of Nitrogen:

Nitrogen used in the harber process is obtained through fractional distillation of air.

Source of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is obtained from natural gas (methane).

Hydrogen and Nitrogen are then reacted in the ratio 3:1.

3H2 (g) + NH2(g) 2NH3 (g)

Conditions for manufacture of Ammonia

-Catalyst of Iron (Finely divided and freshly prepared)

-Temperature between 3500C and 5000C

-Pressure of 200 atmospheric pressure.

Uses of Ammonia

-Used in making artificial fertilizers.

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-Used in making nitric acid

-Used in the manufacture of bleaches.

-Used to make explosives

Exercise: (GCSE CHEM. P.g 226 Q1 a),b),c) and d)

Study the following reaction scheme:

a) Identify the substances A to F by giving their names and chemical formulae:

b) How is gas A obtained from the air?
c) Write a word and balanced chemical equation for the formation of ammonia gas from
gases A and B.
d) Write a balanced chemical equation for the formation of C from ammonia.

SULPHUR

Sources of Sulphur

-Natural gas

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-Volcanic regions of the world

-Copper pyrites (CuFeS2)

-Iron pyrites (FeS2)

-Zinc blende (ZnS)

Sulphur is used to make Sulphur dioxide gas, which is used to manufacture sulphuric acid.

Preparation of Sulphur dioxide

Sulphur dioxide is produced when a substance containing Sulphur is burnt in oxygen.

e.g Sulphur + oxygen Sulphur dioxide

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

Uses of Sulphur dioxide

-Used as a food preservative by killing bacteria

-Used as a bleach in the manufacture of wood pulp.

-Used to make fruits ripen faster.

-Used to remove impurities during the fractional distillation of crude oil.

-Used to manufacture sulphuric acid.

The manufacture of sulphuric acid (Contact process)

The process through which sulphuric acid is produced is called the contact process.

The process has the following stages:

1) Sulphur is burnt in oxygen to produce Sulphur dioxide

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

Dust and impurities are removed from the Sulphur dioxide produced.

2) The Sulphur dioxide is reacted with more oxygen to form Sulphur trioxide.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)

This is a reversible reaction.

Conditions for the reaction are: a) A catalyst of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)

b) A temperature of 4000C-5000C
c) A pressure of 1 atmospheric pressure.

The Sulphur trioxide produced can be reacted with water to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

145
 SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (l)

But this reaction is not done because the sulphuric acid produced is an acid mist which is
difficult to concentrate or collect.

3) Instead the Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid (98%) to give
a substance called OLEUM.

H2SO4 (aq) + SO3 (g) H2S2O7 (l)

Oleum
4) The oleum formed is then added to the correct amount of water to produce sulphuric
acid of the required concentration.

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)

Exercise: GCSE chemistry p.g 236 q. 5 a),b),c.i),d)

Study the following reaction scheme:

a) Identify the substances A,B,C,D, F and G by giving their names and chemical
formulae.
b) Write balanced a balanced chemical equation for the formation of gas B.
c) Describe a chemical test, and give the positive result of it, to identify gas D.
d) Describe how you would obtain solid crystals of C from the solution C.

ENERGY CHANGES
Chemical reactions involve energy changes.

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Exothermic reactions Endothermic reactions
-Releases energy to the surrounding -Absorbs energy from the surrounding
-Reaction vessel (container) feels hot -Reaction vessel feels cold
-Thermometer show rise in temperature - Thermometer show a decrease in
temperature
-AH is negative -AH is positive
-Energy required for bond formation is Energy required for bond formation is
greater than energy released during bond smaller than energy released during bond
breaking. breaking.

-Bond breaking is endothermic (AH is positive)

- Bond formation is exothermic (AH is negative)

Enthalpy change or heat of reaction (AH):

This is the amount of heat energy given out or absorbed during a chemical reaction.

