BAS101/201: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Unit – 1: Quantum Mechanics

Inadequacy of Classical Mechanics
Classical Picture: Till the late 19th century the universe appeared to be a simple and orderly place, consisting of matter and
electromagnetic radiation.
• Matter, which consisted of particles that had mass and whose location and motion could be accurately described by
Classical mechanics and Statistical Mechanics, which were based on Newton's three laws of motion (Law of Inertia,
Law of Force & Action and Reaction Law) and gravitation which includes the concept of absolute mass, absolute space
& absolute time.
Statistical Mechanics describes the state of large collection of matter.
• EM radiation, which was viewed as having no mass and whose exact position in space could not be fixed. Physicists
could describe the properties of radiant energy using mathematical relationships known as Maxwell’s equations
(equations describing Electricity and Magnetism) developed in 1873 by James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist.
Thus, matter and energy were considered distinct and unrelated phenomena and the laws of physics described nature very
well under most conditions.
When physicists started probing very small sizes (electrons, protons etc.), and high energy densities (speed comparable to
light), there were discrepancies that could not be explained by classical physics. The problems with classical physics led to the
development of Quantum Mechanics (very small particles) and Special Relativity (very high speeds).
Failures: The following phenomenon couldn't be explained by classical mechanics-
• Blackbody radiation: Classical physics predicted that hot objects would instantly radiate away all their heat
into electromagnetic waves. This emission of energy is continuous as well. Wien and Rayleigh-Jeans came up
with their explanations, but Wien’s law failed to explain the longer wavelength and Rayleigh-Jean’s law failed
to explain short wavelengths. The calculation, which was based on Maxwell's equations and Statistical
Mechanics, showed that the radiation rate went to infinity as the EM wavelength went to zero, ``The
Ultraviolet Catastrophe''. Theory could not agree/match the experimental results.
• Photoelectric effect: The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light is
shone onto a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons.
According to the classical perspective of photoelectric effect, when light shines on a surface, it slowly transfers
energy into the substance. This increases the kinetic energy of the particles until finally, they give off excited
electrons. This process is called Thermionic Emission.
To test the theories proposed by classical mechanics, Lenard conducted an experiment which showed that
➢ Below a certain threshold frequency, no matter how intense the light was, there was no emission of electrons.
➢ Above the threshold frequency, the current was directly proportional to the light intensity.
➢ The current appeared almost instantaneously after the light was turned on
➢ Higher frequency light increased the kinetic energy of the electrons,
➢ Changing the light intensity had no effect on the kinetic energy.
Higher frequencies may increase the energy of the ejected photoelectrons and make it cross a distance faster,
but the time between each successive photoelectron remains the same because the time between each
successive photon impact remains the same for the same intensity. It does not increase the total number of
photoelectrons per photon.
• Compton Effect: According to classical theory of scattering, the wavelength of X-ray would not be changing
(Thomson scattering) after interaction with the electrons, however Compton did find a change in wavelength
in experiment.
• Stability of Atom: After Rutherford found that the positive charge in atoms was concentrated in a very tiny
nucleus, classical physics predicted that the atomic electrons orbiting the nucleus would radiate their energy
away and finally fall into the nucleus following a spiral path. This clearly did not happen.
• Hydrogen Spectrum discreteness: According to classical mechanics, radiation spectra was continuous for all
wavelengths from hydrogen atom, but experimentally it was observed that the spectrum consisted of discrete
lines corresponding to Lymen series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Bracket series, Pfund series.
• Waves and Particles: In diffraction experiments, light was shown to behave like a wave while in experiments
like the Photoelectric effect, light behaved like a particle. More difficult diffraction experiments showed that
electrons (as well as the other particles) also behaved like a wave, yet we can only detect an integer number
of electrons (or photons).
Classical physics failed because it was wrong when probed at high energy and small distances. It still works very well for most
macroscopic phenomena. Max Planck speculated that energy levels were quantized, and that accounted for what was seen.

Quantum Mechanics incorporates a wave-particle duality and explains all of the above phenomena. In doing so, Quantum
Mechanics changes our understanding of nature in fundamental ways.
Black Body
“An idealized physical body, which can absorb all the electromagnetic radiations when
incident on it irrespective of its frequency or incident angle is known as a black body.”
▪ An object in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings radiates as much energy as
it absorbs.
▪ A black body is a perfect absorber as well as a perfect emitter of radiation.
▪ It is impossible to realise a perfect/ideal black body in practice.
▪ A good approximation of a black body is a small hole leading to the inside of a
hollow object blackened completely from inside.
▪ The hole acts as a perfect absorber.
▪ The nature of the radiation leaving the cavity through the hole depends only on
the temperature of the cavity.

