The Power Factor is an indicator of the quality of design and management of an

electrical installation. It relies on two very basic notions: active and apparent power.
The is the real power transmitted to loads such as motors,
lamps, heaters, and computers. The electrical active power is transformed into
mechanical power, heat or light.
In a circuit where the applied r.m.s. voltage is Vrms and the circulating r.m.s.
current is Irms, the is the product: Vrms x Irms.
The apparent power is the basis for electrical equipment rating.
The

The value of power factor will range from 0 to 1.

by an angle .
a vector diagram can
be used for representation.
In this vector diagram, the current vector can be split into two components: one
a
r
Ia is called the component of the current.
Ir is called the component of the current.

The previous diagram drawn up for currents also applies to powers, by multiplying
each current by the common voltage V.

Current vector diagram

In this diagram, we can see that:

This formula is applicable for sinusoidal voltage and current. This is why the Power
Factor is then designated as "Displacement Power Factor".

This means that the electrical equipment rating is minimal for the transmission of
Power vector diagram a given active power P to the load. The reactive power is then small compared with
the active power.
 where:

Example:

Example in the calculation of active and reactive power

The calculations for the three-phase example above are as follows:

So that, on referring to

Calculation power diagram

 referred to as “active” energy.

are mainly inductive. The current in these coils is therefore lagging by 90° relative
to the voltage, and represent the reactive current absorbed by the machine.
It should be noted that while reactive current does not draw power from the system,
it does cause power losses in transmission and distribution systems by heating the
conductors.
In practical power systems, load currents are invariably inductive, and impedances
power Q from the power system of transmission and distribution systems predominantly inductive as well.
The combination of inductive current passing through an inductive reactance

possible.

The corresponding current vector is then in opposition to the current vector of

inductive loads. This why capacitors are commonly used in the electrical systems,
in order to compensate the reactive power absorbed by inductive loads such as
motors.

voltage-rises in power systems.

on magnetically coupled windings, require some degree of reactive current to

The most common items in this class are transformers, reactors, motors and

piece of equipment is fully loaded varies according to the item concerned being:

Power consuming items that also require reactive

energy
Motor Common induction
motor, loaded at

Incandescent lamps 1.0 0

Discharge lamps
Ovens Ovens using resistance elements 1.0 0

Dielectric type heating ovens

Resistance-type soldering machines
Fixed 1-phase arc-welding set
Good management in the consumption of reactive energy brings economic
advantages.

designed to encourage consumers to minimize their consumption of reactive

energy.
The installation of power-factor correction equipment on installations permits the
consumer to reduce his electricity bill by maintaining the level of reactive-power
consumption below a value contractually agreed with the power supply authority.

tan

The same ratio applies to energies:

tan

The power supply authority delivers reactive energy for free:

quantity of reactive energy billed in these periods will be:

limitation

the consumer will have nothing to pay for the reactive power consumed.

the cost of purchasing, installing and maintaining the power factor correction

by the losses of the equipment, etc. It may be found that it is more economic to
provide partial compensation only, and that paying for some of the reactive energy

The question of power-factor correction is a matter of optimization, except in very

simple cases.

Overating of certain equipment can be avoided, but to achieve the best results, the

shows the required increase in the size of cables as the power factor is

Multiplying factor for the cross-sectional area of the cable 1

1
 Power factor correction equipment reduce or even cancel completely the

voltage drops.
Over compensation will produce a voltage rise at the equipment level.

By improving the power factor of a load supplied from a transformer, the current
through the transformer will be reduced, thereby allowing more load to be added.
In practice, it may be less expensive to improve the power factor [1], than to replace
the transformer by a larger unit.

[1]
power factor, as previously noted.
 C
system upstream of the capacitors.
This is indicated in and
components of current only.

R represents the active-power elements of the load

It will be seen from diagram of

be supplying all the reactive current of the load. For this reason, capacitors are
sometimes referred to as “generators of leading vars”.
In diagram of , the active-power current component has been added,

having a power factor of 1.

