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SWAMI VIVEKANAND INSTITUTE POLYTECHNIC,

LATUR-413 512

CAPSTONE PROJECT EXECUTION AND REPORT WRITING

(22060)
Title of project

“INTRAGATED RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT”

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MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION,

MUMBAI.

SWAMI VIVEKANAND INSTITUTE O POLYTECHNIC, LATUR (INSTITUTE

MSBTE CODE 1703)

CERTIFICATE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that

SUBMITTED BY
Name of Group Members Enrollment no.
1. Kulkarni tanmay deepak 171703003

2. Wagaj Yashvardhan Prashant 1717030040

3. Shivdatt Ishwar Patil 1817030180

4. Mahamuni Sandeep Suresh 1617030187

5. More Ritesh Rajesh 1717030026
6. Shinde Abhijeet Balwantrao 1717030043

Are the students of our institute studying in third year of Civil Engineering Department (CE6I) who has
successfully completed Capstone-Project Planning Report on
”INTRAGATESD WATER RESOURCES MANAGNMENT”
As per the requirement of Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education,
Mumbai for the for partial fulfillment of
“Diploma in Civil Engineering”
During Academic Year 2021-
2022
UNDER THE GUIDENCE
Prof. SOMVANSHI J.J.
HOD PRINCIPAL

Prof. SOMVANSHI J.J. Prof. SAKHARE R.S.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The reason of success of this project is the guidance of an expert and generous guide.
We take immense pleasure in thanking to principle
SAKHARE.R.S sir and our HOD Prof. SOMVANSHI J.J. sir permit us to carry out this
project and also guide us for the subject of CPP- project.

We would also like to thanks Prof. SOMWANSHI J.J sir for giving always ready to help and
clear our problems and difficulties by giving their valuable time to us. We also
acknowledge our sincere thanks to institution library for providing us books related to our
subject and at end we thanks to all others who directly or indirectly given their
contribution in this project and made the project completed successfully.

Last but not least we owe to those who have directly and indirectly contributed in completion of this
semester

Class: CE6I
Mr.kulkarni T .D

Mr.wagaj Y.P.

Mr.patil S.I.

Mr.more R.R.

Mr.shinde A.B

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PROJECT APPROVAL SHEET

Mr.kulkarni T D., Mr.wagaj Y. P, Mr.patil S. I, Mr.More R. R., Mr.

Shinde A. B have done the appropriate award of Diploma in Civil

Engineering of Swami Vivekanand Institute of polytechnic, Latur

Afiliated of Maharashtra State board of Technical Education Mumbai .

Internal examine External Examiner

DATE

( )
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ABSTRACT

WATER IS PRECIOUS NATURAL RESOURCE FOR SUSTAINING LIFE AND ENVIRONMENT. EFFECTIVE AND
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IS VITAL FOR ENSURING SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT. IN VIEW OF THE VITAL IMPORTANCE OF WATER FOR HUMAN AND ANIMAL LIFE, FOR
MAINTAINING ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND FOR ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES OF ALL
KINDS, AND CONSIDERING ITS INCREASING SCARCITY, THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER
RESOURCE AND ITS OPTIMAL, ECONOMICAL AND EQUITABLE USE HAS BECOME A MATTER OF THE
UTMOST URGENCY. MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA IS OF PARAMOUNT IMPORTANCE
TO SUSTAIN ONE BILLION PLUS POPULATION. WATER MANAGEMENT IS A COMPOSITE AREA WITH
LINKAGE TO VARIOUS SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY INCLUDING THE AGRICULTURAL, INDUSTRIAL,
DOMESTIC AND HOUSEHOLD, POWER, ENVIRONMENT, FISHERIES AND TRANSPORTATION SECTOR. THE
WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PRACTICES SHOULD BE BASED ON INCREASING THE WATER
SUPPLY AND MANAGING THE WATER DEMAND UNDER THE STRESSED WATER AVAILABILITY
CONDITIONS. FOR MAINTAINING THE QUALITY OF FRESHWATER, WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES ARE REQUIRED TO BE EVOLVED AND IMPLEMENTED. DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS ARE
REQUIRED TO BE DEVELOPED FOR PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE WATER RESOURCES
PROJECT. THERE IS INTERPLAY OF VARIOUS FACTORS THAT GOVERN ACCESS AND UTILIZATION OF
WATER RESOURCES AND IN LIGHT OF THE INCREASING DEMAND FOR WATER IT BECOMES
IMPORTANT TO LOOK FOR HOLISTIC AND PEOPLE-CENTERED APPROACHES FOR WATER
MANAGEMENT. CLEARLY, DRINKING WATER IS TOO FUNDAMENTAL AND SERIOUS AN ISSUE TO BE
LEFT TO ONE INSTITUTION ALONE. IT NEEDS THE COMBINED INITIATIVE AND ACTION OF ALL, IF AT
ALL WE ARE SERIOUS IN SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. SAFE DRINKING WATER CAN BE ASSURED,
PROVIDED WE SET OUR MIND TO ADDRESS IT. THE PRESENT ARTICLE DEALS WITH THE REVIEW OF
VARIOUS OPTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCEE
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INDEX
SR.NO Content Page
no

