Introduction to Hydrodynamics 5. INTRODUCTION In heat transfer, the exchange of heat from a wall to a fluid or from a fluid to a wall is very important process (applicable in heat exchangers and performance of engines etc.). The rate of heat transfer by convection, between a solid boundary and a fluid, is given by O = hAt, -1,) (5.1) ‘The Eqn. (5.1) is a definition of average unit thermal convective-conductance rather than a law of heat transfer by convection. The convective heat transfer coefficient is actually a complicated function of (i) the fluid flow, (i) thermal properties of the fluid and (ii) geometry of the system. Its ‘numerical value, in general, is not uniform over a surface, and depends also on the location where the fluid temperature is measured. Seren ‘The relation given by Eqn. (5.1) is inadequate 5.2, Ideal and real fluids. to explain the convective heat flow mechanism; 5.3. Viscosity therefore, a meaningful analysis which will 5. Continuity equation in Cartesian coordi- eventually lead to a quantitative evaluation of the ee convective heat transfer coefficient must start with Continuity equation in polar coordinates. the study of the dynamics of the fluid flow. Velocity potential and stream function. Laminar and turbulent flows. Highlights _5-2. IDEAL AND REAL FLUIDS Theoretical Questions ‘An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and is incompressible. In true sense no such fluid exists in nature. However, fluids which have low viscosities such as water and air can be treated as ideal fluids under cert conditions, The assumption of ideal fluids helps in simplifying the mathematical analysis. A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and compressibility in addition to the density. The real fluids are actually available in nature.EET Heat and Mass Transfer 5.3. VISCOSITY “Viscosity” may be defined as the property of a fluid Upper leyer which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. Itis Lower layer ‘a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes 4 uedu resistance to flow. It is primarily due to cohesion and ¥ ‘molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, and = as flow occurs, these effects appear as shearing stresses Fy 7 4 between the moving layers of fluid. du An ideal uid has no viscosity. There is no fluid which can be classified as a perfectly ideal fluid, However, the fluids with very litte viscosity are sometimes considered - Solid boandary cS as eal Huds. , ; Fig. 5.1. Velocity variation near a solid ‘Viscosity of fluids is due to cohesion and interaction boundary between particles. Refer to Fig. 5.1 When two layers of fluid, at a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say w and w + du, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the = adjacent top layer. This Viscosity meter. shear stress is, proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by t (called Tau). Mathematically, tot dy du or, ne 5.1) dy where, [t= Constant of proportionality and is known as coefficient of dynamic viscosity or only viscosity, and du Gp 7 Rate of shear stesso rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient a (5.2) From Fig. 5.1, we have # BI dy Thus viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strainIn S.L units N.s/m? In MKS. units kg,sec/m? . force/area forceflength® _ force x time =e (lengthytime) x (length)? length time me—sec 1 The unit of viscosity in CGS. i also called poise = 27°, One poise= 5 Nim? 7 Note: The viscosity of wae at 20°C is 755 poi or one enti. Kinematic viscosity = Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted by v (called nu). sity Density p ie Mathematically, v= (5.3) Units of kinematic viscosity + In SL unit: m/s InM. In C.GS. units the kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke One stoke = 104 m2/s T Note: Centistoke means 755 stoke. n'isec. em?/see.) Newton’s law of viscosity This law states that the shear stress (t) on fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of viscosity du dy ‘The fluids which follow this law are known as Newtonian fluids, 5.4, CONTINUITY EQUATION IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES ‘Consider a fluid element (control volume) — parallelopiped with sides dx, dy and de as shown in Fig. 5.2. Mathematically, (5.4) Y 0 Fig. .2, Fluid element in three-dimensional flow.Lee, . Pp = Mass density of the fluid at a particular instant, and. 14, ¥, w = Components of velocity of flow entering the three faces of the parallelopiped, Rate of mass of fluid entering the face ABCD (i.. fluid influx). x velocity in X-direction x area of ABCD udy de AO) leaving the face EFGH (é. fluid efflux) Rate of mass of fli a = pudyde+ 5 (pudy. de) dr Ai) ‘The gain in mass per unit time due to flow in the X-direction is given by the difference between the fluid influx and fluid efflux. -*. Mass accumulated per unit time due to flow in X-direction 2 pnts Joe = pwdyde-| pu ax a py Pd dedy de iti) Similarly, the gain in fluid mass per unit time in the parallelopiped due to flow in ¥ and Zedirection a ‘By (PY) dy de (in ¥direction) tiv) a 3 (PW) a dy de (in Z-direction) Av) ‘The total (or net) gain in fluid mass per unit time for fluid flow along three coordinate axes a a a -| Zepw + Lew + Lipwy |e ay a [ Fo + Zio + F009] ly dz vi) Rate of change of mass of the parallelopiped (control volume) a