Black Body Radiation: A black body can start emitting electromagnetic radiations, once it is heated at high temperature. The
radiation emitted by a black body is called black body radiation.
Characteristics of black body radiation spectra-
The distribution of energy of a black body radiation at different temperatures with its wavelength is as shown in the figure.
• A black body, according to its temperature, emits the radiations in a continuous spectrum. (This is the main reason
behind the different colours of stars, like red stars are mostly cooler, so they emit wavelengths equivalent to that of red colour.)
• Kirchhoff’s Laws:- There are two statements of this law -
➢ A black body not only absorbs all the radiation incident on it but is also a perfect radiator at higher temperatures.
➢ The radiation emitted depends only on the temperature and not on the nature of the bodies.
• The total power of the emitted radiation increases with increasing
temperature. (This is according to Stefan’s law).
• The energy distribution is not uniform. Peak of the radiated energy in
the curve is obtained at a particular wavelength λm at a given
temperature.
• Peak of the radiated energy in the curve shifts to shorter
wavelengths as the temperature increases. (This is according to
Wien’s Displacement law).
• A black body can emit radiation of all wavelengths lying in the region
of ultraviolet, visible light and infrared.
• At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are
mainly in the infrared region. 𝝀𝒎
th
Stefan’s law- “The total radiant energy ET of a black body is proportional to the 4 power of its absolute temperature T.”
i.e. 𝑬𝑻 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 where 𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲𝟒 ).
∞
The total energy radiated out is given as 𝑬𝑻 = ∫−∞ 𝑼(𝝂,𝑻) 𝒅𝝂 where 𝑈(𝜈,𝑇) = Emissive power of a black body for a
radiation at frequency 𝜈 at temperature T.

Wien’s Displacement Law: “The wavelength of the peak radiation (λm or λpeak) is inversely proportional to the temperature (T)
of the black body radiating it.”
i.e. 𝝀𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝑲 (𝑾𝒊𝒆𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕. )

Explanation of Black Body Radiation Spectra:

Wien’s Distribution Law: Rayleigh-Jean’s Law
Wien derived a formula representing a relationship between Rayleigh and Jean derived a formula for the energy
the emissive energy in black body radiation spectra with the distribution in the black body radiation spectra by applying
temperature and wavelength, using the principles of the principles of Statistical Physics and Electrodynamics.
Thermodynamics. This law This law represents the total energy density in the
According to this the energy density of the emitted radiation wavelength range 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 as
𝑈(𝜆,𝑇) for waves in a wavelength range 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 is 𝟖𝝅
𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝟒 [𝑲𝑻]
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 (−𝒉𝒄⁄ ) 𝝀
𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = [𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 ]
* This law holds good only for longer wavelengths and
𝝀𝟓
* This law holds good only for short wavelengths and fails at shorter wavelengths.
fails at higher wavelengths at higher temperatures. This is called “UV Catastrophe”.
Failure of Classical Theory.
▪ Classical physics predicted that hot objects would instantly radiate away all
their heat into electromagnetic waves. This emission of energy is continuous
as well.
▪ Wien and Rayleigh-Jeans came up with their explanations, but Wien’s law
failed to explain the longer wavelength and Rayleigh-Jean’s law failed to
explain short wavelengths.
▪ The calculation, which was based on Maxwell's equations and Statistical
Mechanics, showed that the radiation rate went to infinity as the EM
wavelength went to zero, ``The Ultraviolet Catastrophe''.
▪ Theory could not agree/match the experimental results.

Planck’s Quantum Theory: In 1901, Wien’s colleague, German physicist Max Planck, showed that the energies absorbed and
emitted by blackbodies are ‘quantised’. This means that only certain energies are allowed in transaction.
Max Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an equation for the intensity of the radiation. This equation
was found to be in complete agreement with experimental observations.
Hence, Planck’s quantum theory was validated as well.
Assumptions of Planck’s quantum theory–
▪ The constituting atoms of a black body radiator behave like simple harmonic oscillators having a characteristic
frequency of vibration.
▪ Matter radiates or absorbs energy in discrete quantities discontinuously in the form of small packets or bundles.
▪ The smallest bundle or packet of energy is known as a “quantum”.
▪ The energy of the quantum absorbed or emitted is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. So, energy
of the radiation is expressed in terms of frequency as follows-
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂
▪ A body or matter can radiate energy or absorb energy in whole number multiples of a quantum as -
𝑬 = 𝒏(𝒉𝝂) where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,4……..
So, energy can be absorbed or radiated as hv, 2hv, 3hv, 4hv……etc. not in the form of 1.5hv, 2.5hv…etc.
Plank’s Radiation Formula
On the basis of the assumptions of his proposed quantum theory Max Plank gave the
following formula for the energy distribution in the black body radiation-
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝝀𝟓
[ (𝒉𝒄⁄ ) ]
𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 −𝟏

* This formula was found to be in complete agreement with experimental observations.

Derivation of Plank’s Radiation Formula

Planck's radiation law is derived by assuming that each radiation mode can be described by a quantized harmonic oscillator
with energy En = n(hν)
Let N0 be the number of oscillators with zero energy i.e E0 (in the so-called ground-state), then the numbers in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd
etc. levels (N1 , N2 , N3 …) are given by:
Wien’s Law from Plank’s Formula Rayleigh-Jean Law from Plank’s Formula
Plank’s formula is Plank’s formula is
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝟓
[ 𝒉𝒄 ] 𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝟓
[ 𝒉𝒄 ]
𝝀 ( ⁄ ) 𝝀 ( ⁄ )
𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 − 𝟏 𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 − 𝟏
For shorter wavelengths For longer wavelengths
(𝒉𝒄⁄ ) (𝒉𝒄⁄ ) 𝒉𝒄
𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 >> 𝟏 𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 ≅ 𝟏 + +⋯
Hence ignoring 1 in the denominator, we get 𝝀𝑲𝑻
On ignoring higher order terms, we get
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝟓
[ 𝒉𝒄 ] 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝝀 ( ⁄ ) 𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = [ ]
𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻 𝝀 𝟓 𝒉𝒄
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 (−𝒉𝒄⁄
𝝀𝑲𝑻) ] 𝟏+ −𝟏
Or 𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝟓 [𝒆 𝝀𝑲𝑻
𝝀 𝟖𝝅
This is Wien’s Law. Or 𝑼(𝝀,𝑻) = 𝝀𝟒 [𝑲𝑻]
Hence, Plank’s Law agrees with Wien’s law for short This is Rayleigh-Jean Law.
wavelengths. Hence, Plank’s Law agrees with Rayleigh-Jean Law for
longer wavelengths.