1. Introduction 1 to 3

2. Liturater survey 4 to 10

2.1.Hydrologycal cylcle

2.2.water resources protection

2.3.eco system health

2.4.Risk of water resources

3. Scope of water resources

3.1.Imortance of water managnment 13 to

14
3.2.Basic content of water resources
managnment 15

4. Methhodology 20 to
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4.1. Planning and approach 30

4.2.Intragated water Resources

5. Issues from water resoources 31 to

33

6. Water resources deveslopnment plan 34 to

37

7. Conclusion 38

8. Refrence 39
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CHAPTER:1

Introduction

Introduction: General Principles of Systems Analysis to Problems in Water Resources Engineering,

Objectives of Water Resources Planning and Development, Nature of Water Resources Systems, Socio

Economic Characteristics.

Economic Analysis of Water Resources System: Principles of Engineering Economy, Capital, Interest

and Interest Rates, Time Value of Money, Depreciation, Benefit Cost Evaluation, Discounting

Techniques, Economic and Financial Evaluation, Socio-Economic Analysis.

Methods of Systems Analysis: Linear Programming Models, Simplex Method, Sensitivity Analysis, Dual

Programming, Dynamic Programming Models, Classical Optimisation Techniques, Non-linear

Programming, Gradient Techniques, Genetic Algorithm, Stochastic Programming, Simulation, Search

Techniques, Multi Objective O

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Water resources
and
activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water.

97% of water on the Earth is salt water, leaving only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is
frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.[1] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as
groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.[2]
Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing.
Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world population continues
to rise, so too does the water demand. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for
ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s
wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater
ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems.[3] The framework for
allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as .
Sources of fresh water

 Water resources
The water resources focused on during the study include water courses as defined in the National
Water Act (NWA), Act 36 of 1998 (see Figure 1), namely:
 Surface water (perennial and ephemeral).

 Wetlands.

 Estuaries.

 Aquifers.

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chapter :2
Litrature survey
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Figure 1: Water cycle, indicating water resources and their inreaction

There are five processes taking place in the Hydrologic Cycle viz.:

1. Evaporation and Transpiration (Evapotranspiration)

2. Condensation
3. Advection
4. Precipitation
5. Surface Runoff
6. Infiltration and Percolation

Water is evaporated from the oceans, inland water bodies and land surface because of the
energy supplied by sun. Water vapour also enters the atmosphere due to transpiration by plants and
animals.

Condensation of this vapour on the nuclei present in atmosphere results in the formation of
clouds.

The clouds are transported by winds (Advection) and under appropriate conditions result in
precipitation in the form of rain, sleet, hail or snow.

Part of the precipitation flows overland (Surface Runoff) and through drains and rivulets, joins a
river and ultimately flows back into the oceans.

Part of the precipitation is intercepted by the leafs of plants (Interception), while the rest falls on
the ground and may infiltrate through the soil (Infiltration) or through fracture and interstices of rocks
(Percolation) and join the groundwater reservoir.

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The freshwater available for use can be in the form of surface water i.e. the water in lakes,
streams and reservoirs or in the form of groundwater, which is extracted from aquifers. There is a strong
interaction between surface and groundwater as they feed each other.

 Water resource protection

The NWA (Act 36 of 1998) defines water resource protection as being fundamentally related to the use,
development, conservation, management, and control of water resources. The Act divides water
resource protection into three sections of different activities and focus points to ensure the
comprehensive protection of water resources in South Africa (see Section 3.1.1).

