WALANG ECHAPWERA

Absolute permeability is there are two fluids flowing in

The origin of petroleum still has uncertainties despite
the rock.
the tremendous researches and studies devoted to it
rather than any other natural substance. One of the - FALSE; ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY, RELATIVE
most widely accepted origin of petroleum is organic PERMEABILITY, ABSOLUTE, RELATIVE, and
theory. ABSOLUTE, RELATIVE
- TRUE Bacterial Action is involved in the process of breaking
down the original material into hydrocarbon
The process of inorganic theory is after further burial
compounds, which eventually become biogenic gas.
and heating, the kerogen transformed via cracking into
petroleum and natural gas. - TRUE
- FALSE; INORGANIC THEORY, ORGANIC THEORY It began as the study of heat applied to steam power
and INORGANIC, ORGANIC but was substantially broadened by Gibbs. This
petrophysics is the study of energy and its
The theory modifies by Berthelot that the mantle of the
transformations and the central to understanding phase
earth contained iron carbide which would react with
behavior.
percolating water to form methane is an example of
organic theory. - FALSE; PETROPHYSICS, THERMODYNAMICS
- FALSE; ORGANIC THEORY, INORGANIC THEORY
and ORGANIC, INORGANIC
Petroleum End Product = ([Raw Material +
Researchers of organic origin of petroleum stand that Accumulation + Transformation + Migration] + Geologic
that the petroleum is a fossils fuel but evidences from Time)
inorganic theory that nowadays, there is drilling for oil
reservoirs at 28000 feet or 30000 feet where there is no The sun is the primary energy source of Earth. Through
a fossil remains. the process of photosynthesis, the plants use the
sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to convert them into
- TRUE energy which becomes their source of food. The energy
is passed on and accumulated in the bodies of animals
The origin of petroleum is most likely a low-
when they eat these plants. This energy still stays inside
temperature phenomenon. Deeper petroleum
their bodies until they die. These plants and animals,
reservoirs seldom exceed 300oF (141oC). But
including the marine organisms that lived million years
temperatures never exceeded 392oF (200oC).
ago are then buried on the ocean floor. Over time, the
- TRUE remains were covered with layers of sand and silt. And
as time went by over millions of years, they got buried
The reservoir calculations require
deeper and deeper. Heat and Pressure took place on
pressure/volume/temperature and this was used by the
the numerous layers and converted the remains into
production engineer to calculate the oil and gas
petroleum or crude oil.
reserved, production forecasts and the efficiency of
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods.

- FALSE; PRODUCTION ENGINEER, RESERVOIR Phase behavior indicates the behavior of vapor, liquid
ENGINEER and PRODUCTION, RESERVOIR and solid as a function of pressure, temperature and
composition. In Hydrocarbon Phase Behavior, vapors,
Distillation column separates crude oil into molecular
liquids, and solids refer to “gas”, “oil and water”,
groups of different sizes.
“hydrates, asphaltenes and wax” respectively. It mainly
- TRUE deals with volumetric behavior and phase composition,
as well as viscosity, density, isothermal compressibility,
and component distribution in each phase. Moreover,
Vapor/Liquid Equilibrium (VLE) is distinguished for a
mixture with a known composition which also includes
saturation conditions over a great variety of pressure
and temperature. For flow computations, transport
properties are also required.

There are 2 types of reservoirs: conventional and

unconventional. Conventional Reservoir includes the oil
and gas that can be found at the tip of the pyramid. It
has small volumes and is easy to develop. Migration
occurs because of porous and permeable reservoirs
which can be easily produced and established. On the
other hand, Unconventional Reservoir includes tight oil,
heavy oil, bituminous sands, tight gas sands, CBM, and
gas shales that can be found at the middle of the
pyramid. It has large volumes and is hard to develop
including those that are at the bottom of the pyramid,
oil shale and gas hydrates. Conventional reservoirs are
primarily produced because of its convenience to
develop while unconventional reservoirs require more
advanced and additional technology to be used which
results in increasing prices. This basically means that as
the rig operation targets to produce unconventional
reservoirs, additional technology is needed to be
improved and used resulting in a higher price of the
product. In addition, horizontal and vertical drilling are
usually applied when producing oil shale because it is
where oil can be trapped instantly and no migration
occurs in that area. However, it is when most work
should be done resulting in the highest price of
production.
ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