Common Exothermic reactions:

1) Combustion
e.g Fuel + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water

CH4(g) +O2(g) CO2(g) +H2O (g)

2) Respiration
e.g C6H12O6 (aq) +O2 (g) CO2(g) +H2O (g)

3) Reaction of group 1 metals with water

e.g 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH(aq) +H2 (g)

4) Neutralization
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl(aq) +H2O (l)

Common Endothermic reactions:

1) Photosynthesis
2) Thermal decomposition – Most compounds need heat to break down.
3) Decomposition of silver salts in photograph. A photographic film is coated with silver
halide. E.g AgBr. When exposed to light, the silver ions gain an electron and form
silver atoms.

Ag+(aq) + 1e Ag (s)

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS

Both exothermic and endothermic reactions can be represented by energy level diagrams. In
the diagrams, the activation energy is also shown.
Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy that is required to break bonds so that the
reaction can start.

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Exothermic reaction

Since energy is lost to the surrounding, the products will have lower energy. The enthalpy
change, AH is negative.

Exothermic reaction

During an endothermic reaction, heat energy is absorbed by the reactants from the
surrounding. The reactants gain energy so the enthalpy change, AH is positive.

Bond energy
Substances contain a certain amount of energy which is stored in bonds. The bond energy is
the energy stored in 1 mole of a bond. It is usually shown in bond energy table and it is used
to calculate AH (enthalpy change).

Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol

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C-O 435
O=O 497
C=O 808
H-O 464
C -C 347
C-O 358
H-H 436

Calculating AH (enthalpy change).

Consider the equation below

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O (g)

1) Calculate the total energy for bond breaking.

2 x (H – H) + 1 x (O = O)
2 x (436) + 1 x (497)
= +1369 kJ/mol (endothermic)

2) Calculate the energy for bond formation

2 x 2 x (H – O)
2 x 2 x (464)
= -1856 kJ/mol (exothermic)
3) Calculate the enthalpy change, AH.

AH = energy for bond breaking + energy for bond formation (include the signs)

+1369 kJ/mol + (-1856 kJ/mol)

AH = -487kJ/mol (reaction is exothermic)

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Exercise

1) An energy diagram for the production of ethanol by the addition of steam is shown:

On the diagram label W,X,Y and Z.

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The equation for the production of ethanol by addition of steam to ethene is as shown:

The bond energy of one mole of each type of bond in the compounds in the equation is given
below:

Use the information to calculate:

1) The total energy that takes place when all bonds in 1 mole of ethene are broken.

2) The total energy that takes place when all bonds in 1 mole of steam are broken.

3) The total energy that takes place when all bonds in 1 mole of ethanol are formed.

4) The total energy change (AH) for the reaction shown by the equation.

5) Is the reaction endothermic or exothermic?

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 6) State the conditions necessary for the production of ethanol by addition of steam to
ethene.

3. The table below gives the energy required to break some bonds. The number of bonds
broken is the same in each case.

The energy required to break a bond is the same as the energy given out of the bond when is
formed. In the presence of sunlight, methane will react with chlorine as in the equation.

a) Calculate the energy for bond breaking and for bond frormation.

b) Calculate the enthalpy change.

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A simple cell
It involves the concept of reactivity series of metals and electrolysis.

When a piece of zinc is connected with a wire to a piece of copper and both dipped into the
electrolyte solution (H2SO4), the following observations are made:
 The voltmeter will report the voltage reading as an electric current will flow through
the wire.
 At the same time, most of the bubbles of hydrogen will appear on the copper plate
instead of the zinc.

How a simple cell works:

1) The zinc metal being more reactive than copper, ionizes in the H2SO4 to form zinc
ions and electrons.

Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e

The electrons flow from the zinc electrode through the wire to the copper wire electrode.
Because zinc is oxidized and is the electrode at which the anions are discharged, the zinc
electrode is defined as the anode.

2) At the copper electrode, Hydrogen ions from the H2SO4 are reduced to hydrogen gas
by gaining the electrons.

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 2H+ (aq) + 2e H2 (g)

The copper electrode is defined as the cathode as it is from here that electrons are
gained and a reduction of hydrogen ions occurs.

