s you think about questions, keep several guiding principles

Jn mind. These are the foundation of all that follows.

Conversational-Conversational-Conversational

The first principle is to ask questions in a conversational manner.

Because the focus group is a social experience, conversational
questions are essential to create and maintain an informal envi-
ronment. But what makes one question conversational and an-
other awkward often depends on the situation.
The wording of the questions should be direct, forthright,
comfortable, and simple. Are the questions easy to ask, or do you
stumble over words? It is critical that the language is appropriate
for the intended audience. Furthermore, the meaning of the
question must be clearly conveyed orally. Some questions are

A8sinyou think about questions, keep several guiding principles

mind. These are the foundation of all that follows.

Conversational-Conversational-Conversational

The first principle is to ask questions in a conversational manner.

Because the focus group is a social experience, conversational
questions are essential to create and maintain an informal envi-
ronment. But what makes one question conversational and an-
other awkward often depends on the situation.
The wording of the questions should be direct, forthright,
comfortable, and simple. Are the questions easy to ask, or do you
stumble over words? It is critical that the language is appropriate
for the intended audience. Furthermore, the meaning of the
question must be clearly conveyed orally. Some questions are
suuic, usciui anu pj.aL.m-ui nidy uc vci.y uuiciciu i-um-cpLS.
from people like the participants and advice from other re-
At other times, moderators may add a second sentence or
searchers should be actively sought and considered.
phrase that supposedly amplifies the question but in fact confuses
the respondents by introducing another dimension, for example:
"What is most important to you, that is, which topic should be
Allow Sufficient Time
acted upon first?" In this case, the moderator assumes that what
is important should be acted upon first, but this may not be the
Quality questions are not produced quickly. The amount of time
view of participants.
needed is often underestimated by the researcher and underval-
A third aspect of clarity is wording. The words must be
ued by the project sponsor. When the research sponsor reviews
understandable to the participants. Acronyms, jargon, and tech-
the proposed questioning route, the questions can seem so sensi-
nical language are deadly. Professionals are sometimes held cap-
rive by their language and inadvertently use technical terms or ble and straightforward that a person might assume that questions
jargon confusing to lay audiences. Consequently, the questions are easy to develop. In some studies, the questioning route may

should be reviewed by people similar to your target audience to have gone through half a dozen revisions before being seen by
the research sponsors and then another six revisions before being
make sure the language is clear.
used in the first focus group. Revisions take time, and the
researcher must allow sufficient time for quality questions to
emerge.

some, "useful" and "practical" may be very ditterent concepts.

from people like the participants and advice from other re-
At other times, moderators may add a second sentence or
searchers should be actively sought and considered.
phrase that supposedly amplifies the question but in fact confuses
the respondents by introducing another dimension, for example:
"What is most important to you, that is, which topic should be
Allow Sufficient Time
acted upon first?" In this case, the moderator assumes that what
is important should be acted upon first, but this may not be the
Quality questions are not produced quickly. The amount of time
view of participants.
needed is often underestimated by the researcher and underval-
A third aspect of clarity is wording. The words must be
ued by the project sponsor. When the research sponsor reviews
understandable to the participants. Acronyms, jargon, and tech-
nical language are deadly. Professionals are sometimes held cap- the proposed questioning route, the questions can seem so sensi-

tive by their language and inadvertently use technical terms or ble and straightforward that a person might assume that questions
are easy to develop. In some studies, the questioning route may
jargon confusing to lay audiences. Consequently, the questions
should be reviewed by people similar to your target audience to have gone through half a dozen revisions before being seen by
the research sponsors and then another six revisions before being
make sure the language is clear.
used in the first focus group. Revisions take time, and the
researcher must allow sufficient time for quality questions to
emerge.
 witn rocus groups mere is consiaeraoie inrcracnon oerween
moderator skills and effective questioning procedures. Some
moderators can ask difficult questions while others asking these
same questions find the participants cold and withdrawn. The
moderator establishes a climate for communication, and partici-
pants develop a rapport based on trust and confidence. Without
this trust the questions just aren't as effective. As a result, we find
that what works for one moderator might not work for another.
Find your own way, and if it works, continue using it. If it doesn't,
make changes.
Let's be even more extreme. You may find some things in this
book that run counter to your experiences. Perhaps we suggest a
strategy that just hasn't been successful for you, or perhaps we
discourage a technique that you've found productive. Again, the
answer lies in what works for you. These principles have worked
for us, and we hope they will work for you.
Naomi Henderson, a leading focus group researcher in mar-
keting research, has offered 10 classic questions that have worked
for her.

With focus groups there is considerable interaction between

moderator skills and effective questioning procedures. Some
moderators can ask difficult questions while others asking these
same questions find the participants cold and withdrawn. The
moderator establishes a climate for communication, and partici-
pants develop a rapport based on trust and confidence. Without
this trust the questions just aren't as effective. As a result, we find
that what works for one moderator might not work for another.
Find your own way, and if it works, continue using it. If it doesn't,
make changes.
Let's be even more extreme. You may find some things in this
book that run counter to your experiences. Perhaps we suggest a
strategy that just hasn't been successful for you, or perhaps we
discourage a technique that you've found productive. Again, the
answer lies in what works for you. These principles have worked
for us, and we hope they will work for you.
Naomi Henderson, a leading focus group researcher in mar-
keting research, has offered 10 classic questions that have worked
for her.
 1 arly in our experience with focus groups, we began by writing
/out the questions word for word. It just seemed like the right
thing to do, and it never occurred to us that we might use an
outline with key words. We also found that many moderators had
the very opposite experience, beginning with an outline and
never thinking about the benefits or potential of complete sen-
tences.
Two different questioning strategies are currently in use, and
each approach has built-in assumptions, advantages, and disad-
vantages. Think about which strategy you want to adopt.
The topic guide is a list of topics or issues to be pursued in
the focus group. This list consists of words or phrases that remind
the moderator of the topic of interest. By contrast, the question-
ing route is a sequence of questions in complete, conversational
sentences.