 Ecosystem health
A healthy ecosystem is often defined as one not showing signs of illness such as pollution, algae or loss of
species. (Rapport et al., 2001). Relevant aspects include flow requirements and water quality.

 Flow requirements and future use

Flow requirement is the existing flow of a river to meet the current lawful uses of the water and the
requirements of the existing ecosystem. The future use of a water resource needs to consider existing
flow requirements as well as future conditions relating to recharge of the resource.

 Water quality
Water quality is defined as the physical and biological characteristics of a particular water resource. This
is in relation to its particular usage and ecological requirements.

 Risks to water resources

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction defines “risk” as being the combination of the
probability of an event happening and the negative consequences thereof (UNISDR, 2009). Risks in the
context of water resource protection include any event or activity that can threaten or have a negative
impact on a water resource. Hence, water resource protection should comprise risk management
measures to identify and mitigate against these risks. The main risks are summarised in the sub-
sections that follow:

 Pollution threats
Pollution threats include any form of pollution that decreases the present quality of a water resource thus making

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it unsuitable as a water resource for human usage and has a negative impact on the ecology of the water
resource.

 Encroachment
Infrastructure developments close to or encroaching on water courses could threaten the ecological
requirements of the water resource and the availability and water quality of the water resources for
human consumption.

 Overallocation
It is important to allocate the correct quantity of water to the various stakeholders to ensure equity and
sustainability in the usage of water resources. However, allocation needs to ensure that aspects of water
resource replenishment and ecological requirements are met when making allocations. Overallocation of water
resources can result in permanent damage to water resources and hinder meeting future allocation goals.

 Climate change
It is also important to consider aspects of climate change and the likelihood of less water resources in the future
when making water resource allocations.

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Land use activities

A variety of land use activities affect water resources. These activities need to be considered for the protection of
water resources (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Example of land use activities that could negatively affect water resource integrity in a
catchment landscape .

Based on the extent of possible impacts, involved pollutants and spatial scale of activities and impacts,
these land use activities can be grouped into:

 Agriculture.

 Mining and industry.

 Urbanisation.

Agriculture
While agriculture is the biggest water user in South Africa, agricultural activities, such as irrigation and
use of fertilisers and pesticides, are a constant threat to the functioning of water resources. This is
exacerbated by the diffuse nature of impacts, which are often only detected far downgradient of the
sources.

Mining and industry

Mining and large industry are big contributors to the economy. However, they are large water users and
are among the biggest polluters of water resources, especially old closed mines where contaminated
water decants into surface water ecosystems and further pollutes groundwater resources. Other
impacts include mining in wetlands, sand mining in riverbeds, acid rain, emissions, brines and other
effluents from industries.

Urbanisation
The growing urbanisation and concentration of possible pollution sources is an ongoing trend that could
threaten water resources and human health (see Figure 3) if not managed properly .

 MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

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Rainfall can be measured either using raingauges or with a weather radar. Raingauges can be non-
recording or recording.

 Non-Recording Raingauge

A typical non-recording raingauge (Fig.2.1) consists of a cylinder over which a funnel is fixed. The funnel
shank is inserted in a bottle which receives the rainwater. The water collected in the bottle is measured
by pouring it into a measuring cylinder which gives the depth of rainfall in mm. These gauges however
cannot give the intensity of rainfall.

 Recording Raingauges

Recording raingauges can measure the intensity of rainfall also and three types are commonly used

1. Tipping Bucket Raingauge

This type of raingauge (Fig.2.2) comprises of a collector funnel which directs the rainwater into a
bucket with two compartments. Once the compartment below the funnel is filled, it tips and
empties the water into a reservoir and the other compartment moves into the place below the
funnel. As each bucket is tipped, it actuates an electrical circuit causing a pen to mark on a
revolving drum. The buckets are designed to tip at given depth of rain and thus from the marks
on the drum, the total rainfall can be obtained.
2. Weighing Bucket Raingauge
In this type of raingauge, the collecting bucket is set on a weighing platform. The weight of the
bucket and its contents are recorded on a chart held by a clock driven drum. The record thus
gives the accumulation of rainfall with time.
3. Float Type Raingauge
In this type of raingauge, the collection chamber is provided with a float. The float rises with the

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rise of water level in the chamber and its movement is recorded on a chart through a suitable
mechanism. A siphon arrangement is also provided to empty the chamber quickly whenever it
becomes full.