RATE OF REACTIONS

The rate at which something occurs means how much time it takes to occur. Reactions
involve changes. One or more substances called reactants are converted to produts.

Example:
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
(Reactants) (Product)
The speed at which reaction occur varies. They may take a very short time measured in
milliseconds or they may take longer times measured in days, weeks, months or years.

Measuring the rate of Reactions

We measure the rate of reactions by measuring the quantity that changes during the reaction.

e.g a) The amount of reactants that are used up per unit time
b) The amount of products made per unit time.

Example:

When calcium carbonate reacts with an acid, a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas are
produced.

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

The rate can be determined by measuring:

-reduction in mass of calcium carbonate used every few seconds
-The decrease in concentration of HCl every few seconds
-The increase in mass of calcium chloride salt produced in the solution every few seconds
-The volume or mass of carbon dioxide gas produced every few seconds

The first three measurements would be very difficult to carry out.

The volume of carbon dioxide gas can be measured every few seconds if it is collected in a
piece of apparatus as shown below:

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Factors affecting rate of chemical reaction
-Temperature
-Concentration
-Surface area
-Pressure
-Catalyst

Collision Theory

For a reaction to proceed, particles must collide, therefore produce energy. Those particles
producing energy that is more than the activation energy form products.

Note: Not any collision can give a product, but only successful collisions does.

1) Temperature
-As the temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases.
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction.

Explanation: As the temperature is increased, particles gain kinetic energy and move faster,
therefore increasing the chances of successful collisions.

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 2) Concentration

High concentration means there are lot of particles.

Low concentrations means there are few particles.
The higher the concentration, the higher the rate of chemical reaction.
Explanation: At high concentrations, there are more particles. This increases the chances of
successful collisions.

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 3) Surface Area

Large Surface Area (Powder) Small surface area(Lumps/granules)

Has small particles Has big particles
Reaction is very fast because particles are Reaction is very slow.
small, therefore increases chances of
successful collisions.

4) Pressure

High pressure gives fast reaction because there are more collisions between particles.
It only affects reactions involving gases.
At high pressure, the number of particles per unit volume (concentration) becomes high and
at low pressure the concentration becomes low.

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 5) Catalyst
A substance that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction and remain unchanged at the end of
a reaction. The addition of a catalyst makes the reaction go faster by increasing the number of
collisions between particles.

Enzymes:

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts.

Difference between enzymes and other catalysts

Enzymes Catalyst
Living Non-living
Specific to a certain reaction Can be used in different reactions
Work best at optimum temperatures and pH Works at a wide range of temperatures
Made up of proteins Made up of transition metals.

Uses of Enzymes:
-Used in baking
-Used in diary industry
-Used in brewing/winery industry

Some daily applications of speeds of reaction:

Cooking.
When cooking food, high temperatures are used to cook it faster.
Refrigeration.
Food is kept at low temperatures in refrigerators to slow down the process of decay.
Medicinal tablets/pills intake

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To make certain medicines work faster, they are often taken in powder form with warm
water.

Question:

Hydrogen peroxide decomposes according to the equation:

2H2O2 2H2O + O2

The addition of solid manganese (IV) oxide to the hydrogen peroxide causes the
decomposition to take place rapidly. 1.00g of manganese (IV) oxide was added to 100cm3 of
hydrogen peroxide solution at 250C. The volume of oxygen released was measured at 10
seconds intervals and recorded in the table below:

Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(s)
Volume 0 60 90 105 112 116 118 120 120 120
(cm3)

a) (i) Plot the volume of oxygen against the time on the graph paper and use your graph
to answer part (iii) and (iv) below.

(iii) What volume of oxygen was collected in the first 8 seconds?

(iv) How long did it take to collect 100cm3 of oxygen?
(v) Why did the volume not increase beyond 120cm3?

b) A second experiment was performed. It was identical to the first except that the
hydrogen peroxide was cooled to 50C before starting the experiment.
(i) Sketch a curve, on the same grid as your graph in part (a) which would represent the
results of the second experiment. Label this curve ‘second experiment’.
c) What is the purpose of manganese (IV) oxide in these experiments?

