Vector Spaces

n

4.1
An ordered n-tuple:
Vectors in R
a sequence of n real number ( x1 , x2 ,, xn )

n
 n-space: R
the set of all ordered n-tuple
 Ex:
1
n=1 R = 1-space
= set of all real number
2
n=2 R = 2-space
= set of all ordered pair of real numbers ( x1, x2 )
3
n=3 R = 3-space
= set of all ordered triple of real numbers ( x1, x2 , x3 )

4
n=4 R = 4-space
= set of all ordered quadruple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )
• Notes:
n
(1) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) can be viewed as a point in R
with the xi’s as its coordinates.
(2) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) can be viewed as a vector
x  ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) in Rn with the xi’s as its components.
 Ex:

x1, x2  x1, x2 

0,0
a point a vector
 u  u1, u2 ,, un , v  v1, v2 ,, vn  (two vectors in Rn)

 Equal:
u  v if and only if u1  v1, u2  v2 , , un  vn

 Vector addition (the sum of u and v):

u  v  u1  v1, u2  v2 , , un  vn 

 Scalar multiplication (the scalar multiple of u by c):

cu  cu1, cu2 ,, cun 

 Notes:
The sum of two vectors and the scalar multiple of a vector
n
in R are called the standard operations in Rn.
 Negative:
u  (u1,u2 ,u3 ,...,un )
 Difference:
u  v  (u1  v1, u2  v2 , u3  v3 ,..., un  vn )

 Zero vector:
0  (0, 0, ..., 0)

 Notes:
(1) The zero vector 0 in Rn is called the additive identity in Rn.

(2) The vector –v is called the additive inverse of v.

• Thm 4.2: (Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication)
n
Let u, v, and w be vectors in R , and let c and d be scalars.

(1) u+v is a vector in Rn

(2) u+v = v+u
(3) (u+v)+w = u+(v+w)
(4) u+0 = u
(5) u+(–u) = 0
(6) cu is a vector in Rn
(7) c(u+v) = cu+cv
(8) (c+d)u = cu+du
(9) c(du) = (cd)u
(10) 1(u) = u
• Ex 5: (Vector operations in R4)
Let u=(2, – 1, 5, 0), v=(4, 3, 1, – 1), and w=(– 6, 2, 0, 3) be
4
vectors in R . Solve x for x in each of the following.
(a) x = 2u – (v + 3w)
(b) 3(x+w) = 2u – v+x

Sol: (a) x  2u  ( v  3w)

 2u  v  3w
 (4,  2, 10, 0)  (4, 3, 1,  1)  (18, 6, 0, 9)
 (4  4  18,  2  3  6, 10  1  0, 0  1  9)
 (18,  11, 9,  8).
(b) 3(x  w)  2u  v  x
3x  3w  2u  v  x
3x  x  2u  v  3w
2x  2u  v  3w
x  u  12 v  32 w
 2,1,5,0   2, 23 , 21 , 12   9,3,0, 29 
 9, 211 , 92 ,4
• Thm 4.3: (Properties of additive identity and additive inverse)
n
Let v be a vector in R and c be a scalar. Then the following is true.

(1) The additive identity is unique. That is, if u+v=v, then u = 0

(2) The additive inverse of v is unique. That is, if v+u=0, then u = –v

(3) 0v=0
(4) c0=0
(5) If cv=0, then c=0 or v=0
(6) –(– v) = v
• Linear combination:
The vector x is called a linear combination of v1 , v 2 ,..., v n ,
if it can be expressed in the form
x  c1v1  c2 v 2   cn v n c1 , c2 , , cn : scalar
 Ex 6:
Given x = (– 1, – 2, – 2), u = (0,1,4), v = (– 1,1,2), and
3
w = (3,1,2) in R , find a, b, and c such that x = au+bv+cw.
Sol:  b  3c   1
a  b  c  2
4a  2b  2c   2
 a  1, b  2, c  1
Thus x  u  2v  w
 Notes:
A vector u  (u1 , u2 ,, un ) in R n can be viewed as:

a 1×n row matrix (row vector): u  [u1, u2 ,, un ]

or u1 
u 
a n×1 column matrix (column vector): u   2 
 
 
un 

(The matrix operations of addition and scalar multiplication

give the same results as the corresponding vector operations)
 Vector addition Scalar multiplication
u  v  (u1 , u2 , , un )  (v1 , v2 , , vn ) cu  c(u1 , u2 ,, un )
 (u1  v1 , u2  v2 ,  , un  vn )  (cu1 , cu2 , , cun )
u  v  [u1 , u2 ,  , un ]  [v1 , v2 , , vn ] cu  c[u1 , u2 ,, un ]
 [u1  v1 , u2  v2 ,  , un  vn ]  [cu1 , cu2 ,, cun ]
u1  cu1 
u  cu 

u1  v1  u1  v  cu  c  2    2 

1      
u  v  u  v  un  cun 

u v   2   2   2 2
      
     
un  vn  un  vn 
 4.2 Vector Spaces
• Vector spaces:
Let V be a set on which two operations (vector addition and
scalar multiplication) are defined. If the following axioms are
satisfied for every u, v, and w in V and every scalar (real number)
c and d, then V is called a vector space.
Addition:
(1) u+v is in V
(2) u+v=v+u
(3) u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w
(4) V has a zero vector 0 such that for every u in V, u+0=u
(5) For every u in V, there is a vector in V denoted by –u
such that u+(–u)=0
Scalar multiplication:
(6) cu is in V.
(7) c(u  v)  cu  cv