Weather Radar

This is based on the detection of the reflected energy of high frequency electromagnetic waves. The
electromagnetic waves are sent out and the echo intensity recorded. Calibration of this with the rainfall
gives the rainfall intensity.

RAINFALL IN INDIA

The rainfall in India has a very skew pattern- both in time and space. Thus while the average annual
rainfall in the country is 1143mm, nearly 75-90% of this occurs in 25 to 60 days of the monsoon period.
Further, while there are areas which have an average annual rainfall of more than 11000mm, there are
others where it is as low as 220mm. Year to year variability of 20% in the average is also not uncommon.
Isohyetal maps of the country as well as the coefficient of variability

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CHAPTER:3

Scope of Intragated water Resources Managnment

IMPORTANCE OF WATER MANAGEMENT

As already mentioned, the fresh water forms a very small fraction of the total water available on the earth
and its management therefore assumes great significance for the survival of life.

It is estimated that about 400,000 cu km. of water is evaporated annually. Of this, the evaporation from
oceans is about 340,000 cu km., while from land it is 60,000 cu km. The rainfall, on the other hand, is 300,000
cu km. over oceans and 100,000 cu km over land. The difference of 40,000 cu km between the evaporation and
precipitation over land is thus the renewable fresh water supply of the earth.

In the Indian context, one of the major problems is the skew distribution of precipitation both in
time and in space. Thus most of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months. The average
annual rainfall of India is 1143 mm. and nearly 75-90% of this occurs in 25 to 60 days of monsoon.
Further, while there are areas in the Northeast which receive excessive rainfall- more than 11,000 mm-
there are areas in Rajasthan that may be receiving as little as about 220 mm. There is also a variability of
upto about 20% in the rainfall from year to year in most of the parts.

The Central Water Commission of India has made a basinwise assessment of the water potential
of the country. The total utilizable resources are estimated to be 1110 cu km annually, of which surface
water accounts for 690 cu km and groundwater the remaining 420 cu km. It is estimated that the water
demand by the year 2025 will nearly equal or exceed the availability. Thereafter, the alternative of
interbasin transfer of water will have to be seriously considered. There is thus an imperative need for
proper management of the water resources of the country.

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Though surface water sources include rivers as well as lakes, rivers remain the major source of
the same. The strategies for development of this source can be based either on diversion of the water
available in the river at any point of time or on storing water when available (such as in monsoon months)
and drawing from the storage during lean flows. In the former case, these are termed as diversion
schemes, while the latter are called storage schemes.
BASIC CONCEPT OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

objectives of Water Resources Management

The goal of the water resources management is sustainable water use.

In order to achieve the effective and sustainable water resources management, items which shall be required for
the proper monitoring, evaluating and controlling works are summarized as follows; a) Water quantity
b) Water quality
c) Hydro-meteorological and hydro-geological network
d) Drought management
(Reservoir operation/ Water diversion)
e) Watershed management
(Drainage water regulation/Forest protection/Land conservation)
f) Facilities maintenance

The basic concept for the water resources management had been studied and established already by the Cote d
lvoire Government and as a result the document on National Policy and Strategies for Integrated Management of
Water Resources was prepared in 1999. In addition the document on National Program of Hydraulics 2000
2015 related to the water resources management was prepared in 1999.

It is judged that the contents described in both documents cover completely and sufficiently the important items
related to the water resources management. It is recommendable accordingly that the integrated water resources
management in the country will be performed based on those documents.

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sources of water Resources

 Surface water
Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.
Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and
naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and
sub-surface seepage.

Although the only natural input to any surface water system is

precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in
that system at any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include storage
capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability of the soil beneath these storage
bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local
evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water lost.

Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often
increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans
often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream flow.
The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water
users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in
the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system
may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period
of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for
cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage
capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.
Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound
for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed.
Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a
canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however
in practice the quantities are negligible. Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become
unusable) through pollution.
Brazil is the country estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia
and Canada.[4]

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 Ground water
Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that
is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between
sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface water and deep sub-surface water in an
aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").

Sub-surface water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage.