arly in our experience with focus groups, we began by writing

rout the questions word for word. It just seemed like the right
thing to do, and it never occurred to us that we might use an
outline with key words. We also found that many moderators had
the very opposite experience, beginning with an outline and
never thinking about the benefits or potential of complete sen-
tences.
Two different questioning strategies are currently in use, and
each approach has built-in assumptions, advantages, and disad-
vantages. Think about which strategy you want to adopt.
The topic guide is a list of topics or issues to be pursued in
the focus group. This list consists of words or phrases that remind
the moderator of the topic of interest. By contrast, the question-
ing route is a sequence of questions in complete, conversational
sentences.
 of customer service at the (name of local agency). Then, list three things that
public organizations that provide excellent in customer service do. [WHEN The topic guide approach requires the moderator to be skillful
FINISHED] OK, let's list these on the flip chart. in spontaneously phrasing the topic into a coherent, single-
7. When you do business with (name of local agency), what is the single most dimension question presented as a complete sentence. This de-
important thing that could happen that would make you say that the service is mands consistency and discipline by the moderator. As a result,
fantastic? we encourage beginning moderators to avoid the topic guide until We Encourage
8. On the other hand, what single thing could happen that might make you say mastery is achieved. The topic guide is more often used by people Beginning
that the service is just simply awful? who do moderating for a living, and these experts have developed Moderators
9. Think about all that we have talked about today. What do you think is most a sense of what will and won't work. to Avoid the
important for (name of local agency) to keep doing? At its worst, the topic guide approach can be sloppy research Topic Guide
10. Have we missed anything? and a disservice to both sponsors and the field of social science
research. There is a greater tendency for individual differences to
occur with the topic guide, and results can be unduly influenced
by moderator behavior. However, some studies lend themselves
The topic guide tends to be used by professional moderators to a topic guide approach, particularly when the concept is simple
in marketing research studies, whereas the questioning route is and straightforward, and the moderator is experienced.
often preferred in the public, nonprofit, and academic environ-
ments. Let's consider the advantages and disadvantages of each
approach.

of customer service at the (name of local agency). Then, list three things that
public organizations that provide excellent in customer service do. [WHEN The topic guide approach requires the moderator to be skillful
FINISHED] OK, let's list these on the flip chart. in spontaneously phrasing the topic into a coherent, single-
7. When you do business with (name of local agency), what is the single most dimension question presented as a complete sentence. This de-
important thing that could happen that would make you say that the service is mands consistency and discipline by the moderator. As a result,
fantastic? we encourage beginning moderators to avoid the topic guide until We Encourage
8. On the other hand, what single thing could happen that might make you say mastery is achieved. The topic guide is more often used by people Beginning
that the service is just simply awful? who do moderating for a living, and these experts have developed Moderators
9. Think about all that we have talked about today. What do you think is most a sense of what will and won't work. to Avoid the
important for (name of local agency) to keep doing? At its worst, the topic guide approach can be sloppy research Topic Guide
10. Have we missed anything? and a disservice to both sponsors and the field of social science
research. There is a greater tendency for individual differences to
occur with the topic guide, and results can be unduly influenced
by moderator behavior. However, some studies lend themselves
The topic guide tends to be used by professional moderators to a topic guide approach, particularly when the concept is simple
in marketing research studies, whereas the questioning route is and straightforward, and the moderator is experienced.
often preferred in the public, nonprofit, and academic environ-
ments. Let's consider the advantages and disadvantages of each
approach.
 ocyn t,u lucnn/y ^/uvsnuns

Prepare First Draft of Questions

Share and Revise, Revise, Revise

'n the past, we relied on experts who worked alone to come up

-with the right questions and strategies for getting the answers.
We've since learned that the key to good focus group research is
to work with others to create the right questions. We'd like to
suggest a process that we've found helpful, but don't feel that this
is the only way to develop questions.
This approach taps into the expertise of different types of
people through different roles: team leader, research team mem-
bers, and brainstorming team members. The team leader is the
researcher with lead responsibility for the project. Research team
members are those assisting with planning and conducting the
focus group study. The brainstorming team can include members
of the research team but should also tap into the experiences and
insights of those not familiar with research or the topic under
investigation.

13

iegm to Identify Questions

Prepare First Draft of Questions
Share and Revise, Revise, Revise

'n the past, we relied on experts who worked alone to come up

-with the right questions and strategies for getting the answers.
We've since learned that the key to good focus group research is
to work with others to create the right questions. We'd like to
suggest a process that we've found helpful, but don't feel that this
is the only way to develop questions.
This approach taps into the expertise of different types of
people through different roles: team leader, research team mem-
bers, and brainstorming team members. The team leader is the
researcher with lead responsibility for the project. Research team
members are those assisting with planning and conducting the
focus group study. The brainstorming team can include members
of the research team but should also tap into the experiences and
insights of those not familiar with research or the topic under
investigation.

13
the problem described by the sponsor. and sequencing of the questions. Until now, we have been trying
to identify concepts, not obtain exact wording of the questions.
With a 2-hour limit, the researchers are restricted to about a
Begin to Identify Questions dozen questions (plus or minus four). This rule of thumb obvi-
ously depends on the nature of the questions, as some questions
Once the problem is understood and everyone has agreed that can be answered literally in seconds, with no additional discussion
focus groups are appropriate, the next step is to gather ideas about needed. One strategy is to think of your questions as either
questions that will shed light on the problem. Sometimes, the 5-minute questions, 10-minute questions, or 15-minute ques-
questioning strategy will be straightforward, and we'll know tions. The 5-minute questions occur at the beginning of the focus
immediately where to begin. Other times, it's hard to decide group to introduce the topic as participants get ready to delve
where to begin because no particular way seems appropriate. into the core areas, or as short transition questions midway
When this occurs, we often use brainstorming. through the discussion. The 10-minute questions are the areas of