2 Different Theories: ORGANIC THEORY

 Organic Origin - Most widely accepted

 Inorganic Origin - Oil and gas are formed from prehistoric plants
and animals
INORGANIC THEORY
- Remains of plants have been converted into
- H and C come together under great coals and animals to gas and oil. These remains
temperature and pressure, far below the settled into seas and accumulated at the ocean
earth’s surface and formed oil and gas where floor and buried under several kilometers of
chemical reactions have occurred. sediments.
- Then, the oil and gas seeped through porous - Over a few million years, the layers of the
rock to deposit in various natural underground organic material were compressed under the
traps. weight of the sediments above them. The
increase in pressure and temperature with the
METAL CARBIDE THEORY absence of oxygen changed the mud, sand, slit
- Metal carbide deep in earth reacted with water or sediments into rock and organic matter into
at high pressure and temperature to form Kerogen.
acetylene and calcium hydroxide which - After further burial and heating, the kerogen
condenses to heavier hydrocarbons. transformed via cracking into petroleum and
- The mantle of the earth contained carbide natural gas
which would react with percolating water to EVIDENCES:
form methane (Berthelot, 1860; Mendele’ev,
1902) - The carbon-hydrogen-organic matter
connection: Carbon and Hydrogen are the
VOLCANIC THEORY primary constituents of organic material, both
- Involves outgassing of the mantle via volcanic plant and animal. Moreover, carbon, hydrogen,
activity or eruption and hydrocarbons are continually produced by
the life processes of plants and animals. A major
EARTHQUAKE THEORY breakthrough occurred when it was discovered
- Involves outgassing deep Earth’s mantle via that hydrocarbons and related compounds
tectonic activities such as faults occur in many living organisms and are
deposited in the sediments with little or no
SERPENTINIZATION THEORY change.
- The observations dealing with the chemical
- HC is a by-product that came from a
characteristics of petroleum reservoirs:
metamorphic transformation of the green dark
Nitrogen and porphyrins (chlorophyll
olivine mineral, which was found in earth’s
derivatives in plants, blood derivatives in
mantle
animals) are found in all organic matter; they
EVIDENCES OF INORGANIC ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM are also found in many petroleum.
o Presence of porphyrins also means that
- Geographical location: most of HC producing
anaerobic conditions must have
regions are located close to belts of tectonic
developed early in the formation
activities
process because porphyrins are easily
- Stability with depth: petroleum is a fossil fuel,
and rapidly oxidized and decompose
and there has never been a real fossil found
under aerobic conditions.
below 16000 ft. Nowadays, there is drilling for
- The observations dealing with the physical
oil reservoirs at 28000 ft or 30000 ft where
characteristics: Nearly all petroleum occurs in
there is no a fossil remains.
sediments that are primarily of marine origin.
 o Petroleum contained in non-marine black, which is representative of a higher coal
sediments probably migrated into these rank.
areas from marine source materials
located nearby.
o Furthermore, temperatures in the
deeper petroleum reservoirs seldom
exceed 300oF (141oC). But
temperatures never exceeded 392oF BACTERIAL ACTION
(200oC) where porphyrins are present
because they are destroyed above this - involved in the process of breaking down the
temperature. Therefore, the origin of original material into hydrocarbon compounds,
petroleum is most likely a low- which eventually become biogenic gas.
temperature phenomenon. TEMPERATURE
CREATION OF PETROLEUM - increases with depth.
- The basic formula for the creation of petroleum - Normal heat flow within the earth’s crust
(oil, gas) is: produces an average geothermal gradient of
o Petroleum end product = [(Raw approximately 1.5 oF for each 100 feet of
materials + accumulation + depth.
Transformation + Migration) + Geologic - Maturation studies on various crude oil types
Time] indicate that temperatures required to produce
oil occur between the depth of approximately
5,000 feet and 20,000 feet under average heat-
flow conditions.
KEROGEN
PRESSURE
- is an insoluble, high molecular weight,
polymeric compound which comprises about 90 - a function of depth and increases 1 psi for each
percent of the organic material in shale. foot of depth.
- The remaining 10 percent comprises bitumen of - is caused by the weight of the sedimentary
varying composition, which, according to some overburden.
researchers, is thermally altered kerogen.
- As alteration occurs, kerogen is developed by
the increasing temperature in the closed API GRAVITY
system.
- a primary factor in forming bitumen that - The API gravity can range from -1 to +101.
increase and migrate to accumulate as crude - The larger the number, the lighter the oil;
oil. o light crude - 40oAP
- Thermal conversion of kerogen to bitumen is o medium one - 28oAPI
the important process of crude oil formation. o heavy crude - 20oAPI
Thermal alteration increases the carbon content
of the migratable hydrocarbons, which leaves
the un-migratable kerogen components behind. MATURATION OF PETROLEUM