The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, sub-surface water storage is generally

much larger compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans

to use sub-surface water unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences.

Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a sub-surface water source is the

upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a sub-surface water source may
become saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under
irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a sub-surface water source may cause the direction
of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization. Humans can also cause sub-
surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Humans can increase the input to a
sub-surface water source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

 Desalination
Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh
water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is
currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total
human use is satisfied by desalination. It is only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as
household and industrial uses) in arid areas. The most extensive use

 Frozen water
Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however to date this
has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water.

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USES OF WATER RESOURCES

 Agricultural
Ontari

It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is for irrigation, with 15-35% of irrigation withdrawals
being unsustainable.[6]
In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits more
profitable crops to be grown or enhances crop yield. Various irrigation methods involve different trade-
offs between crop yield, water consumption and capital cost of equipment and structures. Irrigation
methods such as furrow and overhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive but are also typically
less efficient, because much of the water evaporates, runs off or drains below the root zone. Other
irrigation methods considered to be more efficient include drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and
some types of sprinkler systems where the sprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of
systems, while more expensive, usually offer greater potential to minimize runoff, drainage and
evaporation. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful, all methods have the potential for
high efficiencies under suitable conditions, appropriate irrigation timing and management. One issue
that is often insufficiently considered is salinization of sub-surface water.

Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also
be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than
irrigation (see Aral Sea and Pyramid Lake).
As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply,
there are efforts underway to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in
irrigation[7] methods[8] and technologies, agricultural water management, crop types, and water
monitoring.

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 Industrial
It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water use is industrial[6] . Major industrial users include power
plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e. hydroelectric plants), ore and oil refineries,
which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a whole is lower than
agricultural use.
Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower.
Hydroelectric power comes from water
driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting,
renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which
condenses as rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down.
Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns
are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It
is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-
heating.
Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat
exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses
is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water
(thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification
techniques both in water supply and discharge.

A power plant in

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 Household
It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for household
[]
purposes . These include drinking water, bathing, cooking,
sanitation, and gardening. Basic household water requirements
have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per
person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is
water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be
consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm.
Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed
countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard
even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

 Recreation

Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing

percentage of total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied
to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be
for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as
recreational usage. Release of water from a few reservoirs is also
timed to enhance whitewater boating, which also could be
considered a recreational usage. Other examples are anglers, water
skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers.

Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are often targeted as using excessive
amounts of water, especially in drier regions. It is, however, unclear whether recreational irrigation
(which

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would include private gardens) has a noticeable effect on water resources. This is largely due to the
unavailability of reliable data. Additionally, many golf courses utilize either primarily or exclusively treated
effluent water, which has little impact on potable water availability.

Some governments, including the Californian Government, have labelled golf course usage as
agricultural in order to deflect environmentalists' charges of wasting water. However, using the above
figures as a basis, the actual statistical effect of this reassignment is close to zero. In Arizona, an
organized lobby has been established in the form of the Golf Industry Association, a group focused on
educating the public on how golf impacts the environment.
Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For
example, water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers
during the spring planting season. Water released for whitewater rafting may not be available for
hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.

 Environmental
Explicit environmental water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total water use.
Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat,
fish ladders , and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn.
Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of
water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help
fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream.
The concept of water stress is relatively simple: According to the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development, it applies to situations where there is not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural,
industrial or domestic. Defining thresholds for stress in terms of available water per
capita is more complex, however, entailing assum

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CHAPTER:4

Methodology

 PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT – APPROACHES

Two approaches which lead to an integrated plan and policy are

From the top down or the command and control approach

From the bottom up or the grass-roots approach Top

approach:

Water resources professionals prepare integrated, multipurpose “master” development plans with

alternative structural and non-structural management options. There is dominance of professionals and

little participation of stakeholders. In this approach, one or more institutions have the ability and

authority to develop and implement the plan. However, nowadays, since public have active participation

in planning and management activities, top-down approaches are becoming less desirable or

acceptable.

Bottom up approach:

In this approach there is active participation of interested stakeholders – those affected by the

management of the water and land resources. Plans are being created from the bottom up rather than

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top down. Top down approach plans do not take into consideration the concerns of affected local

stakeholders. Bottom up approach ensures cooperation and commitment from stakeholders. The goals

and priorities will be common among all stakeholders by taking care of laws and regulations and by

identifying multiple alternatives and performance criteria. Tradeoffs are made between conflicting goals

or measures of performance.