Stefan’s-Boltzmann law from Plank’s Formula

If energy density of the emanating em radiation in the Using the above substitutions to change eqn (1)
frequency range 𝜈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈 from Plank’s formula is 𝟖𝝅𝒉 ∞ (𝒌𝑻/𝒉)𝟑 𝒙𝟑 𝑲𝑻
𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝝂𝟑 𝑬𝑻 = ∫ × 𝒅𝒙
𝑼(𝝂) = 𝟑 [ 𝒉𝝂 ] 𝒄𝟑 𝟎 𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒉
𝒄 ( ⁄𝑲𝑻) 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝑲𝑻 𝟒 ∞ 𝒙𝟑
𝒆 −𝟏
The total energy emanating, by Kirchhoff’s law is = 𝟑 ( ) ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒄 𝒉 𝟎 𝒆 −𝟏
∞
𝑬𝑻 = ∫ 𝑼(𝝂,𝑻) 𝒅𝝂 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝑲𝑻 𝟒 𝝅𝟒
= 𝟑 ( ) ×
𝟎 𝒄 𝒉 𝟏𝟓
𝟖𝝅𝒉 ∞ 𝝂𝟑 𝟖𝝅𝟓 𝑲𝟒
= ∫𝟎 [ 𝒉𝝂 ] 𝒅𝝂 -----(1) =[ ] × 𝑻𝟒
𝒄𝟑 𝒆( ⁄𝑲𝑻) −𝟏 𝟏𝟓 𝒉𝟑 𝒄𝟑
ℎ𝜈 𝐾𝑇
Let =𝑥 ⇒ 𝜈= ℎ 𝑥
𝐾𝑇 ⟹ 𝑬 ∝ 𝑻𝟒
If 𝜈 ⟶ 0, 𝑥 ⟶ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝜈 ⟶ ∞, 𝑥 ⟶ ∞
𝐾𝑇 This is Stefan’s-Boltzmann Law.
And 𝑑𝜈 = ℎ 𝑑𝑥
 Compton Effect
• Compton Effect was discovered by Arthur Holly Compton in 1923 and
for this discovery he was awarded by the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1927.
• According to classical theory of scattering, the wavelength of X-ray
would not be changing (Thomson scattering) after interaction with
the electrons, however Compton did find a change in wavelength in
experiment. Then Compton Effect was explained on the basis of the
quantum theory (particle “photon” model) of light.
• This Effect convinced remaining doubters of the existence of
photons. It constitutes very strong evidence in support of the
Quantum Theory of radiation.
Definition: “When a scattering of a high energy photon by a free charged particle (usually a loosely bound outer-shell
electron in target material) results an increase in wavelength between scattered and initial photon, then it is called Compton
Effect. It is also known as Compton Scattering.”
• Amongst the scattered photons there are two types of components, One component having the same frequency or
wavelength as that of the incident photon. These are called unmodified radiation.
• The other component having lower frequency or higher wavelength compared to incident radiation, which are called
modified radiation.
• The Compton Effect is an incoherent and inelastic scattering of a photon by an elastic collision with electron in which both
relativistic energy and momentum are conserved.
• The difference between wavelengths of initial photon and scattered photon is known as Compton Shift.
• The figures represents collision two particle: an x-ray photon
(zero rest mass) and an electron (rest mass m and initially at
rest).
• After this striking the scattered away with an angle ɸ from its
original direction while the electron receives an impulse and
begins to move with a speed v by making an angle ɵ with
direction of incident photon .
• It is consider that the photon transfer some energy to the
electron.
• Due to energy loss, the frequency of the incident photon ʋ
changes to a lower value ʋˊ.
Loss in photon energy = Kinetic Energy (KE) gain by recoil electron
ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ = 𝐾𝐸 [h is Planck constant]
Momentum of a massless particle (here ‘photon’) is given by Theory of Relativity as:
ℎ𝜈
𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = [ c is speed of light in vacuum and ʋ is frequency of photon]
𝑐