Brainstorming works well with a group of four to six people. central concern that drive the study. The 15-minute questions
The leader of the group provides an overview of the problem and represent a sizable time investment and must be very important.
a description of the intended participants in the focus group, In a 2-hour focus group, you should plan for 90 minutes of
inviting suggestions for questions. Often, the discussion goes questions, since the session may not start exactly on time and
beyond identifying questions and circles back to issues about what some time will be needed at the end for the summary and final
type of participants should be included in the focus groups and participant comments. For example, the researcher might plan
about further clarification of the problem. The leader may push for the following:

the problem described by the sponsor. and sequencing of the questions. Until now, we have been trying
to identify concepts, not obtain exact wording of the questions.
With a 2-hour limit, the researchers are restricted to about a
Begin to Identify Questions dozen questions (plus or minus four). This rule of thumb obvi-
ously depends on the nature of the questions, as some questions
Once the problem is understood and everyone has agreed that can be answered literally in seconds, with no additional discussion
focus groups are appropriate, the next step is to gather ideas about needed. One strategy is to think of your questions as either
questions that will shed light on the problem. Sometimes, the 5-minute questions, 10-minute questions, or 15-minute ques-
questioning strategy will be straightforward, and we'll know tions. The 5-minute questions occur at the beginning of the focus
immediately where to begin. Other times, it's hard to decide group to introduce the topic as participants get ready to delve
where to begin because no particular way seems appropriate. into the core areas, or as short transition questions midway
When this occurs, we often use brainstorming. through the discussion. The 10-minute questions are the areas of
Brainstorming works well with a group of four to six people. central concern that drive the study. The 15-minute questions
The leader of the group provides an overview of the problem and represent a sizable time investment and must be very important.
a description of the intended participants in the focus group, In a 2-hour focus group, you should plan for 90 minutes of
inviting suggestions for questions. Often, the discussion goes questions, since the session may not start exactly on time and
beyond identifying questions and circles back to issues about what some time will be needed at the end for the summary and final
type of participants should be included in the focus groups and participant comments. For example, the researcher might plan
about further clarification of the problem. The leader may push for the following:
 y. nuw wuuiu yuu inmwiv vMeiwun ^ wws^'. » ^ '
storming and research teams should occur prior to solicitation of
10. Extension wants people more involved in designing, planning, conducting, and
the sponsor's reactions. After obtaining feedback from the spon- Pilot Testing
evaluating extension programs. Programs are better when local residents are
sor, the research team might review the draft again and field test Described i
involved as active partners. What will encourage active participation?
the questions with potential participants. Chapter 1
11. Think about all that we have talked about today. What do you think is most
important for extension to keep doing?
12. Have we missed anything?
Test questions to see if they are conversational. First, say them aloud. Are they easy to
ask, or do you stumble over words? Do you feel comfortable asking the questions ? Next,
have a conversation about the study wifh some people like the focus group participants.
Invite these people to tea, coffee, or a meal. Ask them how they would respond to the
questions. Ask how they themselves would ask the questions if they believe your
questions sound awkward. Besides testing questions, you can also get reactions to your
recruitment plan, incentives, and logistics at this point.

When seeking feedback on questions, place the date at the bottom or top of each page
to identify the revision. Don 't be surprised if you have six to ten revisions before you have
closure on the questions. The dates help the research team and sponsor keep revisions
separate.

9. How would you measure extension's success?

storming and research teams should occur prior to solicitation of
10. Extension wants people more involved in designing, planning, conducting, and
Pilot Testing Is the sponsor's reactions. After obtaining feedback from the spon-
evaluating extension programs. Programs are better when local residents are
Described in sor, the research team might review the draft again and field test involved as active partners. What will encourage active participation?
Chapter 10 the questions with potential participants. 11. Think about all that we have talked about today. What do you think is most
important for extension to keep doing?
12. Have we missed anything?
Test questions to see if they are conversational. First, say them aloud. Are they easy to
ask, or do you stumble over words? Do you feel comfortable asking the questions ? Next,
have a conversation about the study with some people like the focus group participants.
Invite these people to tea, coffee, or a meal. Ask them how they would respond to the
How to Test questions. Ask how they themselves would ask the questions if they believe your
Your Questions questions sound awkward. Besides testing questions. you can also get reactions to your
recruitment plan, incentives, and logistics at this point.

When seeking feedback on questions, place the date at the bottom or top of each page
to identify the revision. Don 't be surprised if you have six to ten revisions before you have
closure on the questions. The dates help the research team and sponsor keep revisions
Keep Track of separate.
Your Revisions
your questions, from time constraints to cultural considerations.
In this section, we suggest ways to pilot test your questions. There
is a mechanical aspect to asking good questions, but there is also
an artistic aspect. The mechanical aspect enables the researcher
to identify good questions, but art is needed to present those ques-
tions effectively. Can the moderator skillfully reweave previous
comments into subsequent questions to maintain the smooth flow
of the conversation? Without the art, the questions are short,
blunt, and choppy.

your questions, from time constraints to cultural considerations.

In this section, we suggest ways to pilot test your questions. There
is a mechanical aspect to asking good questions, but there is also
an artistic aspect. The mechanical aspect enables the researcher
to identify good questions, but art is needed to present those ques-
tions effectively. Can the moderator skillfully reweave previous
comments into subsequent questions to maintain the smooth flow
of the conversation? Without the art, the questions are short,
blunt, and choppy.
 ^fferent types of questions are used at different times during
the focus group. Each type of question has a distinct purpose.
Typically, a focus group will contain each type of question. A key
feature of focus group research is that not all questions are equal.
"n
KEY POINT
Some questions are trivial and exist only as a prelude to a more
important question. Other questions are of the utmost impor- Some Questions
tance. The level of importance influences the amount of time Are More
spent on the question as well as the intensity of the analysis. Not Important
all questions are analyzed in the same way. Some questions, such Than Others
as the opening question, may not be analyzed at all. The modera-
tor may move through some questions rapidly, whereas other
questions will need a leisurely discussion.
Essentially there are five categories of questions, each with a
distinctive function in the flow of a focus group interview. We
call these question categories: opening, introductory, transition,
key, and ending. For the sake of thoroughness, these questions
are presented as a questioning route, not as a topic guide.