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

These are reactions that can go backward or forward depending on the conditions.

A+B AB

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The double arrow shows that the reaction is reversible.
An equilibrium is established during a reversible reaction.
Equilibrium- It is a point where by the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the
backward reaction.At equilibrium, the amount of products and reactants does not change, it
remains the same.
-Dynamic equilibrium: The chemical reaction continues to happen at equilibrium point.
-Static equilibrium: The chemical reaction stops at equilibrium point.

A reaction at dynamic equilibrium can be made to shift backward or forward by changing any
of the following:
-Concentration
-Temperature
-Pressure

The direction at which the reaction will shift can be predicted using Le Chatelier’s principle.
It states that:

“When a change is brought to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift to counter the
effect of that change.”

1) Effect of Concentration.
Increasing the concentration of one substance in the mixture makes the equilibrium move in
the direction that produces less of a substance.
Example:
1) Consider the following reaction at equilibrium:

N2 + 3H2 2 NH3

What will be the effect of;

a) Adding N2: -Favors the forward reaction
-More ammonia produced

b) Adding H2 : Favors the forward reaction

-More ammonia produced

b) Removing NH3 as soon as it is formed: -Favors the forward reaction

-More ammonia produced
d) Adding NH3: -Favors the backward reaction
- more N2 and H2 formed

2) Effect of Temperature
Increasing the temperature makes the reaction move in the direction that takes in heat.

The AH given in the equation for a reversible reaction is for the forward reaction.

If the forward reaction is exothermic (AH is negative)

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-Increasing temperature will favor the backward reaction.
-Decreasing the temperature favors the forward reaction.

If the forward reaction is endothermic (AH is positive)

-Increasing temperature will favor the forward reaction.
-Decreasing the temperature favors the backward reaction.

e.g For the reaction shown:

N2 + 3H2 2 NH3 AH = -184 kJ/mol

What will be the effect of:

a) Increasing temperature
-Favors backward reaction

b) Decreasing temperature
-Favors forward reaction

CaCO3 CaO +CO2 AH = +100 kJ/mol

c) Increasing temperature
-Favors forward reaction

d) Decreasing temperature
-Favors backward reaction

Effect of Pressure
This only affects reactions involving gases. Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium in
the direction that produces fewer gas molecules. When it is reduced, the reaction shifts shits
to the side with more gas molecules.

e.g 2NO2 (g) N2O4

e) Increasing pressure
-Favors the production of N2O4

f) Decreasing temperature
- Favors the production of NO2.

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 Exercise

1) Predict which reaction will be favored.

Reaction Increasing Pressure Decreasing pressure

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO4 (g)
C(s) + H2O(g) CO (g) + H2(g)
N2 (g) + O2(g) 2NO (g)
H2 (g) + I2(g) 2HI (g)

2) How can you increase the yield of ammonia in the harber process?

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3 AH = -184 kJ/mol

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CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT

WATER:

Chemical test for water:

1) Use anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.

In the presence of water, it changes from white to blue.

CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O

(White) (Blue)

2) Use anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride.

COCl2 + 6H2O COCl2.6H2O

(blue) (pink)

Some terms related to water:

1) Hydration: Addition of water to an anhydrous salt. E.g CuSO4 + 5H2O

CuSO4.5H2O.
2) Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down by
addition of water. E.g proteins + water amino acids.
3) Drying: Physical removal of water from a substance. e.g through evaporation.
4) Dehydration: Removal of water by a chemical method to get a new substance.

H2SO4
E.g C2H5OH C2H4.

(-H2O)

5) Hygroscopy: A compound that absorbs water without any physical change in its
state. E.g Concentrated sulphuric acid absorbs water in the atmosphere; anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate absorbs water to be hydrated.
6) Deliquescent: A solid compound that absorbs water from the atmosphere to form
a solution. E.g Sodium hydroxide and Calcium chloride.
7) Efflorescence: A compound that losses its water of crystallization when exposed
to the atmosphere. Eg sodium carbonate decahydrate.