Momentum is a vector quantity so in this two-body collision momentum must

be conserved in each of two mutually perpendicular directions.
ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝜐′
Now momentum of incident photon is and scattered photon is .
𝑐 𝑐
The initial and final momentum of electron is 0 and p.
• Along direction of incident photon, the conservation of momentum gives:
Total initial momentum = Total final momentum
ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝜐′
+0= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …..…. (1)
𝑐 𝑐
• Along perpendicular to the direction of incident photon, the conservation of
momentum gives:
ℎ𝜐′
0= 𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 …...... (2)
Multiply equations 1 and 2 by c we get: Total Energy = KE + Rest Mass Energy
𝑝𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐′𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ………. (3) 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚𝑐 2 ……….. (6)
𝑝𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ𝜐′𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 ……………. (4) Also 𝐸 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2 ………….. (7)
By squaring and then adding eqn. (3) & (4), we get: Replacing the value of E in eq (7) from (6), we get
(𝑝𝑐)2 = (ℎ𝜐)2 − 2(ℎ𝜐)(ℎ𝜐′ )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + (ℎ𝜐′)2 ……… (5) (𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚𝑐 2 )2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2
(𝐾𝐸) + 2𝑚𝑐 2 (𝐾𝐸) = 𝑝2 𝑐 2
2
………. (8)
From the Theory of Relativity, the total energy of recoil
electron is given by the equations: Now, substituting the value 𝐾𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ in eq (8) we get
 2 Now from definition of wavelength we have:
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = (ℎ𝜐)2 − 2(ℎ𝜐)(ℎ𝜐′ ) + (ℎ𝜐′ ) + 2𝑚𝑐 2 (ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ )
𝜐 1 𝜐′ 1
………. (9) = 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜆′
𝑐 𝑐
Substituting the value of 𝑝2 𝑐 2 from equation 5 into 9 we and then eq. 10 becomes
get 𝑚𝑐 1 1 1
(𝜆 − 𝜆′) = 𝜆𝜆′ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
2𝑚𝑐 2 (ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐 ′ ) = 2(ℎ𝜐)(ℎ𝜐′ )(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) ……… (10) ℎ
Dividing the eq. 10 by (2h2c2) we obtain ℎ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑚𝑐 𝜐 𝜐′ 𝜐 𝜐′
ℎ
(𝑐 − 𝑐 ) = 𝑐 × 𝑐
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) …… (11)
Δ𝜆 = 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) ……… (12)
• The term Δ𝝀 gives the change in photon wavelength due to Scattering with a free electron and it is called Compton Shift.
• From eq. 12 it is clear that the Compton Shift is independent of the wavelength of the incident photon and depends on
scattering angle only.
ℎ
• The term 𝜆𝑐 = is called Compton Wavelength of the scattering particle (Here electron).
𝑚𝑐
• For an electron 𝜆𝑐 = 2.426 × 10−12 𝑚 = 2.426𝑝𝑚 (10−12 𝑚 = 1 𝑝𝑚)
• Eq. 12 shows that Compton Shift becomes maximum for 𝜙 = 180°and then Δ𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜆𝑐
• The maximum change in wavelength is (for scattering from an electron) = 4.86×10-12 m
• This value would be insignificant for visible light (𝜆~ 10−7 𝑚) but this wavelength shift is significant for x-ray
(𝜆~ 10−10 𝑚).

PHOTON
After Max Planck, German physicist Albert Einstein revisited the theory and proposed that quantization is a fundamental
property of light and other electromagnetic radiation. He then explained photoelectric effect on the same basis.
This led to the concept of “photons”.
Definition: A quantum of light is known as a photon.
The basic properties of photons:
• They have zero mass and rest energy. They only exist as moving particles.
• They are elementary particles despite lacking rest mass.
• They have no electric charge.
• They are stable.
• They are spin-1 particles which makes them bosons.
• They carry energy and momentum which are dependent on the frequency.
• They can have interactions (collisions) with other particles such as electrons (e.g. Compton effect).
• They can be destroyed or created by many natural processes, for instance when radiation is absorbed or emitted.
• When in empty space, they travel at the speed of light.

Duality of Light
• Einstein extended Planck’s concept of quantization to electromagnetic waves and explained Photoelectric effect.
• Then Compton and Debye extended Einstein’s idea of photon momentum to explain scattering of x-rays from electrons,
and called it the Compton effect.
On the basis of above it was understood that a complete understanding of the observed behaviour of light can be attained
only if light is supposed to possess Dual Nature,
i.e. Light (em waves) have wave nature as well as corpuscular or particle nature, both.

de-Broglie Hypothesis
After Albert Einstein's photon theory became accepted, the question became whether this was true only for light that it has
dual nature or whether material objects also exhibited wave-like behaviour.
In 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie proposed that matter has dual characteristic just like radiation.
His Hypothesis was – “All moving particles (matter) possess a wave nature also.”
This hypothesis about the dual nature of matter was based on the following observations:-
(a) The whole universe is composed of matter and electromagnetic radiations. Since both are forms of energy so can be
transformed into each other.
(b) The matter loves symmetry. As the radiation has dual nature, matter should also possess dual character.
Matter Waves: These particles which exhibit wave nature according to de-Broglie’s hypothesis are called the MATTER WAVES
or de-Broglie’s waves.
• These waves are different from em waves because electrically neutral particles like neutrons exhibit wave nature.
• These waves are also different from mechanical waves because they can propagate through vacuum also.

de-Broglie wavelength
de-Broglie’s waves possess wave parameters. de Broglie derived the wavelength of a moving particle (matter wave) the wave
ℎ
nature of a particle as - 𝜆= where p = momentum of the particle, m = mass of the particle
𝑝
and v = velocity of the particle.
This relation can also be applied to both microscopic and macroscopic matters.