21

^fferent types of questions are used at different times during

the focus group. Each type of question has a distinct purpose.
Typically, a focus group will contain each type of question. A key
feature of focus group research is that not all questions are equal.
"n
KEY POINT
Some questions are trivial and exist only as a prelude to a more
important question. Other questions are of the utmost impor- Some Questions
tance. The level of importance influences the amount of time Are More
spent on the question as well as the intensity of the analysis. Not Important
all questions are analyzed in the same way. Some questions, such Than Others
as the opening question, may not be analyzed at all. The modera-
tor may move through some questions rapidly, whereas other
questions will need a leisurely discussion.
Essentially there are five categories of questions, each with a
distinctive function in the flow of a focus group interview. We
call these question categories: opening, introductory, transition,
key, and ending. For the sake of thoroughness, these questions
are presented as a questioning route, not as a topic guide.

21
 K/V/l.A-I.AVA^-I.I.^V- ^^.U.*. U.AA*.V/^^/V/*.X^*W^*.U> .,^*. ^*.»^ u*^^.-.-..*-. ***.*^,.^^^. -. . ^

Introduction 2. Describe a healthy person. often, this type of demographic information is requested in a
short written "registration form" or "background survey" when
Transition 3. When you think of Heart Health, what comes to mind?
participants arrive at the focus group site if it is really needed.
Transition 4. Think back to the past several years. Have you made any changes Opening questions are typically not analyzed. The intent of
in your diet, exercise, or personal habits? Tell us about them.
the question is to establish a sense of community in the group in
Key 5. What prompted these changes? terms of how participants feel after they've heard responses from
FOLLOW-UP: others. One of the best opening questions that I've heard was
Friends, family, and neighbors asked of a group of dentists. It was: "Tell us who you are, where
Written information
you practice dentistry, and what you most enjoy doing when
Media messages
you're not practicing dentistry." The question established that all
Medical advice
Physical health of the participants had dentistry in common and that they were
Personal desire to change practitioners and human beings with interests, hobbies, and
families.
Key 6. Which of those mentioned was most influential?
Key 7. Tell us about the things you tried to do but discontinued;
the changes you fried to make but were not successful.
Ending 8. We are trying to help people make healthy changes.
What advice do you have for us?

^D<AMPLE-
Introduction 2. Describe a healthy person. often, this type of demographic information is requested in a
short written "registration form" or "background survey" when
Transition 3. When you think of Heart Health, what comes to mind?
Insights Into participants arrive at the focus group site if it is really needed.
Transition 4. Think back to the past several years. Have you made any changes
Successful Opening questions are typically not analyzed. The intent of
in your diet, exercise, or personal habits? Tell us about them.
Community the question is to establish a sense of community in the group in
Heart Health Key 5. What prompted these changes? terms of how participants feel after they've heard responses from
Programs FOLLOW-UP: others. One of the best opening questions that I've heard was
Friends, family, and neighbors asked of a group of dentists. It was: "Tell us who you are, where
Written information
you practice dentistry, and what you most enjoy doing when
Media messages
you're not practicing dentistry." The question established that all
Medical advice
Physical health of the participants had dentistry in common and that they were
Personal desire to change practitioners and human beings with interests, hobbies, and
families.
Key 6. Which of those mentioned was most influential?
Key 7. Tell us about the things you tried to do but discontinued;
the changes you tried to make but were not successful.
Ending 8. We are trying to help people make healthy changes.
What advice do you have for us?
 nation, or an overview of how people have experienced a product
Key questions drive the study. Typically, there are two to five
or service. Sometimes, the introductory question asks participants
questions in this category. These are usually the first questions to
to remember when they first experienced or encountered the
be developed by the research team and the ones that require the
organization or topic under investigation. This introductory
greatest attention in the analysis.
question begins to give the moderator clues about the partici-
It's crucial for the moderator to know which questions are
pants' reality. It is sometimes helpful to reweave these clues into
key questions. The moderator needs to allow sufficient time for
the discussion later in the focus group. Occasionally, participants
a full discussion of these questions. Although only a few minutes
will offer answers to introductory questions that are completely
might be allocated for each of the earlier questions, the key
unanticipated. These unique insights may lead to additional far More
questions may need as much as 10 or 15 minutes each. Further-
probing or follow-up questions. Information on
more, the moderator will likely need to use pauses and probes
the Usefulness
more frequently with key questions. Key questions usually begin of Pauses, See
about one third to one half of the way into the focus group. Chapter 4 of
• "When you hear the words customer service, what comes to mind?" Moderating
• "What's your first impression of the Minnesota Extension Service?" Focus Groups

y • "What persuaded you to join the agency?"

nation, or an overview of how people have experienced a product

Key questions drive the study. Typically, there are two to five
or service. Sometimes, the introductory question asks participants
questions in this category. These are usually the first questions to
to remember when they first experienced or encountered the
be developed by the research team and the ones that require the
organization or topic under investigation. This introductory
greatest attention in the analysis.
question begins to give the moderator clues about the partici-
It's crucial for the moderator to know which questions are
pants' reality. It is sometimes helpful to reweave these clues into
key questions. The moderator needs to allow sufficient time for
the discussion later in the focus group. Occasionally, participants
a full discussion of these questions. Although only a few minutes
will offer answers to introductory questions that are completely
might be allocated for each of the earlier questions, the key
unanticipated. These unique insights may lead to additional far More
questions may need as much as 10 or 15 minutes each. Further-
probing or follow-up questions. Information on
more, the moderator will likely need to use pauses and probes
the Usefulness
more frequently with key questions. Key questions usually begin of Pauses, See
about one third to one half of the way into the focus group. Chapter 4 of
• "When you hear the words customer service, what comes to mind?" Moderating
• "What's your first impression of the Minnesota Extension Service?" Focus Groups

Introductory • "What persuaded you to join the agency?"

