Ceramic Processing

Module CP- Ceramic Processing

Sample Lesson
Lesson CP-4: Forming Technology

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Bookmarked for

Convenience)
Introduction

Traditional Forming Processes

Pressure Fabrication

Plastic Forming

Slip Casting

Non-Traditional Forming Processes

Hot Pressing

Vapor Deposition

Injection Molding

Gel Casting

Sol Gel Processing

Miscellaneous Processes

Web Links

References

Student Exercise

Introduction
In this lesson we will discuss the operations that form our ceramic materials into a
recognizable shape or product. You will note that we have divided the subject into
Traditional and Non-Traditional Forming Processes. This is a somewhat arbitrary
division, since some of the processes we have called non-traditional have been in use
for decades and are considered to be quite conventional to the industries using them.
On the other hand, we have put isostatic pressing in the traditional category, even
though it is a technique that has been widely used for only the past half century.
Compared to the "original" traditional processes of pressing, plastic forming, or slip
casting, which have been around for centuries or millennia, isostatic pressing is a very
new process.

Traditional Forming Processes

We have grouped this section under three primary headings for the three really
traditional processes, Pressure Fabrication, Plastic Forming, and Slip Casting.
However, under these headings are a number of sub-headings. Some of these
processes are a bit less traditional, but they have basic similarities and thus fit fairly
well. Under Pressure Fabrication we will discuss Conventional Pressing and
Isostatic Pressing. Under Plastic Forming we will discuss Extrusion, Jiggering, and
Plastic Pressing. Under Slip Casting, we will cover Conventional Slip Casting,
Pressure Casting, and Tape Casting.

Pressure Fabrication

The most traditional process in this category is what has commonly been called dry
pressing. Dry pressing is not a particularly accurate term, since most parts that are
"dry pressed" are not truly dry. They usually contain a few percent moisture, or a
liquid other than water in a few cases. The term pressure fabrication is more accurate,
since this process is characterized by the application of pressure to compact a ceramic
powder or particulate mass. When the pressure is applied basically uniaxially, then
we have the oldest traditional process. If pressure is applied from all directions, or
isostatically, then we have a newer process called isostatic pressing.

Uniaxial pressure fabrication is a very common forming process. It is used to form

many tile and other flat shapes as well as simple shapes such as relatively short
cylinders. The cross-sections that can be formed are usually fairly simple
geometrically, although the pressed shapes can be machined into more complex
geometries. The height is usually limited relative to the lateral dimension or diameter.
Pressing of wall tile is one example of the process that has been highly automated.
Very large hydraulic presses are used to press a large number of tile shapes at each
stroke.
Netzsch and Dorst Hydraulic Presses

Cammerzell 250-ton Trim Press

Laeis Bucher 1500-ton Hydraulic Tile Presses
 Laeis Bucher 3600-ton Hydraulic Refractory Press with Comprehensive
Numerical Control

The basic forming process is characterized by uniaxially pressing in a die a powder

material with a small amount of water or other liquid (1-7%). Normally there is a
binder material included in the composition to increase the green strength, or pressed
strength, of the part so it can be more easily handled for subsequent manufacturing
processes. This may be a natural material such as clay, or it may be an organic or
other inorganic binder of some sort. These were mentioned in Lesson CP-1, Raw
Materials. The binder phase contributes a small amount of plasticity, but this process
is basically a non-plastic forming process. Free-flowing pressing powder is delivered
to a die cavity, which consists of a rigid die cavity frame and moveable lower and
upper die punches. The amount of material delivered to the die cavity is controlled by
the depth of the cavity, which can be varied by moving the lower punch, and the bulk
density of the pressing powder. It is highly desirable that the material be delivered in
such a way that the cavity is filled fully and very uniformly. In a high speed hydraulic
press, such as the ones shown above for the tile industry, uniform die fill is not easy to
achieve, and the press manufacturers have expended a great deal of effort to develop
good fill methods. Die fill is greatly enhanced and made much simpler if the pressing
powder is very free-flowing. For products such as tile and technical ceramics, spray
dried pressing powder is ideal because of its flow properties and uniformity. In these
industries, use of spray dried powder has become nearly universal. It is also important
that the particle size distribution of both the original raw materials and the pressing
powder (they will be different for spray dried pressing powders) be consistent with
time. The green density of the pressed compact, as well as its uniformity, will depend
on this. Pressed thickness will also depend on the bulk properties of the powder
because of their influence on die fill and compaction. It is desirable to maximize the
bulk density of the pressing powder while still maintaining good flow. If the pressing
powder has not been spray dried and has less than desirable flow properties, as is
likely with refractory brick bodies, for example, control of die fill will be more
difficult. Pressing speeds will likely have to be lower to allow good die fill.

After the die cavity is filled, the powder is compacted in the cavity between the upper
and lower die punches. The powder as delivered to the cavity obviously has much
lower bulk density than the pressed compact, typically by a ratio of two to one
(pressed to powder density). The volume difference consists of air that must be
removed during the pressing step. This is not a trivial matter, especially in high speed
presses. If not given time and a mechanism for escape, air can be trapped and cause
physical defects, such as laminations. Pressing is usually done in steps, with the
amount of compaction and punch travel increasing with each step. On old mechanical
friction presses, which are still in some use, this pressing action was and is controlled
by the press operator. They usually became quite skilled at the "bumping" required to
prevent problems, but each operator performed the steps a bit differently. In modern
hydraulic presses, the pressing action can be programmed and controlled by
computers. As mentioned above, a simple die consists of the die block, upper punch,
and lower punch. More complex die sets might also contain secondary punches, core
rods, pins, and relief on the punch faces and/or in the die block. Die design,
alignment, and maintenance are important to successful pressing operations. The full
pressing sequence can be quite complicated and is usually completed in a surprisingly
short time. Compaction may involve prepress, die table movement, pauses in motion
and dwell time for air release, variation in pressing speed, etc. For example, the die
table can be moved up after die filling, thus increasing the cavity volume and causing
the top surface of the powder to be lower than the cavity lip. This prevents powder
from being blown out of the cavity when the upper punch enters the die. In the most
modern presses, all such actions can be precisely programmed and controlled. Some
presses can measure and display the forces and movement of the top punch and die
frame as a function of time during pressing and display a curve of force vs. movement
on a monitor. This information can be used to identify sources of cracks, to improve
the pressing process, and optimize die design. It must also be noted that uniaxial
pressing does not provide uniform pressed density along the length of the pressed
part. Density will be highest at the top and bottom faces and lowest in the middle of
the part. This effect is greater if the part is thick relative to the lateral dimension. This
difference is caused by die and interparticle friction and is inherent in uniaxial
pressing. Density variation during pressure fabrication has received a great deal of
study, since it can dramatically affect product properties and quality. The photos
below show density gradients in six pressed green pieces, showing both the lower
density in the center and wall friction effects.