Experimental Confirmation
In 1927, physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer, of Bell Labs, performed an
experiment where they fired electrons at a crystalline nickel target.
The resulting diffraction pattern matched the predictions of the de Broglie wavelength.
De Broglie received the 1929 Nobel Prize for his theory (the first time it was ever
awarded for a Ph.D. thesis) and Davisson/Germer jointly won it in 1937 for the
experimental discovery of electron diffraction (and thus the proving of de Broglie's
hypothesis to be true).
de-Broglie wavelength: Derivation de-Broglie wavelength of a particle in terms of its KE.
Let us consider a photon whose energy is given as- Non-relativistic KE of a particle of mass ‘m’ at velocity ‘v’ is
• According to Plank’s theory 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 ……..(1) given as-
1
Where - 𝜈 = frequency KE = 𝐸𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
& h = 6.6 ×10 -34 J.s; Plank’s const. 1 1 𝑚 (𝑚𝑣)2 𝑝2
• According to Einstein’s relativity 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 .…..(2) 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2 × = =
2 2 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
Comparing eqn. (1) & (2), we get Where p = 𝑚𝑣, momentum of the particle
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑐
ℎ 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 2 [∵ 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆 ⇒ 𝑝 = √2𝑚 × 𝐸𝐾
ℎ
= 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝 [p=momentum of photon
𝜆 We know that de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass
ℎ
𝜆= ‘m’ at velocity ‘v’ is given as
𝑝 ℎ ℎ
This is the expression of de-Broglie wavelength of a photon. 𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
On the same analogy, the de-Broglie wavelength of a ℎ
particle of mass ‘m’ at velocity ‘v’ is given as ⇒ 𝜆=
ℎ ℎ
√2𝑚 × 𝐸𝐾
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
de-Broglie wavelength of a charged particle de-Broglie wavelength of a particle in thermal equilibrium
Let there be a charged particle carrying charge q and mass m Let there be a particle at temperature T Kelvin, with mass m
moving with velocity v in a potential field V. moving with velocity v in a thermal equilibrium.
Then its KE is given as- Then its KE is given as-
1 1 3
KE = 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑞𝑉 KE = 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑅𝑀𝑆 )2 = 𝐾𝑇
2 2 2
(𝑚𝑣)2 𝑝2 Where K = Boltzmann Cost.
𝐸𝐾 = = = 𝑞𝑉 (𝑚𝑣𝑅𝑀𝑆 )2 𝑝2 3
2𝑚 2𝑚
Where p = 𝑚𝑣, momentum of the particle 𝐸𝐾 = = = 𝐾𝑇
2𝑚 2𝑚 2
⇒ 𝑝 = √2𝑚 × 𝑞𝑉 Where p = 𝑚𝑣𝑅𝑀𝑆 , momentum of the particle
We know that de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass 3
ℎ ⇒ 𝑝 = √2𝑚 × 𝐾𝑇 = √3𝑚𝐾𝑇
‘m’ at velocity ‘v’ is given as 𝜆= 2
𝑝
ℎ
⇒ 𝜆= We know that de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass
√2𝑚 × 𝑞𝑉 ‘m’ at velocity ‘v’ is given as
* If the charged particle be an electron, ℎ
then 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 1019 𝐶 & 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔 𝜆=
𝑝
Above equation gives ℎ
𝜆𝑒 =
ℎ
=
6.6 × 10−34
=
12.28 𝑜
𝐴
⇒ 𝜆=
−31 19 √3𝑚𝐾𝑇
√2𝑚𝑒 × 𝑒𝑉 √2 × 9.1 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 𝑉 √𝑉
Bohr’s Quantization Rule
If the electron is confined to move in a circular orbit of
Of all possible circular orbits allowed by the classical
radius r, then net path covered in one complete cycle is 2πr.
theory, the electrons are permitted to circulate only in
According to Bohr’ rule, only those orbits are allowed for
those orbits in which the angular momentum of an electron
𝒉
which
is an integral multiple of , where h is Plank's constant. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
𝟐𝝅
Therefore, for any permitted orbit, ℎ
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛
𝒉 𝑚𝑣
𝑳 = 𝒎𝒗𝒓 = 𝒏 ℎ
𝟐𝝅 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛
Where L, m, and v are the angular momentum, mass and the speed 2𝜋
of the electron respectively. r is the radius of the permitted orbit
𝒉
and n is positive integer called principal quantum number. 𝑳=𝒏
The above equation is Bohr's famous quantum condition. 𝟐𝝅
Hence, Angular momentum of electrons in an orbit in the
The de-Broglie wavelength λ associated with electron of atom is quantised.
ℎ ℎ
mass m at velocity v, is: 𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 This is a direct consequence of wave nature of the electron.