MATURATION OF KEROGEN - In most sedimentary basins, the oil in reservoirs

becomes lighter (higher API gravity) with
- function of increased burial and temperature
increasing depth.
and is accompanied by chemical changes.
- Depth has two important effects in altering a
- As kerogen thermally matures and increases in
crude oil:
carbon content, it changes from an immature
light greenish-yellow color to an over mature
 o Pressure, which increases with depth, - Petroleum systems are known to exhibit
causes diagenesis with resultant clay multiphase over extremely wide ranges
alteration. pressure and temperatures. In fact,
 also inhibits chemical hydrocarbon mixtures have been observed with
equilibrium where a volume two or more phases in equilibrium at
change is concerned temperatures as low as - 250.0 °F and higher
o Temperature, which increases with than 1,000.0 °F.
depth, causes several changes in oil: - The molecular compositions of the gas and
 Solids with low melting points, liquid phases in a reservoir rock are different,
or viscous liquids become and hence the physical properties of the phases
mobile liquids. differ. This difference in phase properties, in
 Light hydrocarbons become conjunction with the reservoir (rock) relative
increasingly soluble in permeability characteristics, results in the
subsurface fluids complex behavior of hydrocarbon reservoirs.
 Mild cracking of large oil - Naturally occurring hydrocarbon system found
molecules causes small in petroleum reservoirs are mixtures of organic
molecules to form. compounds which exhibits multiphase behavior
 Large molecules, in turn, over wide ranges of pressures and
polymerized to very large temperatures. These hydrocarbon
organic structures accumulations may occur in the gaseous state,
the liquid state, the solid state, or in various
combinations of gas liquid, ad solid.
FACTOR WHICH AFFECTS THE CRUDE OIL GRAVITY HYDROCARBON PHASE BEHAVIOR
- Geological Age (maturity). Older rocks tend to - Phase behavior is the behavior of vapor, liquid,
have higher gravities, but many Tertiary rocks and solids as a function of pressure,
have API of 40+ (e.g., the North Sea). Many temperature, and composition.
Paleozoic rocks have API gravities of +20. o “Vapor” is used interchangeably with
- Depth of Burial. Deeper the reservoir, higher
“gas”
the gravity. The deepest well tend to produce
o “Liquid” refers to oil and water
gas.
o “Solids” include hydrates, asphaltenes,
- Basinal Position. Gradients range from high at
and wax.
the center to low at the edges.
- We are primarily concerned with the volumetric
- Tectonism. High gravities are more common in
behavior and composition of phases, including
regions of high stress.
viscosity, density and isothermal
- Salinity. Marine sources tend to have higher
compressibility, and component distribution in
gravities than fresh/ brackish sources.
each phase.
- Sulfur Content. Content is high in low-gravity
- For a mixture with a known composition, we
crudes. Main variations are regional, e.g.,
need to determine the vapor/liquid equilibrium
Middle East crudes are high in sulfurs, Nigerian
(VLE), including saturation conditions over a
and Libyan crudes are low.
wide range of temperatures and pressures.
- Lithology. No apparent relationship.
Transport properties are also needed for flow
calculations (e.g., viscosity in Darcy’s law and
molecular diffusion coefficients)
THE RESOURCE PYRAMID

PHASE BEHAVIOR APPLICATIONS IN PETROLUEM

BASICS OF PHASE BEHAVIOR
ENGINEERING
 - Reservoir engineer
o relies pressure/volume/temperature
(PVT) relations to calculate oil and gas
reserves, production forecasts, and the
efficiency of enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) methods.
o Most reservoir calculations require PVT
properties at reservoir temperature
- Production engineer
o Use phase behavior data for surface
separator design and to calculate flow
in pipe, where such calculations are
made over a range of temperatures THE PVT PRINCIPLES IN PETROLEUM REFINING
from surface to reservoir conditions.

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
THERMODYNAMICS
Diagram of a fractional distillation tower, showing
- The study of energy and its transformations - where the different fractions will condense. Note that
The central to understanding phase behavior the temperature is higher at the bottom, so the longer
- Began as the study of heat applied to steam carbon chains will fall out at the bottom, the shorter
power but was substantially broadened by carbon chains will go up the column until they hit a
Gibbs temperature at which they become liquid.
- Development of the phase-equilibrium
thermodynamics applied to multicomponent Fractional distillation is the process by which oil
mixtures, particularly the concept of chemical refineries separate crude oil into different, more useful
potential. hydrocarbon products based on their relative molecular
- Phase-equilibrium thermodynamics seeks to weights in a distillation tower. This is the first step in the
determine properties such as temperature, processing of crude oil, and it is considered to be the
pressure, and phase compositions that establish main separation process as it performs the initial rough
themselves once all tendencies for further separation of the different fuels. The different
changed have disappeared. components that are separated out during this process
are known as fractions. Fractions that are separated out
PETROPHYSICS include gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and bitumen.
- The starting point for PVT calculations in a Fractional distillation allows a lot of useful products to
model grid cell is to determine if the overall be made from crude oil, with many environmental
composition is single-phase or two-phase at the consequences for the use of those useful products!
current pressure estimate. PROCESS
- If a cell is single-phase, the phase "type" (gas or
oil) may also be needed to select the proper The process of fractional distillation is fairly simple, but
relative permeability and capillary pressure is powerful in the way that it separates all the different,
curves. complex components of crude oil.