 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

According to Global Water Partnership (GWP, 2000), IWRM is a process which promotes the

coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize

the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the

sustainability of the vital ecosystems. An integrated water management model develops solutions by

involving all the essential components into an optimization scheme. The resources are used in relation to

social and economic activities and functions. There is a need for laws and regulations for the sustainable

use of the water resources. Dublin principles for a good water resources management as described by

the United Nations Water Conference in 1977 are:

The “ecological principle” – to treat water as a unitary resource within river basins, with particular

attention to ecosystems.

The “institutional principle” – to respect the principle of subsidiarity through the involvement of

government, civil society and the private sector.

The “instrument principle” – to recognize water as a scarce economic community by imposing

various penalties for excessive usage.

A management policy must be developed only after considering the factors such as cost effectiveness,

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economic efficiency, environmental impact, ecological and health considerations etc.

 Planning and Management Aspects

 Technical aspects

It is first necessary to identify the characteristics of resources in the basin, including the land, the rainfall,

the runoff, the stream and river flows and the groundwater Technical aspects of planning involves

Predicting changes in land use/covers and economic activities at watershed and river basin levels

Estimation of the costs and benefits of any measures being and to be taken to manage the basin’s

water resource including engineering structures, canals, diversion structures

Identification and evaluation of alternative management strategies and also alternative time schedules

for implementing those measures

 Economic and Financial aspects

Water should be treated as an economic commodity to extract the maximum benefits as well as to

generate funds to recover the costs of the investments and of the operation and maintenance of the

system. Water had been treated for long as a free commodity. Revenues recovered are far below the

capital cost incurred. component of any planning process is needed to recover construction costs,

maintenance, repair and operation costs. In management policies, financial viability is viewed as a

constraint that must be satisfied; not as an objective whose maximization could result in a reduction in

economic efficiency, equity or other non-monetary objectives.

 Institutional aspects
Successful project implementation needs an enabling environment. National, provincial and local

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policies, legislation and institutions are crucial for implementation of the decisions. The role of the

government is crucial since water is (i) not a property right (ii) a resource that often requires large

investment to develop and (iii) a medium that can impulse external effects. The main causes of failure of

water resources development project are insufficient institutional setting and lack of a sound economic

evaluation and implementation.

 Water Use Management

Control over the quantity of water abstracted from the tank is important to optimise water use. Water use should
be managed so that the supply is sufficient to last through the dry season. Failure to do so will mean exhausting
all the stored water. In effect it will mean going back to where the user began, i.e. trekking long distances for poor
quality water. On the other hand, underutilization of the water source due to severe rationing may leave the user
dissatisfied with the level of the service provided.

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 TANKA/ KUND/ KUNDI

Tanka is generally circular in shape and is constructed in stone masonry in 1:3 cement-sand mortar.
While small Tankas of 3 to 4.22 m diameter and about 21-59 cum capacity are built by individual
households, larger ones of 6 m diameter and 200 cum capacity are built for the village communities. In
both these cases the depth is kept equal to the diameter. The catchment of the Tanka is treated in a
variety of ways to increase the rain water collection. The commonly used materials are murrum, coal
ash, gravel, pond silt, Bentonite, soil-cement mix, lime concrete, sodium carbonate etc. Because of the
constraints of availability of large open areas around the Tanka and the unit cost of treatment, a circular
strip of land of 12 m width around the Tanka is usually treated, the slope of which is kept as 3% i.e. a fall
of 3 cm in a length of 1 m. This provides bulk of the requisite amount of water to fill the Tanka.
Remaining water is received from the natural catchment outside the treated area. Reference Tables and
Design Example for Tanka are given in Appendix-III.