Questions
most in need or action, etc. AISO, inaiviauais may tiave shared
4. Begin your oral summary with the most important findings, regardless of when hocus l:irouP
inconsistent points of view, and this question allows them to they were discussed in the focus group. Don't worry about the question
clarify their position at the conclusion of the discussion. Often, sequence when you construct your summary.
this question is answered by each person in the group.
5. Begin your summary with findings—whal was actually said. Attempt to capture
common themes but also acknowledge differing points of view. This descriptive
summary repeats what was said but is very brief. After you've given the
"Suppose you had one minute to talk to the governor on the topic of merit pay. summary of what was said. consider offering an interpretation. The interpretive
What would you say?" summary attaches additional meaning and goes beyond the actual words.
6. Listen for what was not said but might have been expected. If these areas are
"Of all the needs we discussed, which one is most important to you?"
important, then in the summary you might say, "Some things were not AII-Thing;
Vot down on a piece of paper one phrase or one sentence that best describes Considere
mentioned like.. .and lam assuming they are not important." Look at the
your position on this topic." Questior
participants while you're saying this and watch for reactions.
7. Cite key phrases used in the discussion. This demonstrates connectedness and
careful listening.
8. Keep the summary to 3 minutes or less. If you ramble on, people will tune out.
This type of question is helpful in analysis because it is used
9. When finished, look at the participants and ask, "Is this summary complete?"
to interpret conflicting comments and assign weight to what was
or "Does this sound OK to you?"
said. Sometimes, trivial concerns are talked about with frequency,
and it's a serious mistake for the analyst to assume that frequency
reflects importance. If the analyst wants to know what partici-

most in need of action, etc. Also, individuals may have shared hcus Group
4. Begin your oral summary with the most important findings, regardless of when
inconsistent points of view, and this question allows them to they were discussed in the focus group. Don't worry about the question
clarify their position at the conclusion of the discussion. Often, sequence when you construct your summary.
this question is answered by each person in the group.
5. Begin your summary with findings—whal was actually said. Attempt to capture
common themes but also acknowledge differing points of view. This descriptive
summary repeats what was said but is very brief. After you've given the
"Suppose you had one minute to talk to the governor on the topic of merit pay. summary of what was said. consider offering an interpretation. The interpretive
What would you say?" summary attaches additional meaning and goes beyond the actual words.
6. Listen for what was not said but might have been expected. If these areas are
"Of all the needs we discussed, which one is most important to you?"
AII-Things- important, then in the summary you might say, "Some things were not
Considered Vot down on a piece of paper one phrase or one sentence that best describes mentioned like.. .and lam assuming they are not important." Look at the
Questions your position on this topic."
participants while you're saying this and watch for reactions.
7. Cite key phrases used in the discussion. This demonstrates connectedness and
careful listening.
8. Keep the summary to 3 minutes or less. If you ramble on, people will tune out.
This type of question is helpful in analysis because it is used
9. When finished, look at the participants and ask, "Is this summary complete?"
to interpret conflicting comments and assign weight to what was
or "Does this sound OK to you?"
said. Sometimes, trivial concerns are talked about with frequency,
and it's a serious mistake for the analyst to assume that frequency
reflects importance. If the analyst wants to know what partici-
Do you have any advice on how we can improve?" Key 11. We realize that it's hard to stay motivated to learn about things
like cholesterol, but what would entice you to come back for
more? What would keep you interested?
Putting the Parts Together Ending 12. We are going to be putting together programs for residents on
how to lower their cholesterol. As we begin this project, what
Now let's put these components together into a set of questions. advice do you have for us?
Here are several examples of focus group questions. The first
example is from a not-for-profit organization that wanted to
design an educational program to help local residents lower their
The second example was used to determine how to develop a
cholesterol. Before they designed the program, they wanted to
community wellness campaign. The results helped experts design
find out more about what information people wanted, how they
workable strategies that were based on past successes.
liked to get information, and how to keep people motivated in
continuing with cholesterol reduction.

Do you have any advice on how we can improve?" Key 11. We realize that it's hard to stay motivated to learn about things
like cholesterol, but what would entice you to come back for
more? What would keep you interested?
Putting the Parts Together Ending 12. We are going to be putting together programs for residents on
how to lower their cholesterol. As we begin this project, what
Now let's put these components together into a set of questions. advice do you have for us?
Here are several examples of focus group questions. The first
example is from a not-for-profit organization that wanted to
design an educational program to help local residents lower their
The second example was used to determine how to develop a
cholesterol. Before they designed the program, they wanted to
community wellness campaign. The results helped experts design
find out more about what information people wanted, how they
workable strategies that were based on past successes.
liked to get information, and how to keep people motivated in
continuing with cholesterol reduction.
Transition 3. Take a few moments and look over the materials for parents on
preventing violence. The first part is a draft copy of a parent Pilot Te
guide for preventing violence. The second part includes Materials ai
suggestions for community-based activities. Slrategii
fter brainstorming the topics or questions, the researcher
PAUSE FOR PARENTS TO REVIEW MATERIALS
.phrases questions in language appropriate for participants.
Key 4. What was your first impression of these materials? Let's consider the strategies for phrasing questions.
Key 5. What one thing do you like the best about these materials ?
Key 6. What one thing do you like the least?
Key 7. Were there any parts of this material that seemed inappropriate? Use Open-Ended Questions
Key 8. Were there any parts of this material that other parents might be
concerned about?
Key 9. What would get you to participate in this effort?
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the focus group interview
is the open-ended questions. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a "^
KEY R31NT
focus group without open-ended questions. Open-ended ques-
Key 10. Suppose that you were trying fo encourage a friend to participate
tions allow the respondents to determine the direction of the
in this program. What would you say? Open-Ended
response. The answer is not implied, and the type or manner of
Questions Are
Ending 11. If you could change one thing about the program, what would it be? response is not suggested. Individuals are encouraged to respond Essential for
Ending 12. Do you have any other advice (or us as we introduce these new based on their specific situation. The major advantage of the Focus Group
materials or this campaign? open-ended question is that it reveals what is on the interviewee's Interviews
mind, as opposed to what the interviewer suspects is on the