1. First, the crude oil is heated to vapourize it and

is fed into the bottom of a distillation tower.
2. The resulting vapour then rises through the
vertical column. As the gases rise through the
tower, the temperature decreases. As the
temperature decreases, certain hydrocarbons
begin to condense and run off at different
 levels. Each fraction that condenses off at a Crude oils usually contain small amounts of combined
certain level contains hydrocarbon molecules oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Crude oils obtained from
with a similar number of carbon atoms. various localities have widely different characteristics
3. These boiling point 'cuts' allow several indicating that the hydrocarbons have different
hydrocarbons to be separated out in a single properties. Nearly all crude oils will give ultimate
process. analyses within the limits shown below:
4. It is this cooling with the height of the tower
ELEMENT CONTENT (% in weight)
that allows for the separation.
Carbon 84-87
5. After this rough refinement, individual fuels
Hydrogen 11-14
may undergo more refinement to remove any
Sulphur 0.06-4.0
contaminants or undesirable substances, or to
Nitrogen 0.1-2.0
improve the quality of the fuel through
Oxygen 0.1-2.0
cracking. Table 1 – Composition of typical Crude Oil
Types of Crude Oils and Natural Gas
Crude oils vary widely in appearance and viscosity from Tars and Asphalt
field to field. They range in colour, odour, and in the
- These solid and semisolid substances are also
properties they contain. While all crude oils are
known as bitumens, waxes, resins and pitch.
essentially hydrocarbons, the differences in properties,
- They are very complex substances and relatively
especially the variations in molecular structure, mean
little is known regarding their chemical
that crude are more or less easy to produce, pipeline,
composition. There is little doubt that these
and refine. The variations may even influence its
materials were formed in nature from
suitability for certain products and the quality of those
petroleum oils by evaporation of the more
products.
volatile constituents, and oxidation and
polymerization of the residue. Indeed, products
closely resembling the natural materials can be
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDES
prepared by heating and air blowing crude oil.
Crudes are roughly classified into three groups,
according to the nature of the hydrocarbons they
contain. Natural Gas