Wave velocity: The velocity of advancement of a wave is Phase Velocity of a particle/de Broglie’s wave
called its wave velocity. The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass ‘m’ at
It is given as - 𝐯𝒘 = 𝝂𝝀; where 𝜈= frequency and velocity ‘v’ is given as
𝜆 =wavelength of the wave. ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = …………(1)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Phase Velocity: It is the velocity with which the planes of Its energy is given as-
constant phase advance/propagate through the medium. • According to Plank’s theory 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 ……..(2)
𝜔 • According to Einstein’s relativity 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .…..(3)
It is given as - 𝑣𝑝 = ; where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 ; angular freq.
𝐾 Comparing eqn. (2) & (3), we get
2𝜋
&𝐾 = ; propagation constant of the wave. 𝑚𝑐 2
𝜆 ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ⇒ 𝜈= .…..(4)
𝜔 2𝜋𝜈 ℎ
so 𝑣𝑝 = = 2𝜋 The phase velocity,
𝐾 ⁄𝜆
𝜔 2𝜋𝜈 𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ 𝒄𝟐
= 𝜈𝜆 = v𝑤 𝒗𝒑 = = = 𝜈𝜆 = × =
𝐾 2𝜋⁄ ℎ 𝑚v 𝐯
𝜔 𝜆
𝑣𝑝 = = 𝜈𝜆 = v𝑤 𝒄𝟐
𝐾 𝒗𝒑 =
𝐯
According to this equation the phase velocity of a particle
wave is not equal to the particle velocity.

Wave Group or Wave Packet

Schrodinger postulated that a moving particle is not equivalent to a single
wave but it behaves as a Wave Group or a Wave Packet.
“An amplitude modulated resultant wave produced by the superposition
of two coherent waves is called a Wave Group or Wave Packet.”

Group Velocity- “The velocity with which a wave group propagates in the space is called Group Velocity.”
𝑑𝜔
It is given as – 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝐾

Relationship between Group velocity and Particle velocity

Let there be a particle of mass m moving with velocity v. Then its angular frequency and propagation constant are given as-
𝑚𝑐2 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 𝑣
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 = 2𝜋 × [∵ ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ⇒ 𝜈 = ℎ
𝜔= = × 3/2 ……………….(1)
ℎ 𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑣2
2𝜋𝑐 2 𝑚𝑜 1 𝑚𝑜 (1− 2 )
× 2
[∵ 𝑚 = 2
𝑐
ℎ √1−𝑣 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚𝑣 ℎ ℎ
√1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐2 𝐾= = [∵ 𝜆= =
On differentiating with respect to v, we get 𝜆 ℎ 𝑝 𝑚𝑣
2𝜋𝑚𝑜 𝑣 𝑚𝑜
𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑐 𝑚𝑜 𝑑 2 −
𝑣2 2
1
𝐾= × 2
[∵ 𝑚 = 2
ℎ √1−𝑣
= × (1 − 2 ) √1−𝑣2 𝑐2
𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑑𝑣 𝑐 𝑐
3 On differentiating with respect to v, we get
−
2𝜋𝑐 2 𝑚𝑜 𝑣2 2 −1 −2𝑣 𝑑𝐾 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 𝑑 𝑣2
−1/2
= × (1 − 2 ) ×( )×( 2 ) = × [𝑣 × (1 − 2 ) ]
ℎ 𝑐 2 𝑐 𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑑𝑣 𝑐
 −1/2 −1/2
𝑑𝐾 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 𝑑 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑣 Now dividing equation (1) by (2), we obtain
= × [𝑣 × (1 − 2 ) + (1 − ) × ] 3
𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑑𝑣 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔⁄
𝑑𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 𝑣 ℎ 𝑣2 2
−
3
−1/2 𝑑𝐾⁄ ℎ
× 3 × 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 × (1 − 𝑐2 )
𝑑𝐾 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 𝑣2 2 −1 −2𝑣 𝑣2 𝑑𝑣 𝑣2 2
= × [𝑣 × (1 − 2 ) × ( ) × ( 2 ) + (1 − 2 ) ] (1− 2 )
𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑐 2 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑑𝜔
=𝑣
𝑑𝐾
𝑑𝑣
= 2𝜋𝑚
ℎ
𝑜
× 1
3/2 ……………….(2) 𝑑𝐾
𝑣2 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣
(1− )
𝑐2
Hence it is proved that group velocity is equal to the particle velocity, which also proves that a moving particle behaves as a
wave group/packet.
Relationship between Group velocity with Phase velocity for a Particle wave
The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass ‘m’ at velocity ‘v’ is given as
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = …………(1)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Its energy is given as-
▪ According to Plank’s theory 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 ……..(2)
▪ According to Einstein’s relativity 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .…..(3)
Comparing eqn. (2) & (3), we get
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
⇒ 𝜈= ℎ
………...…..(4)
𝜔 2𝜋𝜈 𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ
The phase velocity, 𝒗𝒑 = = 2𝜋 = 𝜈𝜆 = × 𝑚v (using eq 1 and 4
𝐾 ⁄𝜆 ℎ
𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒗𝒑 = = 𝑣 [∵ 𝑣𝑔 =𝑣
𝐯 𝑔
Hence, 𝑣𝑝 × 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐 2

Wave Function:
“The quantity whose periodic variation describes the propagation of the wave is called wave function.”
For the matter waves it is denoted by Ψ, which is given by
Ψ = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
• Ψ is often a complex quantity.
• Ψ is always a positive and real quantity.
• Ψ is also known as the probability amplitude.

Physical Significance of Wave Function 𝚿

According to Max Born, “Wave function 𝜳 has no physical significance of its own, rather, the square of the absolute
magnitude of wave function |𝜳|𝟐 (=𝜳 𝜳∗ ) evaluated at a particular point at a particular time instance gives the probability
of finding that particle at that point at that time instance.”
|Ψ|2 is also known as the probability density.