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 PERCOLATION TANK

Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with adequate
permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation of impounded surface runoff to recharge the ground water.
These have come to be recognized as a dependable mode for ground water recharge in the hard rock
terrain covering two-third of the country. The hard rock areas with limited to moderate water holding and
water yielding capabilities often experience water scarce situations due to inadequate recharge,
indiscriminate withdrawal of ground water and mismanagement. These are quite popular in the states of
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Gujarat. The percolation
tank is more or less similar to check dams or nala bund with a fairly large storage reservoir. A tank can
be located either across small streams by creating low elevation check dams or in

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 CHECK DAMS/ CEMENT PLUG/ NALA BUNDS

Check dams are constructed across small streams having gentle slope and are feasible both in hard
rock as well as alluvial formations. The site selected for check dam should have sufficient thickness of
permeable bed or weathered formation to facilitate recharge of stored water within short span of time.
The water stored in these structures is mostly confined to stream course and the height is normally less
than 2 m. These are designed based on stream width and excess water is allowed to flow over the wall.
In order to avoid scouring from excess run off, water cushions are provided at downstream side. To
harness the maximum run off in the stream, series of such check dams can be constructed to have
recharge on regional scale.

A series of small bunds or weirs are made across selected nala sections such that the flow of surface
water in the stream channel is impeded and water is retained on pervious soil/ rock surface for longer
body. Nala bunds are constructed across bigger streams of second order in areas having gentler slopes.
A nala bund acts like a mini percolation tank.

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 POND/ TANK

Size of a pond is usually dictated by the availability of adequate land in the vicinity of the village. In rare cases do
we have the option to design and build a pond of a desired size to meet the water requirements of the community.
Where we have such an option, the first step is to work out the water requirement for various needs. The next
step is to determine the catchment area, above the pond site, from where the monsoon run off would be available
to fill the pond. Thereafter the location, alignment and height of the earthen bund are decided, as also the location
and size of the spillway to evacuate the surplus monsoon discharge.

 Water Requirement and Gross Storage

Unless otherwise prescribed for an area, following general guidelines may be used to determine the water
requirements of a village community and the gross storage capacity of the pond.
a. Irrigation : Provide about 0.67 hectare metre of capacity for a hectare of irrigation.
b. Animal Needs : Provide at the following rates:
Beef Cattle : 54-68 litres/day
Dairy Cows : 68 litres/day (drinking)
Dairy Cows (drinking + barn needs) : 158 litres/day Pigs : 18 litres/day
Sheep : 9 litres/day
c. Domestic Water Needs : 40 litres per head per day
d. Fish Culture : Ensure about 1.85 m depth to provide proper temperature environments.

The storage capacity should be at least double the total water requirement to take care of evaporation and
seepage losses. As a rough guide, 10 per extra storage may be provided for sediment deposition. For example if
the total annual water requirement is 10,000 cum and pond will have only one filling, its gross capacity

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 Management and Maintenance

Roof top catchment tanks, like all water supply systems, demand periodic management and maintenance to
ensure a reliable and high quality water supply. If the various components of the system are not regularly cleaned,
water use is not properly managed, problems are not identified or necessary repairs not performed, the roof
catchment system will cease to provide reliable, good quality supplies.

On the following page is a rough timetable of maintenance and management requirements that gives a basis for
monitoring checks.

1. During the rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment, gutters, pipes, screens, first-flush and
overflow) should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every dry period
exceeding a month.

2. At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage tank
should be scrubbed and flushed of all sediment and debris (the tank should be re-filled afterwards with a
few centimetres of clean water to prevent cracking). Ensure timely service (before the first rains are due)
of all tank features, including replacement of all worn screens and servicing of the outlet tap or hand
pump.

provided for sediment deposition. For example if the total annual water requirement is 10,000 cum and pond will
have only one filling, its gross capacity

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 World water supply and distribution

Food and water are two basic human needs. However, global coverage figures from 2002 indicate that,
of every 10 people:
• roughly 5 have a connection to a piped water supply at home (in their dwelling, plot or yard);
• 3 make use of some other sort of improved water supply, such as a protected well or public
standpipe; • 2 are unserved;

• In addition, 4 out of every 10 people live without improved sanitation.[6] At Earth Summit 2002

governments approved a Plan of Action to:

• Halve by 2015 the proportion of people unable to reach or afford safe drinking water. The Global

Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report (GWSSAR) [18] defines "Reasonable access" to

water as at least 20 liters per person per day from a source within one kilometer of the user’s home.

• Halve the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation. The GWSSR defines "Basic
sanitation" as private or shared but not public disposal systems that separate waste from human
contact.