C , all reactive power is supplied
In general, it is not economical to fully compensate an installation.

to illustrate the principle of compensation by reducing a large reactive power Q

In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent power S is seen reduced to S’.
Qc can be calculated by the following formula deduced from :

Showing the essential features of power-factor correction

The selected level of compensation and the calculation of rating for the capacitor

motors.
Before starting a compensation project, a number of precautions should
be observed. In particular, oversizing of motors should be avoided, as well as the
no-load running of motors. In this latter condition, the reactive energy consumed by

Diagram showing the principle of compensation:

Fixed-value capacitor

adjustment according to requirements, as loading of the installation changes

and the load is continuous and stable, it is often found to be economically

compensation. Control may be:

Semi-automatic: by contactor
Direct connection to an appliance and switched with it
These capacitors are applied:

individual compensation would be too costly

In cases where the level of load is reasonably constant

the power factor within close limits around a selected level. Such equipment is
applied at points in an installation where the active-power and/or reactive-power
variations are relatively large, for example:

Example of automatic-compensation-regulating equipment

 The principles of, and reasons, for using automatic
compensation
A bank of capacitors is divided into a number of sections, each of which is
controlled by a contactor. Closure of a contactor switches its section into parallel
operation with other sections already in service. The size of the bank can therefore
be increased or decreased in steps, by the closure and opening of the controlling
contactors.
A control relay monitors the power factor of the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged
to close and open appropriate contactors to maintain a reasonably constant
system power factor (within the tolerance imposed by the size of each step of
compensation). The current transformer for the monitoring relay must evidently
be placed on one phase of the incoming cable which supplies the circuit(s) being
controlled, as shown in Fig. L13.
Power factor correction equipment including static contactors (thyristors) instead of
usual contactors is particularly suitable for a certain number of installations using
equipment with fast cycle and/or sensitive to transient surges.
The advantages of static contactors are :

40 ms according to regulator option)

Unlimited number of operations
Elimination of transient phenomena on the network on capacitor switching
Fully silent operation
By closely matching compensation to that required by the load, the possibility of
producing overvoltages at times of low load will be avoided, thereby preventing
an overvoltage condition, and possible damage to appliances and equipment.
Overvoltages due to excessive reactive compensation depend partly on the value
of source impedance.
DB422589_EN.eps

Fig. L13 The principle of automatic-compensation control

regulated bank of capacitors

Where the kvar rating of the capacitors is less than, or equal to 15% of the supply

level, it is advisable to install an automatically-controlled bank of capacitors.

The location of low-voltage capacitors in an installation constitutes the mode of
compensation, which may be global (one location for the entire installation), partial
(section-by-section), local (at each individual device), or some combination of the
latter two. In principle, the ideal compensation is applied at a point of consumption
and at the level required at any instant.
In practice, technical and economic factors govern the choice.
 for the installation, and remains in service during the period of normal load.

The global type of compensation:

usually based
Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if
necessary

For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and power losses in them, are
not improved by the global mode of compensation.

Global compensation

shown in .

feeder cables from the main distribution board to each of the local distribution
boards at which the compensation measures are applied.

The compensation by sector:

usually based
Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if
necessary
The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced, or
will have additional capacity for possible load increases

boards
For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and the power losses in them,
are not improved by compensation by sector
Compensation by sector
and consequent overvoltage problems
Individual compensation:

Reduces the size of all cables as well as the cable losses

The optimum rating of compensation capacitors for an existing installation can be
determined from the following principal considerations:
Electricity bills prior to the installation of capacitors
Future electricity bills anticipated following the installation of capacitors
Costs of:

Installation and maintenance costs

Cost of dielectric heating losses in the capacitors, versus reduced losses in
cables, transformer, etc., following the installation of capacitors

made to next page.

at the busbars of the main distribution board of the installation would be

This simple approach allows a rapid determination of the compensation capacitors

required, albeit in the global, partial or independent mode.

In

is required.
this method is valid for any voltage level, i.e. is independent of voltage.
 1

1.000

1.090 1.190

1.191
1.010

1.091
0.909

1.11

0.99

0.91 0.909

0.190
0.191
0.109

0.90
 The method determines the minimum compensation required to avoid these

The procedure is as follows:

in tropical climates the summer months may constitute the period of heaviest

Evaluate the total period of loaded operation of the installation for that month, for

operation[1]

than that calculated.

Certain manufacturers can provide “slide rules” especially designed to facilitate

accompanying documentation advice on suitable equipment and control schemes,

as well as drawing attention to constraints imposed by harmonic voltages on the

shows that as the power factor improves,

reducing the declared level and never exceeding it, thereby avoiding the payment

to another.

improvement

improvement

[1] In the billing period, during the hours for which

reactive energy is charged for the case considered above:
 the available transformer capacity, i.e. to supply more active power.
Cases can arise where the replacement of a transformer by a larger unit, to
overcome a load growth, may be avoided by this means. shows directly

factors, from which the increase of active-power output can be obtained as the
value of power factor increases.