Density Gradients in Pressed Green Parts

Density gradients in pressed ware carry over to the fired piece, as is illustrated in the
photos below.
 Development of Central Fired Defect from A) Green B) Fired 5 min. and C)
Fired 20 min.

After all pressing actions have been completed, the part is ejected from the cavity by
the lower punch. During ejection from the die, friction with the die walls and part
expansion as cavity pressure is release can cause mechanical problems in the part.
Removal of the pressed part from the press is almost always done by an automated
handling system on tile presses but may sometimes be done by hand on brick presses.

There are two basic types of pressing operation that are available: pressing-to-size
and pressing-to-density. In pressing-to-size, the motion of the punches is controlled
so that the pressed thickness is consistent from part to part. If the die fill and powder
properties are not consistent, the pressed green density will vary. This can lead to
subsequent variation in shrinkage during firing and in fired properties. In pressing-to-
density, the pressing pressure is limited to the pressure required to achieve a given
pressed density. If the die fill and powder properties are not consistent, the pressed
thickness will vary while firing characteristics will be more consistent.

We will discuss another pressure fabrication (dry pressing) manufacturing process for
forming continuous tapes, called roll compaction, in this section and duplicate it in
the section on tape casting below. The process is based on feeding a prepared powder
(usually spray dried) between two large diameter steel rolls. The powder normally
contains the ceramic raw material(s), an organic binder, and a small amount of water.
The powder is pressed into a tape by the rolls. The key to the process is control of the
powder feed to the "nip" point of the rolls. Typical tape widths are 200-300 mm, and
thicknesses range from 0.1 to 3 mm. Capital investment tends to be high, and
maintenance of the roll surfaces can be a problem. However, there is very little drying
necessary. This process is an alternative to the more commonly used tape casting
process for producing thin, continuous tapes for the electronics industries.

Isostatic pressing applies pressure from all three directions rather than only
uniaxially. This results in more uniform density and greater compaction. The basic
process uses a chamber filled with a liquid which is applied under hydraulic pressure
to all surfaces of the part being formed. The part being pressed is enclosed in a shaped
membrane or "bag", which serves as the mold for forming the part and isolates the
powder from the hydraulic liquid.
 Loomis Carousel Dry-Bag Isostatic Press

Wet Bag Isostatic Pressing Dry Bag Isostatic Pressing

The figures above show a drawing of a carousel dry bag isostatic press and then
schematics of the processes of wet bag and dry bag isostatic pressing. In wet bag
pressing, the powder to be compacted is loaded into a bag mold while it is outside the
press (A above left). The sealed bag (B above left) is placed inside the pressure
chamber (C above left), hydraulic pressure is applied (D above left), and compaction
completed (E above left). The bag and compressed part are then removed from the
chamber and the part removed form the bag. This obviously involves many steps and
considerable labor. Dry bag pressing is similar in nature except that the bag is
integrated with the pressure chamber. The powder (A above right) is loaded into the
tooling dry bag (shown empty in B above right and filled in C above right). Pressure
is then applied (D above right) and the part is compacted. Finally, the compacted part
is removed for the chamber (E above right). This method simplifies and speeds the
process.

Isostatic pressing enhances uniformity of density in pressed parts, but it does not
produce absolute uniformity. The density at the very center of a pressed part will still
be lower that the density at surfaces. Early isostatic pressing operations were slow and
labor intensive, since many were hand-operated wet bag systems. New automated dry
bag pressing systems have allowed isostatic pressing to be used on high volume
products like dinner plates. Automated isostatic pressing has replaced plastic forming
methods like jiggering in producing plates in many manufacturing operations. There
have been problems with density differences on the foot of the plate, where the part
thickness is greater, but in general the production rates and lower costs have justified
the change. Even some deep shapes like cups are being pressed isostatically.

Plastic Forming

Plastic forming traditionally relies on a plastic component, very often a clay, made
plastic by the addition of sufficient water. There are cases where a non-clay
plasticizer,such as polyvinyl alcohol, methocellulose, or other material, is used
instead. In most clay-based plastic forming processes, water content will be in the 15-
25% range. In a few cases, a liquid other than water is used.

Extrusion is probably the most common of the plastic forming processes in use.
Large tonnages of brick and other structural clay products are produced by extrusion,
and it is used as an initial forming step in many whiteware manufacturing facilities. In
this case, it might be followed by jiggering, another plastic forming process which
will be discussed below. Large and small diameter hollow clay sewer pipe is
extruded, with a bell-shaped end formed at one end. Blanks for large electrical post
insulators can be extruded, dried, and then machined in the green or "leather-hard"
state, thus forming the typical flutes on the outer surface. These will normally be a
porcelain composition and contain ball and/or kaolin clays to give plasticity. Small
diameter tubes can be extruded from porcelain, mullite, or alumina compositions for
use as thermocouple protection tubes. These can contain one, two or even four holes
down their length. In some cases, particularly for high alumina compositions, organic
plasticizers may be required.

In an extruder, also sometimes called a pug mill, the plastic ceramic body is forced
through a die to produce a shape. The raw materials and appropriate amounts of water
will be mixed in a plastic mixer, perhaps in a high intensity mixer. The plastic mix
will be fed into the upper hopper of the extruder, where it feeds directly into the feed
chamber. Most large extruders are auger fed and are thus continuous. Virtually all
extruders will have an de-airing device to remove any air brought in with the starting
material. De-airing is accomplished by providing a vacuum chamber between the
material entry camber, which will have its own auger feeder, and the actual extrusion
chamber. This is critical so that air is not trapped in the material during extrusion,
which would cause voids or delaminations in the extruded material. Smaller extruders
can be batch-type, ram-fed designs. For hollow products, there will be an internal die
to form the central hole or holes. This will be supported by three or more "spiders"
attached to the wall of the extruder. The material must flow around the spiders and re-
knit at the exit end. Proper die design and material control becomes critical in such
cases. Velocity differences can occur in the material as it flows through the extrusion
chamber and exits through the die. Part of this is caused by friction between the
material and the chamber walls. These velocity gradients can cause laminations and
other defects in the final product or can cause the material to "curl" or deviate from a
straight line after leaving the die. Materials with high plasticity are more prone to
such problems. The inclusion of non-plastic components, such as grog, and help
alleviate such problems. Grog is pre-reacted (pre-fired) material of the same
composition as the material being extruded. In sewer pipe or brick, this is often
crushed defective or waste, fired product. In clay-based compositions, the clay
platelets will tend to align parallel to the axis of extrusion, and this can cause
differential shrinkage rates during subsequent drying.

Proper die design and balance are important to successful extrusion. Dies are
generally designed to provide a gradual taper form the extrusion chamber diameter to
the final die outlet diameter. It is common for one extruder to handle a variety of die
diameters. The die should have a final straight section or land of sufficient length to
assure adequate compaction pressure on the mix. If this is not done correctly, a defect
called feathering, which consists of surface tears in the material, can occur.

