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SOCSCI 11
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Psychology as a Tool for Personal Development

★ Psychology
○ The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
○ Using a systematic approach to avoid personal biases
○ Refers to all of our outward or overt actions and reactions
★ History and Background
○ “The true self is not the body but the soul (mind)” - Plato
○ “The self cannot exist without the body or the soul since the former and the
latter are not mutually exclusive. The self is a unified creature.” - Aristotle
○ “The brain and the mind are not the same thing. The brain (Pineal Gland) serves
as the connection between the mind and the body. The brain is a physically
changeable thing which is why it is not the actual mind. On the other hand, the
mind is whole and indivisible.” - Descartes
○ Gustav Fechner
■ Founder of Psychophysics
■ On the relationship of physical stimuli and mental phenomena:
● The degree of stimulation is relative to his or her own feeling of
sensation
○ Hermann Von Helmholtz
■ The qualities of sensations belong only to our nervous system
■ Perceptions as an “unconscious inference” in which representations of
the physical world could be uncovered and understood by means of the
information stemming from the senses
★ Pioneers in Psychology
○ Wilhelm Wundt - Father of Psychology
■ Consciousness
 ● A stature wherein people can be aware of the external events,
could be broken down into emotions, experiences, thoughts, and
other basic elements
■ Our own thoughts and mental activities can be objectively examined and
measured through objective introspection
○ Edward Titchener - Structuralism
■ Every experience could be broken down into its individual emotions and
sensations
○ William James - Functionalism
■ Animals and people whose behavior helped them to survive would pass
those traits on to their offspring by means of mechanism of heredity
★ Goals of Psychology
○ To describe
■ Description provides observations
○ To explain
■ Explanation helps build the theory
○ To predict
■ Prediction helps determine what will happen in the future
○ To control
■ The purpose of control is change or modifying behavior
★ Psychology as a Science
○ Determine facts
○ Reduce uncertainty and bias
○ Through Scientific Approach and Methods of Psychology
○ Scientific Approach
■ A system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data
■ Perceiving the question
■ Forming a hypothesis
■ Testing the hypothesis
■ Drawing conclusions
■ Report your results
○ Methods of Psychology (Descriptive Data Collection Methods)
■ Naturalistic Observation
● Observe people or animals in a natural environment
■ Laboratory Observation
● Observe people or animal in a laboratory/controlled setting
■ Case Studies
● Detailed investigations of 1 subject
 ● Researchers try to learn everything they can about an individual
■ Surveys
● Involve asking standardized questions of large groups of people
that represent a sample of the population

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ThinkBit#1: Adjectives for Self

- I am bubbly, spontaneous, fearless

- How are these adjectives similar and different from each other?
- Do they agree with the assessment of personality given to them?

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Modern Perspectives in Psychology

● Modern Perspectives
○ Biological
■ Focuses on biological bases of behavior and mental processes
■ Examines how genetics, neurochemistry, brain structures, and hormones
influence our thoughts, emotions, and actions
■ The Nervous System
● A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of
the body
■ Neuroscience
● Deals with the structure of the brain and components of the
nervous system
■ Structure of the Neuron (The Nervous System’s Building Block)
● Neuron receives and sends messages within the nervous system
● Soma contains the nucleus
● Dendrites receives messages
● Axon carries messages
● Glial Cells
○ Myelin insulates axons and speeds up the transmission of
neural messages
 ○ Schwann cells produce myelin in the peripheral nervous
system
○ Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the central nervous
system
○ Biopsychological
■ Focuses on the influence of biological events (such as hormones, brain
chemicals, and genetics)
■ Human and animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the
body
○ Evolutionary
■ Focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics that
humanity shares
○ Cognitive
■ Focuses on how people think, remember, store, and use information
■ Studies on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem
solving, language, and learning
○ Psychodynamic
■ Modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the
development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a
person’s behavior other than sexual motivations
● Conscious motivations
● Unconscious mind
○ Behavioral
■ Focuses on how environmental factors (stimuli) affect observable
behavior (response)
■ Views people and animals as controlled by their environment
■ How are Behavioral Responses Learned?
● Classical Conditioning
○ A process where a particular reflex (involuntary reaction)
could be caused to occur in response to a formerly
unrelated stimulus
● Operant Conditioning
○ States that behavioral responses that are followed by
pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced
○ Humanistic
■ Humanism as the “3rd Force” in Psychology
■ Focuses on human potential free will, and possibility of
self-actualization
 ■ Humanists held the view that people:
● Have Free Will - the freedom to choose their own destiny to direct
their own lives
● Strive for Self-actualization - the achievement of one’s full
potential
■ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