A. Paraffin-based Crude Oils - Can occur by itself or in conjunction with liquid

- These contain higher molecular weight paraffins crude oils. It consists mainly of the more volatile
which are solid at room temperature, but little members of the paraffin series containing from
or no asphaltic (bituminous) matter. They can one to four carbon atoms per molecule.
produce high-grade lubricating oils. - may contain varying amounts of carbon dioxide,
B. Asphaltic Based Crude Oils nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, helium and water
- Contain large proportions of asphaltic matter, vapor.
and little or no paraffin. Some are - Most natural gases consist predominantly of
predominantly naphthenes so yield a lubricating methane, the percentage of which may be as
oil that is more sensitive to temperature high as 98 percent.
changes than the paraffin-base crudes. - Natural gas can be classified as sweet and sour
C. Mixed Base Crude Oils and as wet or dry.
- The "gray area" between the two types above. o Sour gas – one that contains
Both paraffins and naphthenes are present, as appreciable amounts of hydrogen
well as aromatic hydrocarbons. Most crudes fit sulfide or carbon dioxide, and
this category. consequently can be quite corrosive.
- The designation wet gas has nothing to do with
the presence of water vapor but signifies that
 the gas will yield appreciable quantities of liquid common of natural gas constituents, forms
hydrocarbons with proper treatment. after the sulfates are eliminated by hydrogen
- Water vapor is, however, often present in reduction of carbon dioxide.
natural gas and sometimes causes stoppages in - Anaerobic oxidation of carbon dioxide produces
high pressure gas lines during cold weather. methane. Current estimates suggest that
This is due to the fact that hydrocarbons form approximately 20 percent of the world’s known
solid hydrates with water at high pressure and natural gas is biogenic.
low temperature.
2. THERMOGENIC GAS
Generation of Natural Gas
- forms at significantly higher temperatures and
The following are the generally accepted theories for overburden pressures.
the origin of gases. - It contains methane and significantly larger
amounts of heavier hydrocarbons than biogenic
- Methane is formed by bacterial decay of gas.
organic material; it is a major product of the - As time and temperature increase,
diagenesis of coal and is given off from all forms progressively lighter hydrocarbons form as wet
of organic matter during diagenesis. It is the gas and condensate in the latter stages of
most common hydrocarbon in subsurface thermogenesis.
waters and is an end product of petroleum
metamorphism.
- When heated, kerogen in shales from gas-
FRACTIONS
producing areas gives off much greater
quantities of methane as compared to the There are several ways of classifying the useful fractions
kerogen of shales from oil-producing areas. that are distilled from crude oil. One general way is by
- Hydrogen sulfide originates from the reduction dividing into three categories: light, middle, and heavy
of sulfates in the sediments and from sulfur fractions.
compounds in petroleum and kerogen.
- Heavier components condense at higher
- Carbon dioxide is derived from the
temperatures and are removed at the bottom
decarboxylation of organic matter, and from
of the column.
HCO3 and CaCO3.
- The lighter fractions are able to rise higher in
- Nitrogen is derived from the nitrogen in organic
the column before they are cooled to their
matter and from trapped air.
condensing temperature, allowing them to be
- Helium is derived from the radioactive decay of
removed at slightly higher levels.
uranium and thorium.
- During the oil genesis and coalification process, In addition to this, the fractions have the following
the order of generation is generally nitrogen, properties:
CO2 and methane.
- Light distillate
o one of the more important fractions,
and its products have boiling points
Natural gas comprises biogenic gas and thermogenic
around 70- 200°C.
gas with different contingents upon conditions of origin.
o Useful hydrocarbons in this range
1. BIOGENIC GAS include gasoline, naphta (a chemical
- forms at low temperatures at overburden feedstock), kerosene, jet fuel, and
depths of less than 3,000 feet under anaerobic paraffin.
or conditions associated with high rates of o These products are highly volatile, have
marine sediment accumulation. small molecules, have low boiling
- Oxygen in the sediments is consumed or points, flow easily, and ignite easily.
eliminated early. And before reduction of - Medium distillate
sulfates in the system, Methane, the most
 o products that have boiling points of
200-350°C. Products in this range
include diesel fuel and gas oil - used in
the manufacturing of town gas and for
commercial heating.
- Heavy distillate
o the products with the lowest volatility
and have boiling points above 350°C.
o These fractions can be solid or semi-
solid and may need to be heated in
order to flow.
o Fuel oil is produced in this fraction.
o These products have large molecules, a
low volatility, flow poorly, and do not
ignite easily.

However, there are two major components that are not PHASE BEHAVIOR OF HYDROCARBONS
accounted for in these three categories.
Naturally occurring hydrocarbon system found in
- At the very top of the tower are the gases that petroleum reservoirs are mixtures of organic
are too volatile to condense, such as propane compounds which exhibits multiphase behavior over
and butane. wide ranges of pressures and temperatures. These
- At the bottom are the "residuals" that contain hydrocarbon accumulations may occur in the gaseous
heavy tars too dense to rise up the tower, state, the liquid state, the solid state, or in various
including bitumen and other waxes. combinations of gas liquid, and solid.
To further distill these, they undergo steam or vacuum These differences in phase behavior, coupled with the
distillation as they are very useful. physical properties of reservoir rock that determine the
relative ease with which gas and liquid are transmitted
or retained, result in many diverse types of hydrocarbon
reservoirs with complex behaviors. Frequently,
petroleum engineers have the task to study the
behavior and characteristics of a petroleum reservoir
and to determine the course of future development and
production that would maximize the profit.

Phase behavior plays a vital role in many petroleum

applications, such as enhanced oil recovery,
compositional simulation, geochemical behavior,
wellbore stability, geothermal energy, environmental
cleaning, multiphase flow in wellbores and pipes, and
surface facilities.