Eirich Extruder
 Loomis Ram Tilt Extrusion Press Lancaster Autobrik Machine

Another plastic forming process is the stiff mud process. This is an ancient method
that originally was used to make mud brick in wood molds. The process is still used;
the author has seen the process in use to make building brick in Mexico. The
"Autobrik" machine shown above is a mechanized version of the stiff mud process to
make what appear to be rustic, hand-made brick.

Jiggering is a process commonly used in the whiteware industry to form products like
plates, platters, cups, bowls, suspension insulators, and similar shapes. In this process,
a piece of plastic material, normally prepared by extrusion, is placed on a mold and
formed into a pancake bat by pressing against a flat, rotating plate. The bat is then
slapped onto a plaster mold in the shape of the piece to be formed. This might be the
eating surface of a dinner plate, or the cup-receiving face of a saucer. This mold is
also rotated and the bat is forced onto the mold using a shaped cutting tool or jigger
head. The mold may contain decorative surface relief. After forming, the piece is
dried on the mold and then removed.. Cups can be formed in a similar manner in a
deep mold with a rotating metal jigger head. Jiggering was originally done manually,
but as is true of most operations today, the process is now highly automated. One
disadvantage is the large number of molds required for production. They require
drying between operations, and since the part must also be dried on or in the mold
until it can be handled, molds spend a great deal of time essentially out of service.
Isostatic pressing has replaced jiggering form many shapes since it is faster and does
not require much water removal from the formed part (however, since spray dried
powder is needed, there is a large energy penalty for water removal at the body
preparation stage).

RAM pressing is another plastic forming technique, typically used to form large
platters, particularly oval ones that cannot be jiggered easily, and large floor tile.
Modern RAM pressing uses a hydraulic press with two porous or permeable dies to
form the finished shape. These have typically been made of gypsum cement (plaster),
although harder and stronger compositions of several types have been developed to
increase die life. An associate of the author developed a glass-bonded alumina die
composition for abrasive floor tile pressing that very dramatically increased die life
and improved consistency of pattern relief on the product. RAM pressing was
introduced in the mid-1940's. The original presses were fully manually controlled, but
newer presses have sophisticated PLC controllers to give automated and consistent
process control and improved worker safety. Presses range from 30 to 150 ton
capacity.

During RAM pressing, a bat of plastic material is placed on the lower mold and is
pressed to shape by the upper mold. To accomplish removal of the part, air is applied
behind the lower mold. The air passes through the mold material and gently blows the
part free. The part stays with the upper mold and then, when the upper mold is at its
raised position, is released onto a tray or holder by application of air pressure behind
and through the upper mold.

RAM dies are typically reinforced by metal and have an air purge coil incorporated in
their design. Early systems used water for press cooling, but new systems use
recirculated cooling oil. Dies can be quite large, up to 2 x 2.5 feet.

Slip Casting

Conventional slip casting utilizes a stable suspension of the ceramic body, normally
in water. This suspension, or casting slip, is poured into a plaster mold. Water is
absorbed by the mold at its surface, resulting in the formation of a layer of material
that is low enough in water content that it will be self-supporting when the mold is
removed. After a layer of proper thickness has formed, the remaining slip is poured or
drained from the mold. The part is normally allowed to remain in the mold for
additional water removal, by mold absorption and evaporation, until the part has
become physically strong enough to support itself. The mold is taken apart to release
the part, which is then dried.

Control of the casting slip is critical in this process. We will spend a bit of time
discussing slip rheology. Discussion of the control aspects will occur in Lesson CPC-
5, Control of Forming Operations. Basically, one wants to have a fluid slip, which
will easily fill the mold and not trap air bubbles, but one also wants to maximize slip
bulk density. This minimizes the amount of water that must be removed in the casting
process, thus maximizing the density of the cast piece and speeding the process.
These two mutually exclusive properties can be attained by controlling slip rheology,
or flow, accomplished by the use of proper deflocculants. We will discuss three basic
types of fluid flow, and one sub-set, of importance to casting operations. Many liquids
are Newtonian or ideal liquids. Water is an example. When a shear stress is applied
to an ideal liquid, its flow is proportional to the applied stress. Doubling the applied
stress will double the flow rate. A Newtonian liquid begins to flow as soon as a stress
is applied. This is shown in figure a) below. Bingham flow is similar in nature, but
flow does not start until a "threshold" stress is reached. This is not desirable for good
mold filling in casting. Ketchup is a common example. Tipping the bottle does not
produce enough applied stress to cause much flow, perhaps not even enough to reach
the threshold level. Modest shaking probably will not produce much. Violent shaking
will usually result in large deposits of ketchup on your food, or you. The flow
response is shown in figure b) below.

a) Newtonian or Ideal Fluid Flow b) Bingham Flow

The second major flow category is thixotropic flow. In this case, shown in c) below,
the rate of flow increases dramatically at higher applied stresses, and there generally
is a threshold stress to initiate flow. Many lake beds and clay-containing landfills are
thixotropic. They will support buildings and other structures until an earthquake
occurs, producing large stress levels. Then they turn to a liquid and can no longer
support anything. Thixotropic flow is very undesirable in slip casting, since the slip
will not flow easily into the mold under the stress of gravity alone. Thixotropic
casting is unrelated to slip casting and is used for certain castable refractory materials.
These castables are designed to be highly thixotropic, and it is an interesting example
of the use of thixotropy. The mix looks like a wet powder, but when it is vibrated, it
turns into a very fluid liquid. As soon as the vibrational stress is stopped, the material
becomes quite solid again very quickly. Thixotropic casting is not done into plaster
molds and does not rely on the absorption of water from the material to build up a
layer. The third flow category is dilatant flow. This is virtually the opposite of
thixotropic flow. At low stresses there is normal flow, but when high stress is applied,
there is unexpected resistance to flow. Wet beach sand is an example. You can run
your fingers or toes through it easily at low speed, but when you run on wet sand, it
feels like rock. The resistance results from a high stress-induced breakdown of the
water separating and lubricating the sand grains. At high stress the grains are in direct
physical contact. Dilatant flow is an interesting thing to know about, but it is not a
factor in slip casting.

c) Thixotropic Flow d) Dilatant Flow

There are a number of casting slip properties that are desirable to allow an optimum
process. These properties include: 1) low viscosity (high flow rates) to allow all parts
of the mold to be easily filled and to prevent trapping of air bubbles; 2) high specific
gravity to shorten casting time, increase green density, lower drying shrinkage, and
lower the amount of water that must be processed; 3) a deflocculated slip, which
allows 1) and 2) above to occur in the same slip; 4) good casting rate; 5) easy mold
release; 6) good drainage from the mold at the end of the cast; 7) adequate green
strength in the cast layer to allow easier handling; 8) low drying shrinkage; and 9)
Newtonian flow.