■ Roger’s Person-Centered Approach

○ Sociocultural
■ Focuses on the behavior of individuals as the result of the presence of
other individuals, as part of groups, or as a part of a large culture
■ Questions how human behavior differs or is similar in various social
and/or cultural settings
● Too shy to get the last piece of food
■ Combines 2 areas of study:
 ● Social Psychology - study of groups, social roles, and rules of
social actions and relationships
● Cultural Psychology - study of cultural norms, values, and
expectations
■ Bystander Effect (discovered by Dr. Darley and Dr. Latané)
● No one helps the victim when there are people around

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Psychology of Stress

★ What is Stress?
○ The term used to describe the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral
responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging.
★ Stressors
○ Are stress-causing events
○ Can come from within a person or form an external source; They can even be
imaginary
○ Can range from relatively mild to severe, from the merely irritating to the deadly
serious
★ Stressors may Result in
○ Distress
■ Occurs when people experience unpleasant stressors
○ Eustress
■ Is the optimal amount of stress that people need to promise health and
well-being
★ Kinds of Stressors – What Causes Stress?
○ Environmental Stressors
■ External sources of stress
■ Catastrophes
● Unpredictable, large-scale events that cause overwhelming
feelings of threat
● They create a tremendous need for people to adapt to such
events
■ Major Life Changes
● Stress does not only come from largely negative events
 ● With adjustments and changes being the core of stress, stress is
present even in relatively ordinary life experiences
■ Hassles
● The bulk of our stress typically comes from the annoyances of
everyday life
○ Psychological Stressors
■ Internal source of stress
■ Pressure
● Experienced when there are urgent demands or expectations for
a person’s behavior coming from an outside source
■ Uncontrollability
● The less control a person has, the greater the degree of stress
■ Frustration
● The psychological experience produced by the blocking of a
desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need
● Kinds of Frustration
○ External
■ Losses
■ Rejections
■ Failures
■ Delays
○ Internal
■ Occur when the goal or need cannot be attained
because of internal or personal characteristics

😩
● Typical Responses to Frustration
○ Persistence

👊
■ To face the challenge
○ Aggression
■ Usually physical

👻
■ You want to throw something
○ Withdrawal
■ You completely shut off and ignoring everything
■ Conflict
● When you find yourself torn between 2 or more competing and
incompatible desires, goals, or actions
● Different Forms of Conflict
○ Approach-Approach “Win-Win Situation”
 ■ Both goals are desirable; the only stress involved is
having to choose between them, acquiring one
and losing the other
○ Avoidance-Avoidance “Lose-Lose Situation”
■ Since all choices are unpleasant, people may avoid
making a choice by delaying decisions
○ Approach-Avoidance
■ Only involves one goal or event that is marked by
both positive and negative aspects, which may
cause people to vacillate
■ Like when you want to eat a cake (positive), but
also wants to avoid gaining weight (negative)
○ Multiple Approach-Avoidance
■ The choice is between 2 or more goals that have
both positive and negative elements to each,
which leads to vacillation
★ Stress & Health
○ Physiological Factors of Stress
■ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
● Part of the human nervous system that is responsible for
automatic, involuntary, and life-sustaining activities
■ 2 Divisions of the ANS
● Sympathetic
○ It is the “fight or flight” system that reacts when the
human body is subjected to stress
● Parasympathetic
○ This system returns the body to normal, day-to-day
functioning after the stress has ended
■ General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
● The classic theory of the body’s physiological reactions to stress
○ 1 Alarm
○ 2 Resistance
○ 3 Exhaustion
○ Cognitive Factors of Stress
■ Lazarus’ Cognitive Appraisal Approach
● An individual’s appraisal of a stressor is a major factor in
determining how stressful that stressor becomes.
■ 2-step Process:
 ● Primary Appraisal
○ Involves estimating the severity of the stressor and
classifying its as a threat, challenge, or loss already
occurred
● Secondary Appraisal
○ Involves the estimation of resources available to cope
with stressor
★ Social Support System
○ The network of family, friends, neighbors, coworkers, and others who can offer
support, comfort, or aid to a person in need
○ Benefits of Interpersonal Support when Dealing with Stress
■ Good social support (that can take in the form of advice, physical or
emotional support, love and affection, or companionship) is of critical
importance in a person's ability to cope with stressors.
■ Social support can make a stressor seem less threatening because people
with such support know that there is help available.
■ “There is no greater wealth in this world than peace of mind.”
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Coping Strategies