0.00 1 100 1000

0.90 90 900
1100

1000

190
0.91
900

a mean power
The corresponding reactive power

The apparent power

The corresponding reactive power

Compensation Q allows the installation-load

existing transformer, the output of which is limited to S

a change of transformer?
Total power now to be supplied:

Total reactive power required by the installation before compensation:

and their duration.

The best possible improvement, i.e. correction which attains a power factor of
 windings, etc., also absorb reactive energy.

represented by the elementary diagram of

referred to the secondary side of the transformer, where the shunt branch
represents the magnetizing-current path. The magnetizing current remains

in normal circumstances, i.e. with a constant primary voltage, so that a shunt

Transformer reactances per phase
the reactive energy absorbed.

by X .
X R

From the I X
value for a given transformer, as follows:

of I and X can be carried out.

X
X

This example, and the vector diagram of show that:

Reactive power absorption by series inductance

to the foregoing “series” losses.
losses for typical distribution transformers. In principle, series inductances can
be
MV transmission
at the voltage levels covered by this guide, shunt compensation is always applied.

the transformer plus load reactive-power consumption is below the level at which

100

1000

power factor, as shown in .

Overcompensation of load to completely compensate transformer reactive-power losses

is included in the capacitors primarily intended for power factor correction of

compensation is applied to the transformer, then an average level of loading will

have to be assumed.

the total reactive power of an installation, and so mismatching of compensation

 at no-load or on light load. The reactive current of the motor remains practically
constant at all loads, so that a number of unloaded motors constitute a
consumption of reactive power which is generally detrimental to an installation,
for reasons explained in preceding sections.

combination will be lower than before, assuming the same motor-driven load

motor current is being supplied from the capacitor, as show in .

have a value similar to that indicated for the corresponding motor speed in .

9 10
10 11
9 11
11

100
90
110

self excitation

1000 0.90
Before compensation, the transformer supplies 0.91

supplies a large part of the reactive power

Reduction factor for overcurrent protection after compensation
The “magnetic inertia” of the rotor circuit means that an emf will be generated in

exactly along the same axis and in the same direction as that of the decaying

are not normally operated at leading power factors, i.e. there is a tendency to

1. The characteristics of a motor being driven by the inertia of the load are not
rigorously identical to its no-load characteristics. This assumption, however, is

represented by the cooling fan in the motor.

capacitors by the motor acting as a generator, both have the same phase
relationship to the terminal voltage. It is for this reason that the two characteristics
may be superimposed on the graph.

Qc
previous page
gives appropriate values of Qc corresponding to this criterion.

. The table values are, in general, too small

or contactors controlling such motors should, in the event of total loss of power
supply, be rapidly tripped.

parallel with those of the high-inertia motors.

The protection scheme for these motors should therefore include an overvoltage

recommended in , then it should be separately controlled by a circuit

.
Closing of the main contactor is commonly subject to the capacitor contactor being
previously closed.
 The arrows denote vector quantities.

losses in the transformer.

Technical-economic comparison of an installation before and after power-factor correction

The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current and voltage
are distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
Designers are requested to pay more and more attention to energy savings and
improved availability of electricity. This is why harmonics are a growing concern in
the management of electrical systems today.

abundant today because of their capabilities for precise process control and energy

systems: harmonics.

Such loads are increasingly more abundant in all industrial, commercial, and
residential installations and their percentage of the total load is growing steadily.

Examples include:

damage equipment. They may disrupt normal operation of devices and increase
operating costs.
Symptoms of problematic harmonic levels include overheating of transformers,
motors and cables, thermal tripping of protective devices and logic faults of digital
devices. In addition, the life span of many devices is reduced by elevated operating
temperatures.
Capacitors are especially sensitive to harmonic components of the supply voltage
due to the fact that capacitive reactance decreases as the frequency increases.
In practice, this means that a relatively small percentage of harmonic voltage can

overview is presented in
The voltage distortion Vh
connection of non-linear loads generating harmonic currents Ih,
voltage distortion Uh

, calculated by the formula:

Power of non-linear loads

NLL(%)
Power of supply transformer

harmonic currents at the busbar level, and an increase of the voltage distortion.
Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and consequently do not generate

resonance occurring at one of the harmonic frequencies.