Newtonian flow is desirable in a casting slip because it will allow the slip to flow
well under all applied stress conditions, will aid in filling all mold cavities, will help
prevent bubbles from being trapped, will help prevent sudden slumping caused
by thixotropy during handling and transport of the cast piece, and will aid in
achieving uniform casting rates. Casting slips, especially when the specific gravity
is high and the body contains clay minerals, tend to be thixotropic. The particles tend
to aggregate, a process called flocculation. To counter this, a variety of chemicals are
used to deflocculate the slip, or break up these aggregates. The basic process is to add
like charges to the particle surfaces so they repel each other. This decreases viscosity
and changes the flow characteristics toward or to Newtonian flow. A number of
deflocculation agents are in use, including sodium silicate (water glass), sodium
carbonate, sodium salts of phosphoric acid, penta-sodium tripolyphosphate (STP,
given by the formula Na5P3O10), sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC),
poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and others. By way of a
simplified explanation, deflocculants containing the Na+ ion act to cause surface
replacement of Ca2+ ions on the particle surfaces. Since not enough Na+ ions can find
room on the surface, the particles are given a net negative charge and repel each other.
A drawback of using deflocculants containing Na+ ions is that the composition then
contains a powerful fluxing agent, which may be detrimental to firing or final
electrical properties. The organic deflocculants leave no "residue" like this behind.
It is much easier to produce a stable casting slip for compositions containing clay
minerals. They act as suspension agents and binders. They aid in achieving desirable
flow characteristics. Producing a workable casting slip for bodies devoid of plastic
materials like clay is more difficult. Alumina presents a good case in point. It is a
dense material and is thus difficult to keep in suspension. A high alumina ceramic
composition will have no clay, and if the alumina content must be very high, it will
consist of nearly pure alumina. Materials like Na-CMC act as combined binders and
deflocculants. The curve below shows the effect of additions of Na-CMC to a high
specific gravity alumina suspension. As is typical for deflocculation curves, the
addition of Na-CMC dramatically decreases viscosity (round dots), with a minimum
at 0.35 wt% to 0.65 wt%. Above this level, viscosity again rises. The thixotropy index
(square dots) reaches essentially zero (no thixotropic behavior) at about 0.65 wt%.

Flow Properties for Alumina Casting Slip Vs Na-CMC Addition

As can be seen in the graph below for this composition, the green density reaches a
maximum and the shrinkage reaches a minimum at this optimum level of Na-CMC
addition. This type of data, achieved by careful experimentation, is invaluable in
developing optimized casting slips and casting processes.
 Cast Properties for Slip Cast Alumina Vs Na-CMC Addition

Pressure slip casting is basically the same process but with pressure applied to the
slip in the mold. This helps force water from the slip through the part and into the
mold. The effect of applied slip pressure is shown in the curve below. The dashed line
to the right gives the cast thickness Vs casting time with no additional applied
pressure. One atmosphere pressure = 1 bar = 105 Pa. As can be seen, increasing the
applied slip pressure dramatically cuts the time required to develop wall thickness.
 Effect of Casting Pressure on Cast Thickness Vs Casting Time

Pressure casting requires special molds and stronger mold materials, which can
withstand the applied pressure. Plaster molds cannot withstand the pressures used, and
special plastic materials have been developed. These materials must have high
porosity, high mechanical strength, and good elasticity. The latter property is required
to allow mechanical pressure to be used to provide a very tight seal around the
periphery of the molds without mold cracking. A typical medium pressure casting
machine and molds are shown below.

Typical Netzsch Medium Casting Machine Mold Line

 Views of Molds in Medium Pressure Casting Machine

Pressure casting is being applied in the sanitaryware industry and has produced a
number of advantages. Casting times are significantly cut. Parts can be easily
demolded. Molds require no drying between casting cycles and thus can be returned
to service immediately; an air purging system is used to dewater molds. Mold life is
much longer than conventional plaster molds, and fewer defects occur because of
mold wear. Product quality is more consistent and the cast part has less moisture to
remove. This eases drying requirements and cuts drying defects and losses. Parts with
variable thickness are easier to mold. One person can operate two or three casting
machines, including fettling of parts, and the operation can be run two or three shifts
per day. The net result is greater throughput, lower labor costs, and lower overall
production costs.

Centrifugal slip casting is another means of increasing pressure at the casting

face. In this case, a cylindrical plaster mold is rotated about its axis, and the
centrifugal pressure aids in the casting process. The pressures are lower than in the
process described above, and the process has been used to produce parts with multiple
layers of different compositions. The process is limited to relatively simple cylindrical
geometries and is shown schematically below.
 Schematic of Centrifugal Slip Casting of Small Gear Shape

Tape casting is a second cousin to the casting processes described above. The
process is used to produce thin layers of a flexible tape containing the ceramic
composition. It is a common process for substrates for electronics, such as
semiconductor substrates, and to form layers for multilayer capacitors. It is very
difficult, if not impossible, to form very thin ceramic parts by traditional methods
such as dry pressing or extrusion. This is especially true if holes for pins or
feedthroughs are needed. The tape casting process has been developed and refined
over the past fifty or so years to meet this need.

The basic tape casting process consists of producing a thin, continuous layer of a
ceramic slip on a non-porous substrate and removing the liquid phase to give a thin
layer of the ceramic composition. The liquid used to suspend the ceramic materials
has typically been an organic solvent and not water. A polymer binder is also
typically used to give the tape needed strength. Since the process does not rely on
absorption of the liquid carrier by a porous material like plaster of Paris, the liquid
carrier must be evaporated. Because the layers are very thin, no bubbles or other
disruptions can be tolerated. Use of solvents greatly enhances the ease of producing a
defect-free, thin, continuous, and handleable tape. Recently, there have been
environmental and health-related pressures to use water as the liquid medium, and
considerable progress has been made in this direction. Solvents, however, are still
common. Thin layers are easily produced by the "doctor blade" technique. This is a
flat knife blade that is held slightly above the substrate onto which the material is to
be deposited. A reservoir of the ceramic slip is placed behind the blade so that
material can flow out through the gap between the blade bottom and the substrate.
Either the doctor blade assembly is moved over the substrate, which might be a glass
plate in this case, or a flexible substrate is drawn continuously under the assembly. In
production environments, the latter arrangement is universal. Typically, a long Mylar
sheet is pulled under the doctor blade so that a layer of ceramic slip is placed on it, the
solvent carrier is evaporated and collected for reuse, and the Mylar sheet/ceramic tape
is rolled up for storage before it is used in subsequent manufacturing steps. With
appropriate binders to give the tape adequate strength, the tape can easily be cut and
punched for a variety of part geometries. Poly(vinyl butyral) is a commonly used
binder. Current tape casting machines can produce tape thicknesses from 12m up to
3+mm. Tapes as thin as 5m have been made. Metal conductor paths can be silk
screened onto the tape. Layers of tape can then be assembled into multilayer parts,
such as capacitors or electronic packages, and fired. Common products include
alumina substrates, barium titanate-based capacitors, as well as related compositions,
and polymer-based membranes for lithium-ion batteries. Current developments
include the use of finer particle powders for thinner layers, including use of nanosized
particles.