4000) (Re between 2000 and 4000 indicates transition from laminar to turbulent flow). Apparatus Refer Fig. 5.4, Reynolds experiment apparatus consisted essentially of the following: |4—Tank containing dye = (4— Constant head tank er Fig, 54, Reynolds apparatus. ‘A constant head tank filled with water, 2. _Assmall tank containing dye (sp. weight of dye same as that of water), 3. horizontal glass tube provided with a bell mouthed entrance, and 4, Aregulating valve. Procedure followed : ‘The water was made to flow from the tank through the {glass tube into the atmosphere and the velocity of flow was, varied by adjusting valve. The liquid dye was introduced into the flow at the bell mouth through a small tube as shown in Fig. 54. Observations made : 1, When the velocity of flow was low, the dye remained ‘Kitchen sink has @ laminar in the form of a straight and stable filament passing through (non-turbulent) flow.Ea and Mass Transfer the glass tube so steadily that it scarcely seemed to be in motion. This was a case of laminar flow as shown in Fig. 5.5 (a). 2. With the increase of velocity a critical state was reached at which the dye filament showed irregularities and began to waver [see Fig. 5.5 (b)]. This shows that the flow is no longer a laminar one, This was a transitional state, 3. With further increase in velocity of flow the fluctuations in the filament of dye became more intense and ultimately the dye diffused over the entire cross-section of the tube, due to the intermingling of the particles of the flowing fluid. This was the case of a turbulent flow as shown in Fig. 55 (0). On the basis of his experiment Reynolds discovered tha Dye fi @ Wavy filament ® Diffused filament © Fig. 5.5. Appearance of dye filament in (a) laminar flow, (b) transition, and (c) turbulent flows. (i) In case of laminar flow: the loss of pressure head « velocity (ii) Incase of turbulent flow: The loss of head is approximately e= U? [More exactly the loss of head e U", where n varies from 1.75 to 2.0] Fig. 5.6 shows the apparatus used by Reynolds for estimating the loss of head in a pipe by ‘measuring the pressure difference over a known length of the pipe. Fig. 8.6. Loss of head in a pipe. (H The velocity of water in the pipe was determined by measuring the volume of water (Q) collected in the tank over a known period of time (ii) The velocity of flow (U) was changed and corresponding values of fy (loss of head) were obtained, (iii) A graph was plotted between U (velocity of flow) and fi, (loss of head). Such a graph is shown in Fig. 5.7. It may be seen from the graph that:Turbulent flow. (@)_ At low velocities the curve is a straight line, indicating that the fi (1oss of head) is directly proportional to velocity ~ the flow is laminar (or viscous). (b) At higher velocities the curve is parabolic; in this range fy s-U*, where the value of n lies between 1.75 to 2.0-the flow is turbulent. (©) In the intermediate region, there is a transition zone, This is shown by dotted line. Reynolds number : Reynolds from his experiments found that the nature of flow in a closed conduit depends upon the following factors: (Diameter of the pipe (D), Gi) Density of the liquid (p), (iii) Viscosity of the liquid (W), and (iv) Velocity of flow (W). Turbulent flow (High velocities) ~s/ s hy u" 4 , 4 ‘Transition Lamina flow hyve U~ (Low velocities) Fig. 8.7. By combining the above variables Reynolds determined a non-dimensional quantity equal to pvD *— which is known as Reynolds number (Re). i.e. Reynolds number ( In general case Dis replaced by L, known as characteristic lengthand wehave, Re om) It may also be expressed as: where, puD iZT Heat and Mass Transfer when, Re < 2000 the flow is laminar (or viscous) Re > 4000 «the flow is turbulent Re between 2000 and 4000 the flow is unpredictable. Critical Reynolds number : —Allexperiments agree that a lower limit of critical value of (Re),,exists (though there appears to benno definite upper limit ofthe critical value of (Re),, which characterizes full attainment of turbulence) and its value is approximately, 2000 (for circular pipe). This lower critical Reynolds number is of greater engineering importance as it defines the limit below which all turbulence, no matter how severe, ‘entering the flow from any source will eventually be damped out by viscous action. — Ithas been observed that the upper limit of critical Reynolds number (Re),, depends upon the following factors: (0 Initial turbulence in the flow (approach), (i) Shape of the pipe entrance, and (i) Roughness of pipe. Reynolds found the upper limit of (Re),, 0 lie between 12000 < (Re),, < 140005 these values are of little practical interest and we may consider the upper limit of (Re),, to be defined by 2700 < (Re),, < 4000. — For demarcating the regimes of laminar and turbulent flows, the concept of critical Reynolds number proves quite useful. The lower critical Reynolds number for some important cases are as under: () (Re),,= 1 for sphere (i) (Re),,= 50 for open channels iii) (Re),,= 1000 «+» for parallel plates. HIGHLIGHTS 1. An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and is incompressible. A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and compressibility in addition to the density. 2. Viscosity may be defined as the property ofa fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses, The viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. 3. Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. 4. Newion’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress (t) on a fluid element layers is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, du Mathematically, He 5. Continuity equation in cartesian coordinates Viscosity tester.Chapter: 5 duction to Hydrodynai a a a ap pu) + Lepr) + Sipwy + F ge i + Str) + 5 (0m) + 5 This equation is the general equation of continuity in three-dimensions and is applicable to any type of flow and for any fluid whether compressible or incompressible. Continuity equation in polar coordinates : 1 a a Or) + ahr) + ag Ore) where, vy, = Velocity component in radial radiation, and y, Velocity component in tanger 6. The velocity potential (6) is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its, negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction, 7. The stream function (y) is defined as a scalar function of space and time, such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to this direction. 8 Reynolds experiment. When — Re < 2000 the flow is laminar (or viscous) Re > 4000 the flow is turbulent Re between 2000 and 4000 «the flow is unpredictable THEORETICAL QUESTIONS 1. Differentiate between an ideal fluid and a real fluid, 2. Define the term ‘viscosity’. What is the relation between kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity? 3. What is Newton's law of viscosity? 4. Derive an expression for continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates. 5. Explain briefly the following: (0 Velocity potential (i Stream function. ‘What is the difference between a laminar flow and a turbulent flow"?