Condition of Acceptability for a Wave Function

For a function to be accepted as a wave function for a matter wave it should satisfy the following conditions-
• 𝛹 should be continuous, finite and single valued at a particular point at a particular time instance.
∞
• 𝛹 should be Normalised, i.e ∫−∞|𝜳|𝟐 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟏

Schrödinger Wave Equation

“Schrodinger wave equation is a mathematical expression describing the energy and position of a particle in space and
time, taking into account its wave nature.”
It is expressed in two forms-
𝟐𝒎 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝒉
Time Independent form – 𝛁𝟐 𝚿 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝚿 = 𝟎 OR 𝛁𝟐𝚿 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝚿 = 𝟎, 𝐢𝐟 ℏ = 𝟐𝝅
ℏ𝟐 𝒉𝟐
ℏ𝟐 𝝏𝚿
Time dependent form - − 𝛁 𝟐 𝚿 + 𝑽𝚿 = 𝓲ℏ
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒕
Derivation: -
Schrödinger wave eq in Time Independent Form. 4𝜋2
∇2 Ψ + ℎ2
[2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)]Ψ =0
Let there be a particle of mass m moving with velocity v with 𝟐
𝟖𝝅 𝒎
a potential energy V. Then its total energy E will be given by 𝛁𝟐𝚿 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝚿 = 𝟎
1 (𝑚𝑣)2 𝑝2 𝒉𝟐
ℎ
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉 = +𝑉 = +𝑉 if we place ℏ = 2𝜋, the above equation becomes
2 2𝑚 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑝 = √2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) 𝛁𝟐𝚿 +
𝟐𝒎
(𝑬 − 𝑽)𝚿 = 𝟎
Hence its de-Broglie’s wave length is given as ℏ𝟐
ℎ This is Schrödinger wave eq in Time Independent Form.
𝜆= … … (1)
√2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) For a free particle i.e. a particle not acted upon by an
Let us suppose that the wave function describing its wave external force, V=0. Then Schrodinger eq becomes
nature is 𝟐𝒎
Ψ = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 … … (2) 𝛁𝟐𝚿 + 𝐄𝚿 = 𝟎
ℏ𝟐
We know that the general wave equation is
𝟐
𝝏 𝟐 𝚿 𝝏𝟐 𝚿 𝝏𝟐 𝚿 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝚿 Schrödinger wave eq in Time dependent Form.
𝛁 𝚿= + + = 𝟐 𝟐 … … ( 3) We know that the wave function describing the wave nature
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝒕
Where 𝚿 is the wave function which is a function of x, y, z & of the particle is
t, and u is wave speed. Ψ = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
Partially differentiating eq (2) two times w.r.t t, we get Partially differentiating the above eq w.r.t t, we get
𝜕Ψ
𝜕 2Ψ 𝜕𝑡
= −𝒾ω𝜓𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝒾ωΨ = −𝒾 (2πϑ)Ψ ∵ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜗
= −𝜔2 𝜓𝑜 𝑒−𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 Ψ 𝜕Ψ E
𝜕𝑡 2 = −𝒾 (2πϑ)Ψ = −𝒾 (2π ) Ψ ∵ 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
Placing the above value in eq (3), we get 𝜕𝑡 ℎ
𝜕 2Ψ 𝜕 2Ψ 𝜕 2Ψ 𝜔2 −1 ℎ 𝜕Ψ ℎ 𝜕Ψ
⇒ 𝐸Ψ = 𝒾 (2𝜋) 𝜕𝑡 = 𝒾 (2𝜋) 𝜕𝑡 ∵ −1 = 𝒾 2
∇2 Ψ = + + = − ( )Ψ
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑢2
𝜕Ψ 𝒉
Now ⇒ 𝐸Ψ = 𝒾ℏ … … (5) ∵ ℏ = 𝟐𝝅
2 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2Ψ 𝜕2Ψ 𝜕2Ψ 𝜔2 2𝜋𝜗
∇2 Ψ = 2
+ 2
+ 2
= − ( 2 ) Ψ = −( ) Ψ Schrödinger wave eq in Time Independent Form is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑢 𝜗𝜆 2𝑚
2𝜋 2
∇2 Ψ + (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
ℏ2
∇2 Ψ = −( ) Ψ 2 2𝑚 2𝑚
𝜆 Or ∇ Ψ− 𝑉Ψ = − 𝐸Ψ
4𝜋2 ℏ2 ℏ2
∇2 Ψ + 𝜆2
Ψ= 0 … … (4) 2𝑚
Dividing throughout by − we get
If this general wave equation is adapted to express the wave ℏ2
ℏ2
equation of the particle wave, then for the particle − 2𝑚 ∇2 Ψ + 𝑉Ψ = EΨ
ℎ Placing the value of 𝐸Ψ in the above eq from eq (5), we get
𝜆=
√2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) ℏ𝟐 𝝏𝚿
− 𝟐𝒎 𝛁 𝟐 𝚿 + 𝑽𝚿 = 𝓲ℏ 𝝏𝒕
Placing this value in eq (4), we get, This is Schrödinger wave eq in Time dependent Form.

Application of Schrödinger Equation: Motion of a Particle in a One-Dimensional Box

Let there be a particle of mass m, as shown in the adjoining figure.
The time independent Schrodinger eq is
𝟐𝒎
𝛁𝟐 𝚿 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝚿 = 𝟎
ℏ𝟐
The particle is free to move along x-axis only, with in the range 0 < x < a.
Then V = 0 in this range.
The time independent Schrodinger eq describing this particle is
𝜕2 Ψ 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
+ EΨ = 0 … … (𝟏)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝒉𝟐

8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸 the boundary conditions.