Double Doctor Blade Assembly for Precision Tape Casting

 Typical Small Tape Casting Machine

Large Commercial Tape Casting Unit

We are going to duplicate the discussion of an additional manufacturing process for

forming continuous tapes, called roll compaction, in this section even though it is a
pressure fabrication (dry pressing) process. The process is based on feeding a
prepared powder (usually spray dried) between two large diameter steel rolls. The
powder normally contains the ceramic raw material(s), an organic binder, and a small
amount of water. The powder is pressed into a tape by the rolls. The key to the
process is control of the powder feed to the "nip" point of the rolls. Typical tape
widths are 200-300 mm, and thicknesses range from 0.1 to 3 mm. Capital investment
tends to be high, and maintenance of the roll surfaces can be a problem. However,
there is very little drying necessary.

Gelcasting is a process that could be categorized several ways. It is a casting

process, so one might put it here in the slip casting area as a similar process. But it is a
new process, somewhat related to sol gel processing, but still quite different. It even
has some similarities to injection molding. It involves casting a part from a mix of
ceramic powders and an organic gel. Since it is a new, non-traditional process, we
have arbitrarily elected to discuss it below in the "non-traditional" forming processes.
If you would like to study it now, click here to link to the gelcasting discussion.

Non-Traditional Forming Processes

As we did above in the Traditional Processes section, in this section on Non-
Traditional Processes we will have a number of sub-groupings. These will include the
processes of Hot Pressing (and isostatic hot pressing), Vapor Deposition, Injection
Molding, Gel Casting, and Sol Gel Processing. Some of these have been around for
a while, but they are relatively specialized and are much less commonly used in the
ceramic industry. We have also included a section on Miscellaneous Processes to
allow discussion of processes that do not fit anywhere else.

Hot Pressing

Hot pressing is analogous to conventional pressure fabrication except that pressing

occurs at high temperature. Basically, the process combines pressing with firing. In
many cases, this is the only way some ceramic compositions can be produced at full
or theoretical density. Generally, only simple shapes can be made. The process is
limited by the die materials available, since they must contain the ceramic part under
high pressure at high temperatures. Graphite dies have traditionally been used, but
graphite is a weak material and must be protected from oxidation.

Elatec Hot Press

Hot isostatic pressing, or HIP, is basically isostatic pressing at elevated
temperatures. Pressure is applied from all sides as the part is held at elevated
temperatures. Thus, this process combines isostatic forming and firing into one step.
We might also call HIPing "pressurized sintering". The process often allows
densification to occur at lower temperatures than would be the case without the
applied pressure, or it allows attainment of theoretical density in materials where this
would be difficult or impossible otherwise. Containment of the part as pressure is
applied requires special materials and ingenious designs.

The HIP process was developed on the basis of using a containerized powder or
preform shape. Glass or metal containers can be used. If a presintered part is used, a
container may not be required. The part to be HIPed is placed in a furnace chamber,
which is pressurized with a gas, usually argon. Nitrogen is commonly used when
HIPing nitrides, such as silicon nitride, to prevent loss of nitrogen from the
composition. The part is heated under pressure through a prescribed
temperature/pressure/time cycle. HIP furnaces can range in size from 2" to 60" in
diameter. Furnaces of 10" to 20" diameter are becoming more common for ceramic
applications. Pressures can range to 3,000 bar (about 45,000 psi). Firing temperatures
generally range from 500oC to 2200oC. Fully automated and very sophisticated
control systems have been built into HIP furnaces. Complex shapes can be produced
with near-net shape capability. This offers an advantage over hot pressing, in which
only simple geometries can be handled and in which expensive machining is required
for complex shapes. HIP processing can very significantly cut the final cost of
complex parts when compared to the hot pressing/machining route. Rapid cooling
processes have been developed to shorten the cycle, thus increasing throughput and
decreasing processing costs. The HIP process is now a mature, if expensive,
manufacturing process for the ceramic industry. A wide variety of special application
parts are economically feasible using the HIP process.

Vapor Deposition

Vapor deposition is a "forming" process in which the raw materials are gases. It is not
really a new process; the author did his Ph.D. thesis on chemical vapor deposition of
pyrolytic boron nitride over thirty years ago! Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and
the related chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) process are receiving a lot of attention
in the production of composite materials and semiconductor materials, to name two
areas of current activity.

The process has a number of forms, including physical vapor deposition and the two
processes mentioned above. We will be concentrating on CVD and CVI. A wide
variety of oxide and non-oxide ceramic materials can be made by the process,
including graphite or carbon, diamond, SiO2, BN, SiC, tungsten silicide, Si3N4, TiN,
TiC, Ti(C,N), ZrN, Zr(C,N), and others. A gas or gases are reacted in a vacuum
furnace to produce a coating on a substrate or to infiltrate a preform, such as a
continuous fiber preform to make a composite material. A variety of gases are used as
reactants, including methane, CH4; carbon tetrafluoride, CF4; boron trichloride, BCl3;
diborane, B2H6; ammonia, NH3; dichlorosilane, H2SiCl2; silicon tetrafluoride, SiCl4;
and silane, SiH4. There are a number of reactions that can be used to produce the
desired ceramic material:

BCl3 + NH3 = BN + 3 HCl

CH4 + SiCl4 = SiC + 4 HCl

Silane and oxygen will yield SiO2 and ammonia and dichlorosilane will yield Si3N4.

Materials deposit as fine grain, dense layers on the substrate or in the preform. It is
possible to create virtually void-free infiltrates by the CVI method. Perhaps the most
widely studied composites are carbon/carbon composites, in which carbon fibers are
imbedded in a carbon matrix. Such composites can be produced by CVD/CVI or by
repeatedly infiltrating a carbon fiber preform with pitch or phenolic and carbonizing.
Anisotropic materials such as graphite and hexagonal BN are deposited by CVD as
very anisotropic layers, since the hexagonal sheet structure is laid down parallel to the
deposition surface. For example, the thermal conductivity of the layer will be several
orders of magnitude higher along the surface compared to through the surface.
Generally, deposition rates are not high, and the resulting materials are relatively
expensive, but for special applications these processes are one of the few methods
available to achieve desired materials.