(8) (c  d )u  cu  du

(9) c(du)  (cd )u

(10) 1(u)  u
• Notes:
(1) A vector space consists of four entities:
a set of vectors, a set of scalars, and two operations
V：nonempty set
c：scalar
 (u, v)  u  v： vector addition
 (c, u)  cu： scalar multiplication
V , ,  is called a vector space
(2) V  0： zero vector space
• Examples of vector spaces:
(1) n-tuple space: Rn
(u1, u2 ,, un )  (v1, v2 ,, vn )  (u1  v1, u2  v2 ,, un  vn ) vector addition
k (u1, u2 ,, un )  (ku1, ku2 ,, kun ) scalar multiplication

(2) Matrix space: V  M mn (the set of all m×n matrices with real values)
Ex: ：(m = n = 2)
u11 u12  v11 v12  u11  v11 u12  v12 
u u   v v   u  v u  v  vector addition
 21 22   21 22   21 21 22 22 
u11 u12   ku11 ku12 
k    scalar multiplication
u u
 21 22   21ku ku 22 
(3) n-th degree polynomial space: V  Pn (x)
(the set of all real polynomials of degree n or less)

p( x)  q( x)  (a0  b0 )  (a1  b1 ) x    (an  bn ) x n

kp( x)  ka0  ka1 x    kan x n

(4) Function space: V  c(, ) (the set of all real-valued

continuous functions defined on the entire real line.)

( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
(kf )( x)  kf ( x)
 Thm 4.4: (Properties of scalar multiplication)
Let v be any element of a vector space V, and let c be any
scalar. Then the following properties are true.
(1) 0v  0
(2) c0  0
(3) If cv  0, then c  0 or v  0
(4) (1) v   v
• Notes: To show that a set is not a vector space, you need
only find one axiom that is not satisfied.
 Ex 6: The set of all integer is not a vector space.
Pf: 1V , 12  R
( 12 )(1)  12 V (it is not closed under scalar multiplication)
  noninteger
scalar

integer

 Ex 7: The set of all second-degree polynomials is not a vector space.

Pf: Let p( x)  x2 and q( x)   x 2  x  1

 p( x)  q ( x)  x  1  V
(it is not closed under vector addition)
• Ex 8:
V=R2=the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers
vector addition: (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
scalar multiplication: c(u1 , u2 )  (cu1 ,0)
Verify V is not a vector space.
Sol:
1(1, 1)  (1, 0)  (1, 1)
 the set (together with the two given operations) is
not a vector space
 4.3 Subspaces of Vector Spaces
• Subspace:
(V ,,) : a vector space
W  
 : a nonempty subset
W V
(W ,,) ：a vector space (under the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication defined in V)
 W is a subspace of V
 Trivial subspace:
Every vector space V has at least two subspaces.
(1) Zero vector space {0} is a subspace of V.
(2) V is a subspace of V.
• Thm 4.5: (Test for a subspace)
If W is a nonempty subset of a vector space V, then W is
a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold.

(1) If u and v are in W, then u+v is in W.

(2) If u is in W and c is any scalar, then cu is in W.

 Ex: Subspace of R2
(1) 0 0  0, 0
(2) Lines through the origin
(3) R2

• Ex: Subspace of R3
(1) 0 0  0, 0, 0
(2) Lines through the origin
(3) Planes through the origin
(4) R3
 Ex 2: (A subspace of M2×2)
Let W be the set of all 2×2 symmetric matrices. Show that
W is a subspace of the vector space M2×2, with the standard
operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

Sol:
W  M 22 M 22 : vector sapces
Let A1, A2 W ( A1T  A1, A2T  A2 )
A1 W, A2 W  ( A1  A2 )T  A1T  A2T  A1  A2 ( A1  A2 W )
k  R, A W  (kA)T  kAT  kA (kAW )
W is a subspace of M 22
 Ex 3: (The set of singular matrices is not a subspace of M2×2)
Let W be the set of singular matrices of order 2. Show that
W is not a subspace of M2×2 with the standard operations.

Sol:
1 0 0 0
A  W , B    W
0 0 0 1

1 0
A B    W
0 1
W2 is not a subspace of M 22
 Ex 4: (The set of first-quadrant vectors is not a subspace of R2)
Show that W  {( x1 , x2 ) : x1  0 and x2  0} , with the standard
operations, is not a subspace of R2.

Sol:
Let u  (1, 1) W
  1u  11, 1   1,  1W (not closed under scalar
multiplication)
W is not a subspace of R 2
 Ex 6: (Determining subspaces of R2)
Which of the following two subsets is a subspace of R2?
(a) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=0.
(b) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=1.
Sol:
(a) W  ( x, y) x  2 y  0  (2t , t ) t  R
Let v1   2t1 , t1  W v2   2t2 , t2  W
 v1  v2   2t1  t2 ,t1  t2 W (closed under addition)

kv1   2kt1 , kt1 W (closed under scalar multiplication)

W is a subspace of R 2
(b) W   x, y  x  2 y  1 (Note: the zero vector is not on the line)

Let v  (1,0) W
 1v  1,0W
W is not a subspace of R 2
 Ex 8: (Determining subspaces of R3)
Which of the following subsets is a subspace of R 3?
(a) W  ( x1 , x2 ,1) x1 , x2  R
(b) W  ( x1 , x1  x3 , x3 ) x1 , x3  R
Sol:
(a) Let v  (0,0,1) W
 (1) v  (0,0,1) W
W is not a subspace of R3
(b) Let v  (v1 , v1  v3 , v3 ) W , u  (u1 , u1  u 3 , u 3 ) W
 v  u  v1  u1, v1  u1   v3 u3 , v3  u3  W
kv  kv1, kv1   kv3 , kv3  W
W is a subspace of R3
 Thm 4.6: (The intersection of two subspaces is a subspace)
If V and W are both subspaces of a vector space U ,
then the intersection of V and W (denoted by V  U )
is also a subspace of U .