If we take, = 𝐾 2 …………..(2) ,
ℎ2
Placing this value in eq (1) , we get • 1st Boundary condition: 𝚿 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎,
𝜕2 Ψ On placing the above values in eq (4), we get
+ 𝐾2Ψ = 0 … … (𝟑) 𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(0) + 𝐵 cos(0) = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
The general solution for eq (3) is given by ⇒ 𝑩=𝟎
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑥) + 𝐵 cos (𝐾𝑥) … … (𝟒) Hence, eq (4) becomes,
Where A, B and K are arbitrary constants. 𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑥) … … (𝟓)
Appropriate values of A, B & K can be found by applying
• 2nd Boundary condition: 𝚿 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝐚,
𝑎
On placing the above values in eq (5), we get 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝟐
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑎) = 0 ⇒ ∫ |𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( )| 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
0 𝑎
⇒ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛(𝐾𝑎) = 0 On solving the above, we get
⇒ 𝐾𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … .. 𝑎 2
𝑛𝜋 𝐴2 × 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴 = √𝑎
⇒ 𝐾=
𝑎 Placing this value of A in eq (6), it finally becomes,
On placing this value in eq (5) it becomes
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( 𝑎
) … … (𝟔) 𝜳=√
𝒂
𝒔𝒊 𝒏 (
𝒂
) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … ..
• 3rd condition: 𝚿 is normalized between 0 < x < a .
𝑎 This is the Normalized wave function for the particle free to
i.e. ∫0 |𝜳|𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 move in a one-dimensional box.

Energy of the Particle Wave ℎ2 𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋

Let us take eq (2) again ⇒ 𝐸= × ( ) ∵𝐾=
8𝑚𝜋 2 𝑎 𝑎
8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
= 𝐾2 ℎ2
ℎ2
ℎ 2 ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑛2 ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … …
8𝑚𝑎2
⇒ 𝐸= × 𝐾2
8𝑚𝜋 2

Energy Eigen Values and Wave function

Energy and wavefunction are given as

2
ℎ2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐸=𝑛 ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛹 = √ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … …
8𝑚𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
Energy and Wave function of the particle wave tend to change with the value
of n.
• At n = 0, 𝐸0 = 0 ⇒ Particle is at rest
ℎ2 2 𝜋𝑥
• At n = 1, 𝐸1 = (8𝑚𝑎2 ) & 𝛹1 = √𝑎 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( 𝑎 ) ⇒ Ground State
ℎ2 2 2𝜋𝑥
• At n = 2, 𝐸2 = (2𝑚𝑎2 ) & 𝛹2 = √𝑎 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( 𝑎
) ⇒ 1st Excited
State
9 ℎ2 2 3𝜋𝑥
• At n = 3, 𝐸3 = ( ) & 𝛹3 = √ 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 ( ) ⇒ 2nd Excited
8 𝑚𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
State
And so on.

*****
 Davisson & Germer’s electron diffraction experiment

In 1927, Davisson & Germer were studying the scattering of electrons from a Nickel block. Electrons from
an electron gun were allowed to incident on a Nickel target and after scattering, the electrons are collected
using an electron detector which can be moved along a circular scale. This experiment was being carried out
in an evacuated chamber as shown in the figure 1. In the midst of their work an accident occurred and air
entered their apparatus which oxidised Nickel. To reduce the oxide back to pure Nickel, the target was baked
in a hot oven. Because of this heat treatment nickel crystallized. For different values of potential, the electrons
were collected at different positions. The current which is the measure of the intensity of the diffracted beam,
is plotted against the diffraction angle Φ for each accelerating potential. Typical polar graphs of electron
intensity are shown in the Figure 2. The method of plotting is such that the intensity at any point is
proportional to the distance of the curve from origin. Classical physics predicted that the scattered electrons
will emerge in all directions with only a moderate dependence of their intensity on scattering angle and even
less on their energy. However, they found quite different results. Instead of a continuous variation of intensity
with angle, distinct maxima and minima were observed whose positions were dependent on electron energy.
This confirmed that electrons are showing diffraction and thus showing wave nature. This experiment thus
confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis.

Figure 1: Experimental set up

Figure 2: Polar plots of scattered intensity at various accelerating potentials.

Let us try to estimate the wavelength associated with electrons using the results of this experiment and
compare it with the de Broglie hypothesis. It was observed that up to a voltage of 40 volts, the intensity
variation of scattered electrons follows a smooth and a bump begins to appear in the curve at an accelerating
voltage of 44 volts. As the potential difference is further increased, the bump becomes sharper and is most
prominent at 54 volts electrons at Φ = 500. Beyond 54 volts the bump gradually diminishes and become
insignificant at 68 volts electrons. According to de Broglie, the wavelength associated with electron
accelerated through a potential V is given by

From X-ray analysis, it is known that nickel crystal acts as plane diffraction grating with grating space

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d = 0.91 Ǻ. In this case we observe a maxima at Φ = 500. The corresponding angle of incidence relative to
the family of Bragg planes as shown in the figure is

This is in good agreement with the wavelength computed from de Broglie hypothesis. Hence, the
de Broglie’s concept of matter waves is confirmed.

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