★ Problem-focused Coping
○ Aims to reduce or eliminate the stressor itself
○ Direct acts to address the source of the stress
○ These strategies may magnify emotional distress if changing or eliminating the
problem is too difficult
★ Emotion-focused Coping
○ Aims to reduce or eliminate the emotional impact of the stressor
○ Acts that seek support, perspective, or comfort from others or yourself
○ Mindfulness Meditation
○ In some cases emotion-focused coping is not an appropriate strategy
○ There is a risk of ignoring the problem
★ Mindfulness-focused Coping
○ “Mindfulness means maintaining a moment-by-moment awareness of our
thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment, through a
gentle nurturing lens.”
○ “...maintaining a moment-to-moment awareness…”
■ An exercise in the present
● Taking, noticing, or paying attention to the moment exactly the
way it is or exactly as it presents itself.
○ “...awareness of our thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding
environment…”
■ Attention to different aspects
● We extend our attention to the self, others, our surroundings, and
even beyond
○ “...through a gentle nurturing lens.”
■ Non-judgemental
● Accepting moments, even those that are unpleasant, is central to
mindfulness practice. Nothing is right nor wrong.
○ Studies on Mindfulness
■ Anxiety
● Allows for better responses to stressful situations, to realize the
transience of difficult emotions as well as to accept them
● Passing, it will eventually go away
 ■ Depression
● Decreases cases of rumination allows us to pay attention to our
experiences instead of losing ourselves in them
● Mindfulness does not cure depression, but it helps
■ Neurology
● Increase neuroplasticity, decreases rate of cortical decline,
increase rate of gyrification
■ Physical Health
● Helps relieve stress, treat heart disease, lower blood pressure,
reduce chronic pain, improve sleep, and improves gastrointestinal
difficulties
○ Body Scan and Basic Mindfulness
■ Nadi Shodhana
● Alternate nostril breathing
■ The 4-7-8 Technique
● When you want to relax a kind of breathing technique done in
4-7-8 systems
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ThinkBit#2: Chronic Stressors

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Psychology as an Aid of Learning

★ Theories of Intelligence
○ Spearman’s g-factor & s-factor
■ The g-factor was the ability to solve and analyze problems. (GENERAL
Intelligence)
■ The s-factor was intelligence that was task-specific such as in music , art,
or business. (SPECIFIC Intelligence)
○ Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
■ Expanded Spearman’s factors into three major types of intelligence:
● Analytical Intelligence
● Creative Intelligence
● Practical Intelligence
○ Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence
■ Suggests multiple intelligences beyond problem-solving or a single
g-factor
■ Proposed 8 intelligences
● Intrapersonal
○ Understanding yourself, what you feel, and what you want
● Spatial
○ Visualizing the world in 3D
● Naturalist
○ Understanding living things and reading nature
● Musical
○ Discerning sounds, their pitch, tone rhythm, and timbre
● Linguistic
○ Finding the right words to express what you mean
● Bodily- kinesthetic
○ Coordinating your mind with your body
● Interpersonal
○ Sensing people’s feelings and motives
● Logical-mathematical
○ Quantifying things, making hypotheses and proving them
● Existential
 ○ Tackling the questions of why we live, and why we die
○ Other concepts in Intelligence
■ Crystallized vs. Fluid
● Fluid Intelligence
○ Global capacity to reason
○ Ability to learn new things
○ Think abstractly and solve problems
○ Changes
● Crystallized Intelligence
○ Prior learning and past experiences
○ Based on facts
○ Increases with age
○ Doesn’t change
■ Emotional Intelligence