Na2CO3.10H2O Na2CO3.H2O + 9 H2O.

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Hard water-This is water that does not form lather easily with soap.
Hard water reacts with soap to form scum.

What causes hardness in water?

-Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions dissolved in water makes it hard.

How Does hard water forms?

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rain water to form carbonic acid. The acidic
rain water flows through rocks containing limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (mixture of
MgCO3 and CaCO3), dissolving them to form soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate and
Magnesium hydrogen carbonate which makes water hard.

CO2 (g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

2H2CO3 (aq) + CaCO3(s) Ca (HCO3)2(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Some rocks contain gypsum (Calcium sulphate) and Kieserite (magnessium sulphate). The
two salts are slightly soluble in water and cause hardness.

Types of water hardness

There are two types of water hardness:
-Temporary hardness
-Permanent hardness.

Temporary hardness:
It is caused by dissolved magnesium hydrogen carbonate (Mg (HCO3)2) and dissolved
calcium hydrogen carbonate (Ca (HCO3)2).
It is called temporary hardness because it can be easily removed by boiling.
On boiling, the salts are changed into insoluble magnesium and calcium carbonates. These
carbonates are the white layer that forms on cooking pots, hot water pipes and kettles. The
white layer is also called fur.

HEAT
Mg (HCO3)2(aq) MgCO3(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

HEAT
Ca (HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Permanent hardness
It is caused by dissolved magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) and dissolved calcium sulphate
(CaSO4).
It is called permanent hardness because it cannot be removed by physical processes such as
boiling. It is removed by chemical means.

Examples:
1) Use of washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O)
The solid removes calcium and magnesium ions which make water hard. These ions are

164
precipitated out of the water by the carbonate ions from the washing soda.

Mg2+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) MgCO3(s)

Ca2+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)

2) Distillation
It involves boiling the water and condensing the vapour. The water is collected as the
distillate while the salts remain behind.

3) Using ion exchange

Calcium ions and magnesium ions that make water hard are exchanged for sodium ions that
does not cause hardness in water.

165
How to measure hardness in water.

The amount of soap needed to form lather can be used to estimate the hardness of water.
Water with more dissolved Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions will take more soap to form lather. This
wastes soap because it forms scum.

Example:

The table below shows the results and conclusions made form a series of experiments carried
out to measure the hardness of different water samples:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hard water:

Advantages:

-Calcium ions in hard water are essential for strong bones and teeth.

-Coats lead pipes with a thin layer of lead sulphate and prevents lead poisoning.

-Good for brewing beer.

-Has a nice taste.

Disadvantages

-Causes kettles to form fur.

-Can block hot water pipes.

-Can spoil the finish of synthetic fabrics.

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 How a detergent works

Soap is covalent at one end and ionic at the other end. The ionic end is hydrophilic (bonds to
water) and the covalent end is lipophilic (bond to grease).

Simply; soap is represented as :

Lipophilic end
Hydrophilic end

The sequence shown below shows how grease oil is removed by a detergent:

Water Pollution

It can be caused by:

a) Fertilizers washed down into rivers from farms. These contain a lot of phosphates
and nitrates which lead to the exponential growth of algae.
b) Sewage effluent. It is high in phosphates and nitrates too. If not well treated, it can
contain harmful bacteria like E.coli.
c) Detergents. If large quantities of detergents from factories remain in rivers, they can
form a blanket of foam on the surface of water. This can lead to the reduced amount
of oxygen dissolved in water. As a result, aquatic life dies. This is called
eutrophication.
d) Industrial waste. Fish and other forms of aquatic animals trap some of these
pollutants in their bodies and the poison can be passed up the food chain.

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 e) Oil spillage. There is always a risk of oil spillage (crude oil) as it is being transported.
It is immiscible with water, therefore floats on top of water and kills a lot of aquatic
life.

Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D)

This measure of the scarcity of oxygen dissolved in water that supports a lot of aquatic
life. It is measured in milligram per liter (mg/L). Polluted water has a high B.OD.

AIR

Composition of clean air:

Nitrogen (78%)

Oxygen (21%)

Carbon dioxide (0.03%)

Water vapour (varies)

Fractional Distillation of Air

Steps:

1) Air is passed through fine filters to remove dust.

2) The air is then cooled to about 1800C to remove water vapour and carbon dioxide.-
Water is removed by……………………………………….
-Carbon dioxide is removed by………………………………
3) Next, the cold air is compressed to about 100 atmospheric pressure. This warms up
the air, so it is passed into a heat exchanger to cool it down again. The liquid air forms
at -2000C.
4) Liquid air is then passed into a fractionating column and fractions collected and
stored separately in large tanks/cylinders.
(Diagram)

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 Uses of Oxygen
-Used for welding
-Used in hospitals for patients with breathing difficulties.
-In the manufacture of steel.
-Used by astronauts for breathing
-Used in rockets engines.

Common air pollutants

Pollutant Source Effects Prevention

Carbon monoxide -Car exhausts -Prevent oxygen -Use of catalytic
-Burning fuels in an transport in the body. converters.
enclosed area. -Maintaining car
engines regularly.
Sulphur dioxide -Combustion of fuels -Cause acid rain -Use de-sulphurised
containing Sulphur which damages fuels.
compounds. buildings and kill -Use scrubbers (to
plants. remove SO2 from
waste gases).
Oxides of nitrogen -Car exhausts -Cause acid rain -Use of catalytic
which damages converters.
buildings and kill
plants.
Lead compounds -Car exhausts -Causes brain -Use unleaded petrol.
damage especially in
children.
High level of CO2 -Combustion of fuels -Causes acid rain -Afforestation
-Deforestation -Lead to global -Use alternative
-Veld fires warming sources of energy e.g
wind, solar energy.
Chlorofluorocarbons -Aerosol sprays -Damage the ozone - CFC free sprays.
(CFC’s) -Some fridges layer

Ozone Layer

Ozone (O3) is an unstable allotrope of oxygen. It is formed when oxygen molecules are stuck
by high frequency radiator called cosmic radiation.
.
O + O2 u.v O3

Ozone is unstable. It absorbs light and decomposes.

Importance of Ozone layer

It prevents harmful ultraviolet (U.V) light rays from reaching the earth. U.V light can cause
skin cancer and damages to the eye. Some gaseous compounds destroy the ozone layer. E.g
CFC’s (Chlorofluorocarbons) found in fridges and sprays.

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 Recycling

Definitions: -Re-use of waste materials

-Reclamation of waste materials

-Reprocessing of waste materials so that it can be re-used.

Some problems caused by the chemical industry:

-Extraction of minerals can destroy large areas of land.

-The burning of coal during production of electricity and melting of metals causes air
pollution

-Wastewater containing dissolved chemicals from metal ore purification processes may cause
water pollution.

-Some chemical processes such as smelting produce a lot of waste gases that pollute the air.

-Depletion of natural resources.

Importance of recycling:

-Prevents pollution

-Saves money

Conserve natural resources.

Examples of materials recycled

-Paper

-Metals

-Plastic

-Glass

-Water

Sources of energy

Fuels: A fuel is a substance used as a convenient source of energy.

Fuels release energy when they are burnt, fuel burning is therefore exothermic.

The energy released was stored in the bonds of the fuel molecules.

Common fuels contain the element carbon. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are released
when these fuels are burnt.

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Renewable fuels – Can be replaced or manufactured in a short period of time. E.g wood,
ethanol and hydrogen.

Non-renewable fuels – Cannot be replaced in a short time. E.g fossil fuels (coal, crude oil
and natural gas).

Some examples of energy sources, their advantages and disadvantages

Charcoal- is a fuel that is formed when wood is heated in the absence of oxygen.

Biogas-methane generated by digestion of animal waste and plant waste.

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