31

3. Take a few moments and look over the materials for parents on
Pilot Test preventing violence. The first part is a draft copy of a parent
Materials and guide for preventing violence. The second part includes
Strategies suggestions for community-based activities.
fter brainstorming the topics or questions, the researcher
I;
PAUSE FOR PARENTS TO REVIEW MATERIALS
Lphrases questions in language appropriate for participants.
Key 4. What was your first impression of these materials ? Let's consider the strategies for phrasing questions.
Key 5. What one thing do you like the best about these materials ?
Key 6. What one thing do you like the least?
Key 7. Were there any parts of this material that seemed inappropriate ? Use Open-Ended Questions
I
Key 8. M/ere there any parts of this material that other parents might be
concerned about? Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the focus group interview
is the open-ended questions. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a
Key 9, What would get you to participate in this effort?
focus group without open-ended questions. Open-ended ques- KEY R31NT
Key 10. Suppose that you were trying to encourage a friend to participate
tions allow the respondents to determine the direction of the
in this program. What would you say? Open-Ended
response. The answer is not implied, and the type or manner of
Questions Are
Ending 11. If you could change one thing about the program, what would it be? response is not suggested. Individuals are encouraged to respond Essential for
12. Do you have any other advice for us as we introduce these new based on their specific situation. The major advantage of the Focus Group
materials or this campaign? open-ended question is that it reveals what is on the interviewee's Interviews
mind, as opposed to what the interviewer suspects is on the

31
 s you develop focus group questions, it's wise to be aware of
Jimits: constraints of time, attention, and clarity, plus cultural
and language factors.

Time and Attention Constraints

Focus groups are typically 60 to 120 minutes long. Some success-

ful groups have been conducted in less time, particularly with
student groups or on narrowly focused studies. At the other
extreme, we occasionally hear of focus groups lasting more than
2 hours. The 2-hour time limit, however, is a physical and
psychological limit for most people. (Among the few exceptions
are mock jury focus groups, which can last 8 hours.) Don't go
beyond the 2-hour maximum unless there is a special event or
circumstance that makes it comfortable for participants, such as
providing lunch or dinner.

49

s you develop focus group questions, it's wise to be aware of

-limits: constraints of time, attention, and clarity, plus cultural
and language factors.

Time and Attention Constraints

Focus groups are typically 60 to 120 minutes long. Some success-

ful groups have been conducted in less time, particularly with
student groups or on narrowly focused studies. At the other
extreme, we occasionally hear of focus groups lasting more than
2 hours. The 2-hour time limit, however, is a physical and
psychological limit for most people. (Among the few exceptions
are mock jury focus groups, which can last 8 hours.) Don't go
beyond the 2-hour maximum unless there is a special event or
circumstance that makes it comfortable for participants, such as
providing lunch or dinner.

49
clear grasp ot the problem and develop questions mai reneci: mat
groups.
clarity. Open-ended questions are not the same as unclear ques-
One primary constraint in conducting focus groups is that the
tions. The focus group discussion is of limited value unless the
moderator must understand the language. Conducting focus
participants truly understand what they are being asked. Often,
the lack of clarity is due to a lack of conceptual rigor by the groups through an interpreter is not only difficult and tedious,
researcher. Other times, the lack of clarity is just illustrative of but also of questionable research value. Asking participants to
our culture, in which we talk about ambiguous concepts such as
speak in a language other than their first language can make
participants uncomfortable and severely limit discussion because
diversity, equity, satisfaction, leadership, etc., without really de-
they may lack the words that best express their views. A better
fining what we are talking about.
strategy is to conduct groups in the first language of participants
with a moderator fluent in both that language and English.
Sometimes, when translating a question into another lan-
Cultural Constraints guage, the meaning gets changed. To prevent this, you might
consider using "back translations" of the questions by a second on Clarity
Culture greatly influences what kinds of questions are appropri- Chapter
translator. The English questions are translated into the target
ate in a focus group. Mainstream American culture, often char- "Guiding Principl
language by the first translator. These are then given to a second
acterized as forthright and candid, is not a workable model for of Asking Questior
translator, who is asked to translate them back into English. This
other cultures around the world. Questions that may be effective
translation is then compared with the original question. This
in white, middle-class American focus groups would be consid-
process helps ensure clarity and accuracy of the questions.
ered rude, inappropriate, or unethical in other focus groups. In

clear grasp of the problem and develop questions that reflect that
groups.
clarity. Open-ended questions are not the same as unclear ques-
One primary constraint in conducting focus groups is that the
tions. The focus group discussion is of limited value unless the
moderator must understand the language. Conducting focus
participants truly understand what they are being asked. Often,
the lack of clarity is due to a lack of conceptual rigor by the groups through an interpreter is not only difficult and tedious,
researcher. Other times, the lack of clarity is just illustrative of but also of questionable research value. Asking participants to
our culture, in which we talk about ambiguous concepts such as
speak in a language other than their first language can make
diversity, equity, satisfaction, leadership, etc., without really de-
participants uncomfortable and severely limit discussion because
they may lack the words that best express their views. A better
fining what we are talking about.
strategy is to conduct groups in the first language of participants
with a moderator fluent in both that language and English.
Note the Sometimes, when translating a question into another lan-
Discussion Cultural Constraints guage, the meaning gets changed. To prevent this, you might
on Clarity in consider using "back translations" of the questions by a second
Chapter 1: Culture greatly influences what kinds of questions are appropri-
translator. The English questions are translated into the target
"Guiding Principles ate in a focus group. Mainstream American culture, often char-
language by the first translator. These are then given to a second
of Asking Questions" acterized as forthright and candid, is not a workable model for
translator, who is asked to translate them back into English. This
other cultures around the world. Questions that may be effective
translation is then compared with the original question. This
in white, middle-class American focus groups would be consid-
process helps ensure clarity and accuracy of the questions.
ered rude, inappropriate, or unethical in other focus groups. In
choices, the moderator might invite brief descriptions.