BASICS OF PHASE BEHAVIOR

The phase behavior of hydrocarbon systems takes on a
further degree of complexity when the variables of
pressure and temperature are introduced. To avoid
some of the complexity, a stepwise discussion of phase
behavior of hydrocarbons will be developed through • Initial reservoir pressure and temperature.
the following topics:
• Pressure and temperature of the surface production.
- BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
The conditions under which these phases exist are a
o Before considering the effect of
matter of considerable practical importance.
temperature and pressure of
hydrocarbon systems, we will define Petroleum Reservoir Fluids
some terms:
- naturally occurring mixtures of natural gas and
o SYSTEM: Amount of substances within
crude oil that exist in the reservoir at elevated
given boundaries under specified
temperatures and pressures.
conditions.
- Reservoir-fluid compositions typically include
o COMPONENTS: The pure substances
hundreds or thousands of hydrocarbons and a
which make up the system. For this
few nonhydrocarbons, such as nitrogen, CO2,
purpose, they will be considered as
and hydrogen sulfide. As oil and gas are
molecular specifies of fixed elemental
produced, reservoir pressure decreases and the
composition and molecular weight.
remaining hydrocarbon mixtures change in
o PHASES: Physically and chemically
composition, volumetric properties, and phase
homogeneous sub-systems separated
behavior. Gas injection and other enhanced oil
by boundaries, but which allow mass
recovery techniques may also change reservoir-
transfer to other phases.
fluid composition and properties.
o PHASE DIAGRAM: It is a graph of
properties such as pressure plotted Pressure-Temperature Diagram
against temperature showing the
Phase Envelope
conditions under which the various
phases of a substance will be present. - a type of chart used to show conditions of
o EQUILIBRIUM: An isolated system is in pressure, temperature, volume etc. at which
thermodynamic equilibrium if the thermodynamically distinct phases occur and
properties of the system do not alter as coexist at equilibrium.
long as the external environment - The diagram below depicts a phase envelope or
remains unchanged. pressure-temperature (PT) phase diagram of a
o INTENSIVE PROPERTIES: Intensive particular fluid system. It comprises of two
properties are independent of the curves (bubble point and dew point curves)
quantity of material present. i.e., which encloses an area representing the
Density, specific volume, viscosity and pressure and temperature combinations for
compressibility factor, pressure and which both gas and liquid phases exist; called
temperature. the two-phase region.
o EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES: Properties - The curves or quality lines converging at the
such as volume and mass are termed critical point within the two-phase envelope
extensive; their values are determined indicate the percentage of liquid at any given
by the total quantity of matter present pressure and temperature of the total
hydrocarbon volume of the reservoir.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS AND RESERVOIR
- Furthermore, on the phase envelope, we can
FLUIDS:
place the various types of reservoirs depending
Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas on the location of the initial reservoir
reservoirs. These broad classifications are further temperature and pressure with respect to the
subdivided depending on: two-phase. Above the bubble-point curve in the
diagram, we have a single liquid phase called an
• The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon undersaturated reservoir while at a point
mixture.
 beyond the dew point curve; a single gas phase liquefied, regardless of the pressure applied. Similarly,
occurs which may be a wet or dry gas reservoir. the critical pressure of a pure substance is defined as
the pressure above which liquid and gas cannot coexist,
regardless of the temperature. These definitions of
- PURE COMPONENT SYSTEM (Single critical properties are invalid for systems with more
Component System) than one component.

• The Triple Point – This point represents the pressure

o The simplest type of hydrocarbon and temperature at which solid, liquid and gas co exist
system to consider is that containing under equilibrium conditions.
one component. The word
component refers to the number of • Sublimation-Pressure Line – At temperatures below
molecular or atomic species present the triple-point temperature, the vapor-pressure line
divides the conditions for which the substance is solid
in the substance. A single component
from the conditions for which the substance is gas. This
system is composed entirely of one of
line also is called the sublimation-pressure line.
a kind of atom or molecule. We often
Theoretically, this line extends to a temperature of
used the word “pure” to describe a
absolute zero and a pressure of absolute zero.
single component system.
• Melting Point line – This is the nearly vertical line
above the triple point. This line separates solid
- BINARY SYSTEM (Two component systems) conditions from liquid conditions. Again, pressure-
o A distinguishing feature of the single temperature points which fall exactly on this line
component system is that, at a fixed indicate a two-phase system in this case coexistence of
temperature, two phases (vapor and solid and liquid. Phase diagrams for some pure
liquid) can exist in equilibrium at only materials show other lines within the solid region,
one pressure; this is the vapor indicating changes of phase of the solid brought about
pressure. For a binary system, two by changes in crystalline structure. The upper limit of
the melting point line has not been obtained
phases can exist in equilibrium at
experimentally.
various pressures at the same
temperature.