Injection Molding

Injection molding is basically a plastic molding process essentially borrowed from the
plastics (as in polymer plastics) industry. For the ceramic industry, we should more
properly call it powder injection molding, or PIM, because we are injecting a
mixture of a plastic material and ceramic powders into a mold to form a shape. The
process has been in use for over three decades. In the originally developed process, a
mixture of ceramic powder and a polymer/wax binder system was heated to soften the
polymer/wax and injected into a steel mold to form a complex shape. Removal of the
organic portions to produce a ceramic preform that could then be sintered was a
complex, difficult, and time-consuming process. In recent years new molding systems
have been developed to overcome many of the earlier difficulties. With these systems,
the advantages of PIM in producing complex parts at economical costs using the
automated equipment developed for the plastic molding industry can be more fully
realized.

Most of the binder systems previously (and still) used for PIM have been
thermoplastic. That is, these materials become soft and plastic upon heating to 100-
220oC but return to a rigid or semirigid state at room temperature. Binders can be
classified into three types: wax- or oil-based, water-based, or solid polymer
solutions. The binder system normally represents 15-50 volume percent of the PIM
system, with 45-50% being more typical. The binder system must provide the means
for giving the plasticity needed for the injection molding process and also the shape
retention needed after that process. It must allow for easy binder system removal
(debinding)with no distortion of the part, other than shrinkage, before final firing.
Wax/oil-based binder systems normally contain three or four components. The
backbone polymer, often polypropylene, provides or controls viscosity, green strength
after molding, and debinding behavior. Waxes or oils are fillers and provide better
flow and are removed early in the debinding process. Surface agents improve the
interaction between the polymer and wax/oil. Sometimes additional plasticizers are
added to modify flow properties. Water-based binder systems utilize gels, water
soluble polymers, or glasses. Molding pressures at often lower. A system developed
by AlliedSignal uses a water-based gel that requires heating to only 85oC and can be
injected at 200-500 psi. This allows use of low cost epoxy molds for short-run or
prototype production. A gelling agent in the mix causes the part to gel to a silicone
rubber consistency. These parts are easy to handle and are not prone to chipping or
cracking. The final part contains 18-19% water, which is removed much the same
way water is removed from a slip cast or extruded clay-based ceramic system. Thick
parts can be handled, and there normally is no debinding process after drying, since
only about 3% of the gelling agent is left at that stage. This is burned out early in the
sintering schedule. Solid-polymer-solution binder systems have been developed that
minimize shape distortion during debinding. These often are based on the use of
polystyrene. The binder component is removed using a solvent after molding, leaving
the backbone polystyrene structure to support the shape.

A variety of batch, semicontinuous, and continuous mixers are used to mix the
ceramic powder with the binder systems. Normally, the binder system has to be
heated to allow uniform incorporation of the powder and to provide plasticity for
mixing. Typically, the mixed material is pelletized and cooled for storage before
being used in the PIM process. Early injection molding machines used a piston/barrel
arrangement to force the material into the mold. This was a batch type system,
although reloading was relatively fast. Newer, higher capacity machines use
continuous auger feed systems.
Schematic of A) Screw-type and B) Piston-type Injection Molding Feeders
 Examples of PIM Parts

Gelcasting

Gelcasting is similar in some respects to slip casting. Both processes convert a slip or
slurry into a rigid cast part, almost always of intricate shape. Slip casting is virtually
always an aqueous process, and gelcasting can be either aqueous or nonaqueous in
nature. Slip casting produces parts that are somewhat fragile and cannot easily be
machined in the green state. Gelcasting uses a high solids content of ceramic powders
in an organic gel. The solids loading is higher than is the case in slip casting. Gelcast
parts are strong and can be machined. Slip casting is a much more prolonged process
than gelcasting, and molds for slip casting must be carefully dried between casts and
are easily damaged. Gelcasting is perhaps a second cousin to sol gel processing,
discussed below. However, the sol gel process involves low loadings of ceramic
precursors in an inorganic gel, and it is much more difficult to produce large
monolithic parts. Gelcasting can produce intricate parts similar in nature to powder
injection molding, discussed above. However, gelcasting processes are less likely to
have molding defects, will produce parts with greater green strength, do not involve
complex and long debinding steps, which can lead to part distortion or defects, and
can produce thick-section parts, which is a problem with injection molding.
Gelcasting is its own unique process. Compared to PIM, gelcasting separates the mold
filling process from the setting operation, although both occur in the mold in both
processes. In most PIM systems, the part must be cooled via the mold in order to
achieve rigidity. In gelcasting, gelation occurs passively in the mold as a separate
chemical process within the cast part. The mold is basically a passive container at this
stage. When compared to PIM, gelcasting does have some similarity to some of the
new water-based, gel-type PIM processes discussed above.

One almost needs to be an organic chemist to fully appreciate or understand

gelcasting. Ceramic powders are suspended in a monomer solution, which is
polymerized in the mold to form a cross-linked, rigid, polymer/solvent gel. The mold
is not porous, as is necessary in traditional slip casting. The system typically contains
only 10-20 weight percent polymer, and the solvent portion is removed by a rather
conventional drying step after the part is removed from the mold. We cannot cover all
the possible gel systems that have been used for gelcasting. We will give only a few
examples to indicate their nature and complexity. A nonaqueous gelcasting system
for casting alumina ceramics might contain 50-55 vol% alumina, with the balance
being the dispersing solution. This solution will have about 10% dispersant, such as
Rohm & Haas Triton X-100 or N-100 in DuPont dibasic ester (DBE) or ICI Americas
Solsperse 2000 in dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and 90% gelcasting premix. The
gelcasting premix might include 20 vol% monomers, such as trifunctional
trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) and difunctional 1,6 hexanediol diacrylate
(HDODA), both from Hoechst Celanese, 1 vol% dibenzoyl peroxide initiator, and
79% solvent, either DBE or DBP. Aqueous gelcasting systems are more closely
related to traditional ceramic processing, have easier drying processes, better fluidity
during casting, and fewer environmental problems. An example is the acrylamide
system. This system is based on the use of the monomers monofunctional acrylamide
(AM) and difunctional N,N'-methylenbis-acrylamide (MBAM), with the solvent
being water. The premix into which the ceramic powder is dispersed might include 5-
19 vol% of a mixture of AM and MBAM, with the balance being water. The initiator
might be ammonium persulfate, (NH4)2S2O8. Obviously, gelcasting generally involves
very complex chemical systems and specialty chemicals. However, most of these are
readily available and are not prohibitively costly.

Sol Gel Processing

Sol gel processing is a relatively new process that has received attention over the past
decade. It is, for all practical purposes, more of an organic/inorganic chemical process
than it is a "ceramic" process, at least as one would traditionally define it. The process
can be used to produce very special ceramic raw materials, ceramic coatings,
composite materials, fibers, or monolithic ceramic parts.