Because of harmonics, the current IC circulating through the PFC capacitors is
higher compared to the situation where only the fundamental current I1 is present.

combination is close to a particular harmonic, then partial resonance will occur,

In this particular case, the elevated current will cause overheating of the capacitor,
with degradation of the dielectric, which may result in its eventual failure.
The order h0 of the natural resonant frequency between the system inductance and

SSC
h0
Q

SSC
capacitor

h0 0 , i.e. f0 0

For example:

Short-circuit voltage: uSC

Short-circuit power at the busbar level: SSC

Then:
SSC 10.103
h0 5.5
Q 350

The natural frequency of the capacitor/system-inductance combination is close to

0 is then equal to f0 0
The presence of harmonics in the supply voltage results in abnormally high current

elements, such as connections, fuses, switches, etc., associated with the capacitors

Standard capacitors can be used if the percentage of non-linear loads is lower than

to increase the safety margin. The technology of these capacitors allows a higher
over-current compared to what is strictly requested by the standards.

same capacitance.

and the rated power Q will be given by the formulas:

Capacitors with improved current rating can be used if the percentage of non-linear

resonant circuit, tuned so that the series resonant frequency is below the lowest

The use of detuned reactors thus prevents harmonic resonance problems, avoids

The tuning frequency can be expressed by the relative impedance of the reactor

190

Correspondance between relative impedance, tuning order and tuning frequency

In this arrangement, the presence of the reactor increases the fundamental

a rated voltage U S, as shown on the

following table.

Relative Impedance

Typical values of capacitor rated voltage

Practical rules are suggested in
depending on the system parameters:
SSC
Sn

Gh

Gh SSC SSC h SSC SSC h SSC Gh SC

Standard
capacitors or capacitors with or capacitors with necessary
voltage rating increased voltage rating increased See chapter M

Gh 0.1 x Sn 0.1 x Sn h n n h n Gh n
Standard
capacitors or capacitors with or capacitors with necessary
voltage rating increased voltage rating increased See chapter M
Self-healing is a process by which the capacitor restores itself in the event of a fault
in the dielectric which can happen during high overloads, voltage transients, etc.

The intense heat generated by this arc causes the metallization in the vicinity of the

Simultaneously it re-insulates the electrodes and maintains the operation and

Illustration of self-healing phenomena

currents. This may occur in case of overvoltage or high harmonic distortion.

In addition to external protection devices, capacitors are protected by a high-quality

electrical isolation at the end of the life of the capacitor.

The protection system operates as follows:

Such faults are cleared by self-healing.

gas by vaporizing of the metallisation at the faulty location. This will gradually build
up a pressure within the container. Pressure can only lead to vertical expansion

disconnected irreversibly.
 Cross-section view of a three-phase capacitor after Pressure Sensitive Device
operated: bended lid and disconnected wires

capacitors of the self-healing type for a.c. systems having a rated voltage up to and
including 1 000 V".

Capacitance tolerance

Temperature range

Permissible current overload

Permissible voltage overload 1.1 x U

, 1min

Discharging unit

The choice of upstream cables, protection and control devices depends on the
current loading.
For capacitors, the current is a function of:

The power rating.

The rated current I

Q
IN = with:
3.U

Overload protection devices have to be implemented and set according to the

summarizes

corresponding maximum overload factor IMP/I MP

 I N
5 11
Standard capacitors

10
1.19

Typical permissible overload currents

10 x I in order to be insensitive to inrush current.

50
IN 72A
3 0.4

IN 72A

gives the minimum recommended cross section area of the upstream

For the secondary side of the current transformer, the recommended cross section
area is .

2 2

10
10

10

100

90-100
capacitors.
In the case of a capacitor being already charged at the instant of switch closure,

This maximum condition occurs only if:

and

The polarity of the power-supply voltage is opposite to that of the charged

capacitor
In such a situation, the current transient will be at its maximum possible value,
viz: Twice that of its maximum when closing on to an initially uncharged capacitor,
as previously noted.
For any other values of voltage and polarity on the pre-charged capacitor, the

polarity as that of the supply voltage, and closing the switch at the instant of

fully discharged.
The discharge delay time may be shortened, if necessary, by using discharge
resistors of a lower resistance value.