Sorting Pictures
ometimes participants feel that their answers may not be
The picture sort resembles the collage discussed in Chapter 12 of 'correct—politically, socially, or intellectually. At other times,
this volume. It begins with a stack of pictures from magazines, the answer cannot be shared because it is below a level of articu-
such as a stack of pictures of women, men, or teens. The pictures lation. Although participants may have feelings about the topic,
depict people doing a variety of things. The moderator asks the they cannot express them in words. Consider projective question-
participants to sort through the pictures and pick out those that ing techniques in these situations, because they reduce the seri-
match certain characteristics. For example, "Look through these ousness of the topic and tap into different ways of thinking.
pictures and pick out the people who would participate in Projective techniques work because they circumvent several
community education"; "Here are some pictures of women. Sort possible barriers to expression. For example, sometimes we are
the pictures into two categories. One category is the women who unable to express attitudes because our ideas are not yet clearly
would likely breast-feed their child, and the second category is formed. The projective strategy makes the task easier because it
those who would likely bottle-feed their child." After the sorting shifts the topic of inquiry to something that is seemingly easier
exercise, the moderator might ask participants what the pictures and simpler. Another barrier is the perceived social acceptability
had in common and how they came to be selected. of our answers. We worry that others might not like what we say,
so we consciously monitor our comments. In the focus group,
this problem is minimized by the permissive sanctioning of the

71

choices, the moderator might invite brief descriptions.

Sorting Pictures
ometimes participants feel that their answers may not be
The picture sort resembles the collage discussed in Chapter 12 of 'correct—politically, socially, or intellectually. At other times,
this volume. It begins with a stack of pictures from magazines, the answer cannot be shared because it is below a level of articu-
such as a stack of pictures of women, men, or teens. The pictures lation. Although participants may have feelings about the topic,
depict people doing a variety of things. The moderator asks the they cannot express them in words. Consider projective question-
participants to sort through the pictures and pick out those that ing techniques in these situations, because they reduce the seri-
match certain characteristics. For example, "Look through these ousness of the topic and tap into different ways of thinking.
pictures and pick out the people who would participate in Projective techniques work because they circumvent several
community education"; "Here are some pictures of women. Sort possible barriers to expression. For example, sometimes we are
the pictures into two categories. One category is the women who unable to express attitudes because our ideas are not yet clearly
would likely breast-feed their child, and the second category is formed. The projective strategy makes the task easier because it
those who would likely bottle-feed their child." After the sorting shifts the topic of inquiry to something that is seemingly easier
exercise, the moderator might ask participants what the pictures and simpler. Another barrier is the perceived social acceptability
had in common and how they came to be selected. of our answers. We worry that others might not like what we say,
so we consciously monitor our comments. In the focus group,
this problem is minimized by the permissive sanctioning of the

71
 A focus group with prefeens seeks to discover persuasive strategies for healthy eating.
men I first found out that my cholesterol was high, I fell After a few preliminary questions, the young people are divided into teams, given stacks
of newspapers and magazines, and asked to prepare a display reflecting responses to
^
EXAMPLE
three questions:
Sentence
1. What is healthy eating?
• Now, as I think about the changes I made in my diet, what really helped me was Completion
2. What gets in the way of healthy eating?
3. What's the benefit of healthy eating?

Teen smoking prevention

What got in the way of my progress was
A focus group of teens is divided into two teams. Each team is assigned a question and
asked to develop a cottage. One team is asked to describe kids who smoke. The second
team /s asked to describe kids who don't smoke. After presenting results, the moderator
aste the whole group what has been learned.
I was surprised that

One problem with this program is Drawing a Picture

Each focus group participant is given a blank piece of paper and

a pencil. The participants are then asked to draw a picture that

A focus group with preteens seeks to discover persuasive strategies for healthy eating.
men I first found out that my cholesterol was high, I fell. After a few preliminary questions, the young people are divided info teams, given stacks
of newspapers and magazines, and asked to prepare a display reflecting responses to
EXAMPLE three questions:

Sentence 1. What is healthy eating?

Now, as I think about the changes I made in my diet, what really helped me was
Completion 2. What gets in the way of healthy eating?
3. What's the benefit of healthy eating?

Teen smoking prevention

What got in the way of my progress was
A focus group of teens is divided into two teams. Each team is assigned a question and
asked to develop a cottage. One team is asked to describe kids who smoke. The second
team /s asked to describe kids who don't smoke. After presenting results, the moderator
aste the whole group what has been learned.
I was surprised that

One problem with this program is Drawing a Picture

Each focus group participant is given a blank piece of paper and

a pencil. The participants are then asked to draw a picture that
similar? What was dinerem." L/ '

As with all these participatory exercises, the benefit is in the How would you describe this family? What strengths does this
discussion that follows the drawing of the pictures. The pictures family have? What's needed to improve this family?
are merely the stimulus that helps participants collect their
thoughts and explain how they see a concept or idea.
"Suppose that this program wasafamily. What other programs would be in the same
family?"
Creating Analogies "Suppose that all (educational, human service, etc.) agencies in our community are
family members. How would you describe this family?" Family Projective
With the analogy, the moderator asks how the target topic is like Technique
another topic. Select categories that are familiar to participants.
Some categories are used often, such as animals or automobiles,
but whatever the categories, they need to be familiar to partici-
pants. These could involve such things as workshop tools, restau- Using Personification
rants, department stores, things found in the kitchen, flowers,
trees, or insects. You might follow up with a question on what
With personification, the participants are asked how the target
the participants see in common (or as different) between the topic is like a person, and what kind of person it would be. The
various analogies. At times, the interpretation of results can be
moderator asks for a description of personal attributes. In effect,
risky, and the moderator should invite participants to explain an inanimate object (organization, program, option, demonstra-
their analogies.

similar? What was different?