Before we can discuss sol-gel processing, we need to define a few terms. A sol is a
stable dispersion of very fine particles in a liquid phase in which the particles remain
suspended indefinitely by Brownian motion. If the liquid phase is water, a sol is
possible with particles under about 1µm. When there is a weak liquid/particle
interaction, the sol is classified as lyophobic. When the interaction is strong, the sol is
classified as lyophilic. A gel is a solid composed of liquid and solid phases, with
these phases both highly dispersed and with an internal network structure. In sol-gel
processing for ceramics, we need to convert a sol containing ceramic precursors into a
gel. Generally, only lyophilic sols can be converted to gels. The gel can then be heat-
processed to form a variety of ceramic compositions.
Sol-gel processing can involve either aqueous-based solutions of a metal salt or
alcohol-based solutions of a metal alkoxide. Gelation of an aqueous-based sol can be
accomplished by either removal of water (dehydration gelation) or increase of pH
(alkaline gelation). In alcohol-based, metal alkoxide processes, a lot of the effort for
ceramics has involved preparation of glasses from tetraethyl or tetramethyl
orthosilicate. However, a wide variety of ceramic compositions can be prepared via
the sol-gel process, including powders of ZnO, TiO2, Al2TiO5, and Al2ZrO5, thin
films of Ta2O5, and layers of lead zirconate titanate. Monolithic, amorphous gels of
zirconia can be prepared by the hydrolysis of tetrapropylzirconate solution in
cyclohexane. Non-oxide materials, such as silicon carbide, have been prepared by the
sol-gel route. If this starts to sound a bit foreign to your concept of ceramics, you are
not entirely alone in that perception!

Sol-gel processing, even though it appears to be very "non-traditional", offers a

number of advantages and/or unique opportunities for the ceramic industry. Chemical
homogeneity on the molecular or atomic scale can be attained. Because of the very
small particle sizes produced, there is an enormous amount of surface area involved.
This can lead to much lower sintering temperatures than would otherwise be the case.
Glasses can be made in compositional regions where phase separation would occur if
conventional melting techniques were used. Another advantage relates to very high
chemical purity and lack of contamination. The process can be used to produce
reactive powders, fibers, and coatings; to infiltrate preforms (such as continuous fiber
preforms) to produce composite materials; and to produce monolithic materials. In the
latter case, and in some cases with coatings, the large volume change that often occurs
during heat processing of the gel can create problems and barriers.

It is, of course, beyond the scope of this course to delve deeply into sol-gel
processing. It is not, at least as yet, a mainstream manufacturing process. However,
sol-gel processing and a number of related chemical processing techniques will
undoubtedly have a growing role in specialty applications. Will dinnerplates ever be
made this way? That's very unlikely! But in the electronics, optical, communications,
structural, and similar ceramic arenas, sol-gel processing offers some intriquing
potential and opportunities.

Miscellaneous Processes

There are a number of processes that are unique and/or seldom used. Some of these
processes will become more common in the future. We will not be able to cover all of
them, and we will not be able to cover any in great depth. However, it is important to
at least introduce them.

The refractories industry has long produced fused cast refractory shapes, primarily
for the glass industry. This is basically a metallurgical process. The ceramic
composition, such as alumina or alumina-zirconia-silica (AZS), is actually melted in
an electric arc furnace at very, very high temperatures and cast by pouring into a
mold. During solidification, large interlocking crystals grow in the piece, and a large
volume decrease occurs. Shrinkage voids or "pipes" occur at the center of the cast
part. Proper design of the casting feed system will help eliminate these defects from
the actual finished piece. Fused cast blocks are very resistant to glass attack and are
thus used as the working lining in glass melting furnaces. They are also used where
metallurgical slag attack is a problem.

There have been a number of techniques developed to allow fabrication of prototype

or one-of-a-kind ceramic parts without the need for complex molds, dies, or other
tooling. Fusion Deposition of Ceramics (FDC) makes use of injection molding
ceramic compositions in filament form as a feedstock. This is melted, extruded, and
placed via CAD computer control onto the prototype. This allows the construction of
an intricate shape in a "freeform" environment. The process is shown schematically
below:

Schematic of Fusion Deposition of Ceramics

 Material Feeding and Deposition Head for FDC Process

Unfired Ceramic Parts Produced by Fusion Deposition of Ceramics

Another similar technique is called Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF). It also relies
on CAD techniques to convert a part drawing into directions for building a freeform
part. The part is electronically sectioned into horizontal slices for part fabrication. For
ceramic parts, several techniques are being developed. One deposition technique,
which is conceptually similar to FDC, discussed above, uses chemical gelation of
ceramic slurry layers. This is shown schematically below:
 Schematic of Freeform Fabrication of Ceramic Parts Using Slurry Gelation

Using this technique, high strength alumina parts were fabricated using an aqueous,
low-viscosity, very fine grain (0.35 µm average particle size) magnesia-doped
alumina slurry with dissolved ammonium alginate. A dispersant was also used, as was
a small amount of sodium citrate to prevent premature gelation. Individual layers of
the slurry were deposited, leveled, and then gelled using calcium chloride salt solution
airbrushed over the surface. This is obviously not a production forming process, but
for prototypes it is useful. Another process uses ceramic tape similar to that used for
tape casting. Layers of tape of the appropriate shape for each layer are laminated and
pressed into a green preform. Different compositions can be used in each layer if a
composite structure is desired. The preform can receive further machining and then be
fired. The process, called Computer-Aided Manufacturing of Laminated Engineering
Materials (CAM-LEM) is shown schematically below.
 Schematic of the CAM-LEM Process

Pentronix, Inc.: http://www.ptx.com/

Unique/Pereny Tape Casting Machines: http://www.hed.com/procast.html

Tape Casting Warehouse: http://www.drblade.com/TCW.htm

EPSI Isostatic Pressing: http://www.epsi-highpressure.com/isostatic/pressing.htm

Pressure Technology, Inc. Hot isostatic Pressing:

http://www.pressuretechnology.com/

Argonne National Laboratory Hot Isostatic Pressing:

http://anl.gov/LabDB/Current/Ext/H498-text.003.html

Fullman-Kinetics Vapor Deposition:

http://www.fullman.com/semiconductors/cvd.html

Metal-organic CVD: http://bittburg.ethz.ch/LSST/mocvd/default.html

Contents of Chemical Vapor Deposition 6/96: http://www.wiley-

vch.de/contents/jc_2112/199606.html

Oak Ridge National Laboratory "Injection Molding of a Ceramic Turbocharger

Blank": http://www.cped.ornl.gov/cped_ce/text/jep3.html

Elatec Bindervac Binder Removal Furnace: http://www.bindervac.com/main.html

Fraunhofer Institut Injection Molding of Aluminum Nitride Ceramics:

http://www.ikts.fhg.de/publications/lenk/7.html

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Gelcasting: http://www.ornl.gov/MC-

CPG/gelcasting.html, http://www.ornl.gov/orcmt/capabilities/dtin386.html and
http://www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/rev28-4/text/gelcast.htm

CAM-LEM Inc.: http://www.camlem.com/ceramics.html

Digital Fire, "Understanding Slip Casting Bodies":

http://digitalfire.com/magic/slip.htm

Tape Casting, Cranfield University,

http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/sims/materials/processing/tcintro.htm.