■ Divergent vs Convergent Intelligence

● Divergent Intelligence
○ the creative process of generating original ideas and new
possibilities
● Convergent Intelligence
○ the process of finding concrete and familiar solutions to
problems
★ Different Study Methods
 ○ Visual Methods
■ Involve the use of pictures or images
○ Verbal Methods
■ Involve the use of words, expressed either through writing or speaking
○ Auditory Methods
■ For those who prefer to learn by hearing the information
○ Action Methods
■ For people who use the motion of their own bodies to help them
remember key information
○ Making the Most of Distance Learning
■ No matter which study method you prefer to use
● Verbal, Action, Visual, Auditory
■ Research has shown that using multiple methods to study is probably
more useful than trying to learn in any one particular style.
★ Myth of Multitasking
○ Ineffectiveness of cramming & multitasking
○ Yerkes-Dodson Law
■ Stress or arousal can actually increase performance
■ Optimum Stress Level = “Midpoint” (prior to where eustress turns into
distress)
■ Anything more than the optimum arousal will make you feel determined
to perform as well
★ Effective Learning & Study Strategies
○ With switchtaking
■ Takes more time
■ Less tasks are done
■ More stress
★ On reading textbooks…
○ Read the textbook material PRIOR to the lecture
○ Reading textbooks is NOT THE SAME as reading novels
○ “CHEW” with the mind
■ SQ3R METHOD
● Survey
○ “Previewing” a chapter helps form a framework in your
head
○ Organizations is one of the main ways to improve your
memory for information
● Question
○ You form question about the heading of every section
○ With questions ready, you aren’t just reading– you’re
reading to find an answer
● Read
○ Read the section while looking for answers to your
questions
○ As you read, don't just highlight, take notes!
● Recite
 ○ Reciting out loud is another good way to process the
information more deeply and completely
● Recall/Review
○ Once you’ve read the entire chapter, try to remember
much of what you learned (through practice quizzes, or
see if you can fully understand the chapter summary)
● *Reflect
● Recent research suggests that the most important steps in this
method are the 3rs
■ When compared with other study methods such as re-reading and
note-taking study strategies, the 3R strategy produced superior recall of
the material

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Memory and Critical Thinking

★ What is Memory?
○ Learning is that has persisted over time
○ Information that has been stored in the mind and can be recalled at a later time
★ Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

★ Types of Retrieval
○ Recall
○ Recognition
 ○ Relearning
★ Studying for Exams
○ Distributed Practice
■ Spacing out one’s study sessions will produce far better retrieval of info
than Massed Practice
○ Retrieval Practice
■ Test your recall through taking (or designing your own) Practice quizzes
and assessments
○ Aim for Understanding
■ Don’t rely on mere rote memorization. The higher the level of analysis
employed, the more likely you are to remember
○ Take Care of your Overall Well-being
■ Get enough sleep, proper nutrition, and exercise
○ When trying to recall info, it is important to be aware that the mind can be quite
“prejudiced” about it.
★ Serial Position Effect
○ Tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be
remembered more accurately than the middle of a body of information
○ Primacy Effect
■ Tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of
information better than the information that follows
○ Recency Effect
■ Tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information
better than the information that precedes it
★ What strategies may help in encoding short-term memory to long-term
memory?
○ The process of recoding or reorganizing bits of information into meaningful units
or “chunks”
○ Allows for more information to be held in short-term memory
★ Spaced Repetition
○ The Spacing Effect is also sometimes referred to as the benefit of distributed
practice
○ Having the initial study of a material and then its subsequent review or practice
be spaced out over time, generally leads to superior learning than “massed
practice” or cramming (Kang, 2016)
★ What makes humans smarter than AI machines?
★ Critical Thinking
 ○ “A set of skills and attitudes that result in the evaluation of the reasoning of the
speaker, or writer, using specific, generally accepted criteria for strong reasoning”
○ “A process of purposeful self-regulatory judgment that drives problem-solving
and decision-making”
★ The Power of Writing and its Impact on Critical Thinking
○ “A cultivator and enabler of higher order thinking”
○ Writing improves thinking because it requires individuals to make their ideas
explicit, and to evaluate and choose among tools necessary for effective
discourse
○ A study conducted by Shaarawy (2014) found that students who wrote a weekly
journal on what they have learned throughout the whole week, improved their
cognitive critical thinking skills while those who didn’t result in a deterioration of
those skills
★ Other Learning Strategies
○ Use multiple study methods
○ “Chew” Textbooks using SQ3R
○ Avoid switch-tasking

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Development Across the Lifespan

★ Maria Montessori
○ Stages of development or growth and metamorphosis
○ “The child is in a continual state of growth and metamorphosis, whereas the
adult has reached the norm of the species”
○ Stages of Development
■ First Stage: 0-6 years old
● Period of Transformation
○ 0-3 years: The Absorbent Mind (Unconscious)
■ A mind that is constantly absorbing impressions
from the environment
■ Intelligence is being formed and other psychic
faculties are created
■ Example: Child absorbs its mother tongue
○ 3-6 years: The Absorbent Mind (Conscious)
■ When the child moves, he becomes conscious
 ■ They can now will, think and remember
■ NOTE: it is not direct help the child needs. Set free
to live his own independent life in a prepared
environment.
■ Second Stage: 6-12 years old
● Period of Uniform Growth
○ Intermediate period of the second stage of Childhood
○ Period of growth without much transformation
○ Physical: rounded contours of childhood disappear
○ Socially: Herd instinct
○ Mentally: Reasoning faculty
■ Third Stage: 12-18 years old
● Period of Transformation
○ 12-15 years: Puberty
○ 15-18 years: Adolescence
● Sensitive Period
○ Adjustment to social life take their origin
● Life of an adolescent resolve this idea of society
○ Prepare him to be member of the adult society
○ Practical activities
● Economic Independence
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Piaget’s Theory: Four Stages of Cognitive Development