As with all these participatory exercises, the benefit is in the How would you describe this family? What strengths does this
discussion that follows the drawing of the pictures. The pictures family have? What's needed to improve this family?
are merely the stimulus that helps participants collect their
thoughts and explain how they see a concept or idea.
"Suppose that this program wasafamily. What other programs would be in the same
family?"
Creating Analogies "Suppose that all (educational, human service, etc.) agencies in our community are
family members. How would you describe this family?" Family Projective
With the analogy, the moderator asks how the target topic is like Technique
another topic. Select categories that are familiar to participants.
Some categories are used often, such as animals or automobiles,
but whatever the categories, they need to be familiar to partici-
pants. These could involve such things as workshop tools, restau- Using Personification
rants, department stores, things found in the kitchen, flowers,
trees, or insects. You might follow up with a question on what
With personification, the participants are asked how the target
the participants see in common (or as different) between the topic is like a person, and what kind of person it would be. The
various analogies. At times, the interpretation of results can be
moderator asks for a description of personal attributes. In effect,
risky, and the moderator should invite participants to explain
an inanimate object (organization, program, option, demonstra-
their analogies.
ready for the exercise. For example, after participants have talked
about the pros and cons of an alternative, the moderator might
tell participants that there is a magic wand, hat, or device that Analysis of Projective Questions
allows them to make their fantasy come true. The moderator
passes around the wand or hat, and as each participant holds the Analysis of projective results is admittedly subjective, and we
wand or puts on the hat, each one also shares a fantasy. Alterna- encourage a two-part strategy that involves both participant
tively, participants might be asked to close their eyes and imagine assistance and multiple data sources. In clinical settings, especially
that they are on a special journey in a faraway land. Along the those involving individual interviews, there are accepted and
way, they discover a special box that holds answers to great standard interpretations for projective tests. The focus group use
problems and difficulties that people have. They open the box of projective questions, however, is different, in that it takes place
and find the answer to the problem. What is in the box? in a practical, real-life environment and involves a small group
The moderator begins the experience by changing the pace instead of individuals. Therefore, the analysis ought to grow out
of the group discussion. Up to this point, participants are answer- of this environment.
ing questions and conversing with others. Now, the moderator We suggest that you begin by asking participants what their
changes the mood of the conversation, perhaps by asking for a answers mean. It is important for the participants to tell the
moment of silence, by using music to create a period of relaxa- researcher where to place attention. Interpretation of the projec-
tion, or by presenting descriptive imagery. For example, a mod- tive question is largely a task for the participant, but with careful
erator was seeking creative suggestions for displays at a nutrition yet skillful guidance from the researcher. Over a series of focus
carnival and asked participants to close their eyes, listen to the groups, a pattern emerges that allows a more confident analysis.

ready for the exercise. For example, after participants have talked
about the pros and cons of an alternative, the moderator might
tell participants that there is a magic wand, hat, or device that Analysis of Projective Questions
allows them to make their fantasy come true. The moderator
passes around the wand or hat, and as each participant holds the Analysis of projective results is admittedly subjective, and we
wand or puts on the hat, each one also shares a fantasy. Alterna- encourage a two-part strategy that involves both participant
tively, participants might be asked to close their eyes and imagine assistance and multiple data sources. In clinical settings, especially
that they are on a special journey in a faraway land. Along the those involving individual interviews, there are accepted and
way, they discover a special box that holds answers to great standard interpretations for projective tests. The focus group use
problems and difficulties that people have. They open the box of projective questions, however, is different, in that it takes place
and find the answer to the problem. What is in the box? in a practical, real-life environment and involves a small group
The moderator begins the experience by changing the pace instead of individuals. Therefore, the analysis ought to grow out
of the group discussion. Up to this point, participants are answer- of this environment.
ing questions and conversing with others. Now, the moderator We suggest that you begin by asking participants what their
changes the mood of the conversation, perhaps by asking for a answers mean. It is important for the participants to tell the
moment of silence, by using music to create a period of relaxa- researcher where to place attention. Interpretation of the projec-
tion, or by presenting descriptive imagery. For example, a mod- tive question is largely a task for the participant, but with careful
erator was seeking creative suggestions for displays at a nutrition yet skillful guidance from the researcher. Over a series of focus
carnival and asked participants to close their eyes, listen to the groups, a pattern emerges that allows a more confident analysis.
Recently, several youth focus group studies have used a "cam-
paign" questioning strategy. The session begins with the modera-
tor asking questions of the youth about campaigns: "What is a
campaign?" "Tell us about where you've seen campaigns?" "What
happens in a campaign?" "What are the things that make up a
campaign?" During this first part, the young people typically talk
about political campaigns and sometimes campaigns for schools,
teams, or local causes. Campaigns have slogans, speakers, ban-
ners, songs, balloons, and celebrities. The moderator then asks
the participants to develop a campaign that will get other young
people to do something—perhaps eat better foods, live a healthier
lifestyle, or avoid drugs and alcohol. The campaign is aimed at
other kids. Those in the focus group plan the strategy, complete
with slogans, speakers, music, and anything else needed to be
effective. There is a supply of materials, like markers and colored
paper, for the kids to use in developing their campaign. If the
group is large, the moderator might divide it into two small
groups of three to five participants to work for 45 minutes to an
hour and then reassemble and share results. Kids then share their

79

Recently, several youth focus group studies have used a "cam-

paign" questioning strategy. The session begins with the modera-
tor asking questions of the youth about campaigns: "What is a
campaign?" "Tell us about where you've seen campaigns?" "What
happens in a campaign?" "What are the things that make up a
campaign?" During this first part, the young people typically talk
about political campaigns and sometimes campaigns for schools,
teams, or local causes. Campaigns have slogans, speakers, ban-
ners, songs, balloons, and celebrities. The moderator then asks
the participants to develop a campaign that will get other young
people to do something—perhaps eat better foods, live a healthier
lifestyle, or avoid drugs and alcohol. The campaign is aimed at
other kids. Those in the focus group plan the strategy, complete
with slogans, speakers, music, and anything else needed to be
effective. There is a supply of materials, like markers and colored
paper, for the kids to use in developing their campaign. If the
group is large, the moderator might divide it into two small
groups of three to five participants to work for 45 minutes to an
hour and then reassemble and share results. Kids then share their

79