- MULTICOMPONENT SYSTEM
Phase Diagram for Single Component Key Points: o These multicomponent pressure-
temperature diagrams are essentially
• The Vapor-pressure Line (evaporation) – This line
used to:
separates the pressure-temperature conditions for
 Classify reservoirs
which the substance is a liquid from the conditions for
 Classify the naturally occurring
which the substance is a gas. Pressure-temperature
hydrocarbon systems
points which lie above this line indicate conditions for
 Describe the phase behavior of
which the substance is a liquid. Similarly, points below
the reservoir fluid
the vapor- pressure line represents conditions for which
the substance is a gas. Pressure-temperature points Multicomponent Key Points:
which fall exactly on the line indicate conditions for
o Cricondentherm (Tct) – The Cricondentherm is
which gas and liquid coexist.
defined as the maximum temperature above
• The Critical Point – The upper limit of the vapor- which liquid cannot be formed regardless of
pressure line is the critical point. The temperature and pressure. The corresponding pressure is termed
pressure, Tc, and the critical pressure Pc. For pure the Cricondentherm pressure Pct.
substance, the critical temperature may be defined as o Cricondenbar (Pcb)—The Cricondenbar is the
the temperature above which the gas cannot be maximum pressure above which no gas can be
 formed regardless of temperature. The
corresponding temperature is called the
Cricondenbar temperature Tcb.
o Critical point—The critical point for a
multicomponent mixture is referred to as the
state of pressure and temperature at which all
intensive properties of the gas and liquid phases
are equal. At the critical point, the
corresponding pressure and temperature are
called the critical pressure (pc) and critical
temperature (Tc) of the mixture.
o Bubble-point curve—The bubble-point curve is
defined as the line separating the liquid-phase
region from the two-phase region and above
which a single liquid phase exists. Note, if there
is gas, it will be dissolved in the liquid.
o Dew-point curve—The dew-point curve is
defined as the line separating the vapor-phase
region from the two-phase region and above
which vapor phase exists. RESERVOIR FLUID
o Quality lines—The dashed lines within the
In general, reservoirs are conveniently classified on the
phase diagram are called quality lines. Enclosed
basis of the location of the point representing the initial
by the bubble-point curve and dew point curve.
reservoir pressure pi and temperature T with respect to
They describe the pressure and temperature
the pressure-temperature diagram of the reservoir
conditions for equal volumes of liquids. Note
fluid. Accordingly, reservoirs can be classified into
that the quality lines converge at the critical
basically two types. These are:
point.
o Phase envelope (two-phase region)—The - Oil reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature T is
region enclosed by the bubble-point curve and less than the critical temperature Tc of the
the dew-point curve, wherein gas and liquid reservoir fluid, the reservoir is classified as an
coexist in equilibrium, is identified as the phase oil reservoir.
envelope of the hydrocarbon system (it is the - Gas reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature is
region where we have the quality lines). That is greater than the critical temperature of the
the region of greater than zero percent (0%) hydrocarbon fluid, the reservoir is considered a
liquid and less than hundred percent (100%) on gas reservoir.
the phase envelope.
Oil Reservoirs

Depending upon initial reservoir pressure pi, oil

reservoirs can be sub classified into the following
categories:

1. Undersaturated oil reservoir.

If the initial reservoir pressure pi, is greater
than the bubble-point pressure pb of the
reservoir fluid, the reservoir is labeled an
undersaturated oil reservoir.
2. Saturated oil reservoir.
 When the initial reservoir pressure is equal to intermediate components (ethane through
the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid, hexane) than black oils.
the reservoir is called a saturated oil reservoir. - Volatile oils are generally characterized with
3. Gas-cap reservoir. stock tank gravity between 40o and 50o API,
If the initial reservoir pressure is below the - with a lighter color (brown, orange, or green)
bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid, the than black oil.
reservoir is termed a gas-cap or two-phase - In the case of volatile oil, 65% of the reservoir
reservoir, in which the gas or vapor phase is fluid is liquid at the separator condition.
underlain by an oil phase. o This means that relatively large volume
of gas is evolved from the hydrocarbon
mixture leaving a smaller portion as
TYPE OF RESERVOIR FLUID liquid.
- It is a high shrinkage oil as compared to black
Black oil reservoir
oil.
- It is characterized by a dark or deep color liquid
- having initial gas-oil ratios of 500 scf/stb or less,
- oil gravity between 30o and 40o API. Solution Gas Drive Reservoir
- The pressure and temperature conditions
- Oil reservoir that does not initially contain free
existing in the separator indicate a high
gas but develop free gas on pressure depletion
percentage of about 85% of liquid produced.
are classified as solution gas drives.
- The oil remains undersaturated within the
- The solution gas drive mechanism applies once
region above the bubble point pressure,
the pressure falls below the bubble point.
o this means that the oil could dissolve
- Both black- and volatile-oil reservoirs are
more gas if present in the hydrocarbon
amenable to solution gas drive. Other
mixture.
producing mechanisms may, and often do,
- At the bubble point pressure, the reservoir is
augment the solution gas drive.
said to be saturated and this implies that the oil
- Solution gas drive reservoir performance is
contains the maximum amount of dissolved gas
used as a benchmark to compare other
and cannot hold any more gas.
producing mechanisms.
- Further reduction in pressure causes some
shrinkage in the volume of oil as it moves from
the reservoir (two-phase region) to the surface
Condensate (Retrograde Gas)
(separator).
- Therefore, black oil is often called low - A condensate reservoir fluid is a gas at the
shrinkage crude oil or ordinary oil. initial reservoir pressure.
- It occurs when the temperature of the reservoir
lies between the critical temperature and
Volatile oil reservoir cricondentherm of the reservoir fluid.
- It contains lighter hydrocarbons and fewer
- A volatile oil reservoir is one whose reservoir
heavier hydrocarbons than volatile oil,
temperature is below the critical point or
- its oil gravity is above 40o API and up to 60o API
critical temperature of the fluid.
(i.e. between 40 and 60 API),
- It contains relatively low liquid content as it
- the gas-oil ratio increases with time due to the
approaches the critical temperature, as
liquid dropout, and the loss of heavy
compared to black oil reservoir that is far away
components in the liquid whose GOR is up to
from the critical point;
70,000 scf/stb,
- a volatile oil reservoir is made up of fewer
- it has about 5–10% liquid at the surface
heavy hydrocarbon molecules and more
depending on the reservoir.
 - The reservoir fluid is water-white or slightly unlike retrograde condensate; no liquid is
colored oil at the stock tank. formed inside the reservoir. However, separator
conditions lie within the phase envelope,
causing some liquid to be formed at the surface.
In the production of a gas condensate field This surface liquid is normally called
condensate.
- gas is mostly produced with some liquid - Wet-gas reservoirs are characterized by gas oil
dropout as the pressure drops below dew point ratios between 60,000 to 100,000 scf/STB,
pressure; stock-tank oil gravity above 60o API, the liquid
- occurring mostly in the separator and can still is water-white in color and separator
be produced in the wellbore which ultimately conditions lie within the two-phase region.
leads to a restriction in the flow of gas.
- The temperature and pressure may change Dry Gas Reservoir
once the reservoir fluids enter into the
- The hydrocarbon mixture of a dry gas exists as a
wellbore, thereby causing liquid dropout within
gas in the reservoir (even in the two-phase
the wellbore.
region) and in the surface separator
- Thus, if the gas having the larger fraction does
characterized with a gas-oil ratio greater than
not have enough energy to lift the dropout
100,000 scf/STB.
liquid to the surface, a fallback in the wellbore
- It contains mainly methane with some
occurs or liquid loading.
intermediates.
- If this is continuous, the percentage of the
- The pressure or production path does not enter
liquid will increase and may eventually restrict
into the phase envelope (two phase region)
the gas production. This challenge can be
o this means that the surface separator
adequately handled with artificial lift
conditions fall outside the phase
technologies such as gas lift.
envelope which is in contrast to wet gas
Gas Reservoir reservoir; hence there is no traces of
liquid formed at the surface separator.
- Hydrocarbon reservoir can be called gas - Natural gas which occurs in the absence of
reservoir, if the temperature of the reservoir is condensate or liquid hydrocarbons, or gas that
greater than the cricondentherm of the had condensable hydrocarbons removed, is
hydrocarbon fluid. called dry gas.
- This is only applicable to non-associated gas - It is primarily methane with some
reservoirs which can either be wet or dry gas intermediates.
depending on the phase present in the reservoir - The hydrocarbon mixture is solely gas in the
and at the surface separator. reservoir and there is no liquid (condensate
Wet-Gas Reservoir surface liquid) formed either in the reservoir or
at the surface.
- A natural gas system which contains a - The pressure path (line) does not enter into the
significant amount of propane, butane and phase envelope (two-phase region) in the phase
other liquid hydrocarbons is known as wet gas diagram, thus there is only dry gas in the
or rich gas. reservoir.
- It contains less amount of methane (85%) and
more ethane than dry gas. pressure.
- Its temperature lies above the cricondentherm
of the hydrocarbon mixture similar to a dry gas
BEHAVIOR OF IDEAL GASES
reservoir. The kinetic theory of gases postulates that gases are
- The reservoir fluid will always remain in the composed of a very large number of particles called
vapor phase region as the reservoir is depleted molecules.
isothermally, along with the production path
For an ideal gas, the volume of these molecules is
insignificant compared with the total volume occupied
by the gas.

It is also assumed that these molecules have no

attractive or repulsive forces between them, and that
all collisions of molecules are perfectly elastic.

Based on the above kinetic theory of gases, a

mathematical equation called equation-of-state can be
derived to express the relationship existing between
pressure p, volume V, and temperature T for a given
quantity of moles of gas n.

This relationship for perfect gases is called the ideal gas

law and is expressed mathematically by the following
equation: pV = nRT

where:

- p = absolute pressure, psia

- V = volume, ft3
- T = absolute temperature, °R
- n = number of moles of gas, lb-mole
- R = the universal gas constant, which,
for the above units, has the value
10.730 psia ft3/lb-mole °R