Ceramic Substrates for the Electronics Industry, CeramTec,

http://www.ceramtec.com/Services/Laser_Facilities/Ceramtec_NAEAs/ceramsubstrat
es.htm.

References

"Using Additives to Enhance Forming Processes", Ceramic Industry, Vol.149, No. 1,

January, 1999, pp. 33-36.
"Dry Pressing Technical Ceramics", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol.
75, No. 4, April, 1996, pp. 103-106.

"Pressing Technology Meets Manufacturing Challenges", The American Ceramic

Society Bulletin, Vol. 73, No. 1, January, 1994, pp. 46-53.

"Trends in Tile Pressing Technology", Ceramic Industry, Vol. 144, No. 4, April,
1995, pp. 81-88.

Publications Resulting from Work at Sandia Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,

on Pressure Fabrication

"Ceramic Compaction Models: Useful Design Tools or Simple Trend Indicators?", F.

Michael Mahoney and Michael J. Readey.

"Computer Simulations of Particle Packing", J. Cesarano III, M. J. McEuen, and T.

Swiler.

"Applied Mechanics Modeling of Granulated Ceramic Powder Compaction", F.

Michael Mahoney and Michael J. Readey.

"Compaction of Spray-Dried Ceramic Powders: An Experimental Study of the

Factors That Control Green Density", Michael J. Readey and F. Michael Mahoney.

"Characterization Techniques to Validate Models of Density Variations in Pressed

Powder Compacts", Terry Garino, Mike Mahoney, Mike Readey, Kevin Ewsuk, John
Gieske, Gerry Stoker, and Shermann Min.

"Ceramic Granule Strength Variability and Compaction Behavior", S. Jill Glass,

Kevin G. Ewsuk, and Michael J. Readey.

"A Comparison of Pressure Compaction and Diametral Compression Tests for

Determining Granule Strengths", S. Jill Glass and Clay Newton.

"Characterizing and Modeling Organic Binder Burnout from Green Ceramic

Compacts", K. G. Ewsuk, J. Cesarano III, R. J. Cochran, B. F. Blackwell, and D. R.
Adkins.

"Density Gradient Evolution During Dry Pressing", The American Ceramic Society
Bulletin, Vol. 76, No. 1, January, 1997, pp. 53-58.

"Acrylic Binders for Dry Pressing Ceramics", The American Ceramic Society
Bulletin, Vol. 76, No. 1, January, 1997, pp. 49-52.

"What's New with the RAM Process?", Ceramic Industry, Vol. 148, No. 7, July,
1998, pp. 25-29.

"Slip Casting of High Purity Alumina Using Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose as

Deflocculant/Binder", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 69, No. 5, May,
1990, pp. 828-832.
"Slip Casting Apatite Ceramics", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 69,
No. 5, May, 1990, pp. 824-827.

"Rheological Behavior of an STP Deflocculated Kaolin", The American Ceramic

Society Bulletin, Vol. 77. No. 12, December, 1998, pp. 68-71.

"Effects of Organics in Casting Slips", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol.
75, No. 9, September, 1996, pp. 66-68.

"Thixotropic Casting for Precast Shapes", Ceramic Industry, Vol. 149, No. 2,
February, 1999, pp. 25-27.

"Pressure Casting Improves Productivity", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin,

Vol. 67, No. 10, October, 1988, pp. 1680-1683.

"Aqueous Pressure Casting Improves manufacturing of SiC Parts", The American

Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 77, No. 11, November, 1998, pp. 62-66.

"Centrifugal Slip Casting of Components", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin,

Vol. 75, No. 5, May, 1996, pp. 92-94.

"Tape Casting: Past Present, Potential", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin,
Vol. 77, No. 10, October, 1998, pp. 82-86.

"Tape Casting: The Basic Process for Meeting the Needs of the Electronics Industry",
The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 69, No. 6, June, 1990, pp. 1022-1026.

"Oil Dispersion of Alumina for Tape Casting", The American Ceramic Society
Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 7, July, 1995, pp. 69-74.

"Electronics: Tape Casting, Roll Compaction", The American Ceramic Society

Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 10, October, 1995, pp. 56-59.

"Hot Isostatic Pressing: Research Tool and Manufacturing Process", Ceramic

Industry, Vol. 146, No. 6, June, 1996, pp. 46-50.

Chemical Vapor Deposition, Srinivasan Sivaram, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995,

ISBN 0-442-01079-6.

Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition, Nucleation and Early Growth Stages,

Huimin Liu and David S. Dandy, Noyes Publications, 1995, ISBN 0-8155-1380-1.

"Ceramic Injection Molding Meets the Demand for Manufacturing Complex Shapes",
Ceramic Industry,Vol. 147, No. 3, March, 1997, pp. 42-44.

"Key Issues in Powder Injection Molding", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin,
Vol. 70, No. 8, August, 1991, pp. 1294-1302.

"Equipment Selection for Injection Molding", The American Ceramic Society

Bulletin, Vol. 68, No. 10, October, 1989, pp. 1796-1802.
"Gelcasting- A New Ceramic Forming Process", The American Ceramic Society
Bulletin, Vol. 70, No. 10, October, 1991, pp. 1641-1649.

Gelcasting Foams for Porous Ceramics", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin,
Vol. 76, No. 10, October, 1997, pp. 61-65.

"Sol-Gel Process- Principles and Applications", The American Ceramic Society

Bulletin, Vol. 70, No. 9, September, 1991, pp. 1487-1490.

"Sol-Gel Synthesis of Fluorozirconate Glasses", The American Ceramic Society

Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 8, August, 1995, pp. 66-71.

"Chemical Processing of Ceramics", Chemical & Engineering News, January 1,

1990, pp. 28-40.

"FDC, Rapid Fabrication of Structural Components", The American Ceramic Society

Bulletin, Vol. 75, No. 11, November, 1996, pp. 60-65.

"Freeform Fabrication of Ceramics", The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol.

77, No. 7, July, 1998, pp. 53-58.

"Rapid Prototyping of Functional Ceramic Composites", The American Ceramic

Society Bulletin, Vol. 75, No. 7, July, 1996, pp. 65-68.

"Powder Synthesis and Shape Forming of Advanced Ceramics", The American

Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 8, August, 1995, pp. 62-65.

"Synthetic Molds Go Mainstream", Ceramic Industry, Vol. 150, No. 13, December,
2000, pp. 25-27.

Student Exercise for Lesson CP-4

For the composition(s)/product(s) selected for this module, discuss the following:

a) What forming operations are used?

b) Describe the production equipment used for each process, including make, age,
production rate, condition, strong and weak points, degree of automation, and safety.

c. What improvements in existing processes could be made? Could newer or different

processes, like isostatic pressing or gelcasting, replace any existing processes?
Discuss these issues.