★ Jean Piaget
○ Children from schemes
○ Schemes are mental concept formed through experiences with objects and
events
○ Assimilation understands new things in terms of schemes
○ Accommodation is adjusting old schemes to fit new information and experiences
★ Four Stages
○ Sensorimotor Stage (0 - 2 Years)
■ Children Explore the world using their senses and ability to move
■ Infants develop object permanence
● The knowledge that an object exists when it is not in sight. This is
critical in developing language
 ■ Understand the concepts that concepts and mental images represent
objects, people, and events
○ Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)
■ Developing language and concepts
■ Can ask question and explore their surroundings more fully
■ Egocentrism
● The inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes but one’s
own
■ Centation
● The tendency only on one feature of an object while ignoring
other relevant features
■ Irreversibility
● The inability of the young child to mentally reverse and action
○ Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 12 Years)
■ Children capable of conversation and reversible thinking
■ Conservation ability to understand that changing the appearance of an
object does not change the object’s nature
■ Inability to deal with abstract concepts
■ Children deal with concrete concepts
■ Children need to able to see it, touch it or at least “see” it in their heads
to understand it
○ Formal Operational Stage (12 - Adulthood)
■ Abstract thinking becomes possible. Teenagers get deeply involved in
hypothetical thinking; about possibilities and even impossibilities. Use
abstract reasoning and analogies, and systemically examine and test
hypotheses
■ Piaget did not believe that everyone would reach formal operations
■ Adults who do not achieve formal operations tend to use a more practical
kind of intelligence
★ Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
○ Educators adopted Piaget's ideas
■ Allowing children to learn at their own pace, through hands-on
experience and teaching concepts appropriate to the child’s cognitive
level
○ Criticism
■ Changes in thought are more continuous and gradual rather than
abruptly jumping from one stage to another
■ Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget seemed to believe
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Psychosocial Development

★ Psychosocial Development
○ Involves development of personality, relationships, and a sense of being male or
female
○ Process begins in infancy and continues into adulthood
★ Temperament
○ One of the first ways in which infants demonstrate that they have different
personalities. These are behavioral and emotional characteristics that are
established at birth.
★ Three Basic Temperament Styles of Infants
○ “Easy” babies are regular in their schedules of waking, sleeping and eating and
are adaptable to change
○ Difficult babies are opposite of the easy ones
○ Slow to warm up are less grumpy, quieter but who are slow to adapt to change
★ Attachment
○ Emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver
○ Attachment Styles
■ Secure
● Willing to get down from their mother’s lap soon after entering
the room
● Existence of “touching base”
■ Avoidant
● Somewhat willing to explore
● Did not “touch base"
● Left in the crib and not usually carried by their parents
● If children lack that kind of environment, they might end up
avoiding the parents
■ Ambivalent
● Were clinging and unwilling to explore
● Upset by the stranger regardless of mother’s presence
■ Disordered-Disoriented
 ● Some babies seemed unable to decide just how they should react
to the mother’s return
● Seemed fearful and showed a dazed and depressed look
○ Stages of Attachment
■ Pre-attachment
● Birth to 6 weeks Baby shows no particular attachment to specific
Caregiver
■ Indiscriminate
● 6 Weeks to 7 Months Infant begins to show preferences for
primary caregiver
■ Discriminate
● 7+ months Infant shows strong attachment -
■ Multiple
● 10+ months Growing bonds with other caregivers
○ Mothers Attachment Styles
■ Secure
● Loving, warm, sensitive to their infant’s needs, and responsive to
the infants attempts at communication
■ Avoidant
● Unresponsive, insensitive, and coldly rejecting
■ Ambivalent
● Tried to be responsive but were inconsistent and insensitive to
baby’s actions
■ Disorganized-Disoriented
● Found to be abusive or neglectful in interactions with infants
★ Development of the Self-Concept
○ Self concept is the image you have of yourself, and it is based on your
interactions with the important people in your life.
○