As the picture shows, in 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where
resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia.
By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and
adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently
consume the majority of the water used by humans.
Generally speaking the more developed countries of North America, Europe and Russia will not see a
serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more
importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources. North Africa, the
Middle East, South Africa and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical

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 Issues for Water Resources Management

(1)Issues on River Management

a) Criteria and Manual for River Works

Preparation of criteria and manual for river works；The criteria and manual consists of three parts such as Survey/
Planning/ Design and the contents could be used as a completed text book for river works.

b) Manual for Water Right

(2)Rapid urbanization
The trend towards urbanization is accelerating. Small private wells and septic tanks that work well in
low-density communities are not feasible within high-density urban areas. Urbanization requires
significant investment in water infrastructure in order to deliver water to individuals and to process the
concentrations of wastewater – both from individuals and from business. These polluted and
contaminated waters must be treated or they pose unacceptable public health risks.
In 60% of European cities with more than 100,000 people, groundwater is being used at a faster rate
than it can be replenished.[11] Even if some water remains available, it costs more and more to capture
it.

(3)Climate change
Climate change could have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the
close connections between the climate and hydrological cycle. Rising temperatures will increase
evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be regional variations in rainfall.
Overall, the global supply of freshwater will increase. Both droughts and floods may become more
frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic changes in snowfall and snowmelt are
expected in mountainous areas. Higher temperatures will also affect water quality in ways that are not
well understood. Possible impacts include increased eutrophication. Climate change could also mean

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an increase in demand for farm irrigation, garden sprinklers, and perhaps even swimming pools

(4)Depletion of aquifers
Due to the expanding human population, competition for water is growing such that many of the worlds
major aquifers are becoming depleted. This is due both for direct human consumption as well as
agricultural irrigation by groundwater. Millions of pumps of all sizes are currently extracting groundwater
throughout the world. Irrigation in dry areas such as northern China and India is supplied by
groundwater, and is being extracted at an unsustainable rate. Cities that have experienced aquifer drops
between 10 to 50 meters include Mexico City, Bangkok, Manila, Beijing, Madras and Shanghai.[12]

(5)Pollution and water protection

Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today. The
governments of many countries have striven to find solutions to
reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but
the most widespread, especially in underdeveloped countries, is
the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters; this method of
sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped
countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such
as China, India and Iran. Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic
pollutants are all dumped into the water. Even if sewage is treated,
problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be
placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea.[13] In addition to sewage, nonpoint
source pollution such as agricultural runoff is a significant source of
pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban stormwater runoff and chemical wastes dumped
by industries and governments.

(6)Water and conflict

The only known example of an actual inter-state conflict over water took place between 2500 and 2350
BC between the Sumerian states of Lagash and Umma.[14] Yet, despite the lack of evidence of

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international wars being fought over water alone, water has been the source of various conflicts
throughout history. When water scarcity causes political tensions to arise, this is referred to as water
stress. Water stress has led most often to conflicts at local and regional levels.[15] Using a purely
quantitative methodology, Thomas Homer-Dixon successfully correlated water scarcity and scarcity of
available arable lands to an increased chance of violent conflict.[16]
Water stress can also exacerbate conflicts and political tensions which are not directly caused by water.
Gradual reductions over time in the quality and/or quantity of fresh water can add to the instability of a
region by depleting the health of a population, obstructing economic development, and exacerbating
larger conflicts.[17]
Conflicts and tensions over water are most likely to arise within national borders, in the downstream
areas of distressed river basins. Areas such as the lower regions of China's Yellow River or the Chao
Phraya River in Thailand, for example, have already been experiencing water stress for several years.
Additionally, certain arid countries which rely heavily on water for irrigation, such as China, India, Iran,
and Pakistan, are particularly at risk of water-related conflicts.[17] Political tensions, civil protest, and
violence may also occur in reaction to water privatization. The Bolivian Water Wars of 2000 are a case in
point.

(7)Flood Control

Flood control requires empty storage space in the reservoir and hence the procedure for determination of
such space is somewhat different. The major factor in flood control projects is to limit the peak overflow from the
reservoir, which is dictated by considerations of the safe carrying capacity of the downstream channel and
prevention of flooding of downstream areas. The procedure used for this is of flood routing through the reservoir.
This has been discussed later alongwith the discussion on spillways. The only point to be noted is that if empty
space is available in the reservoir then it will be filled up first and the outflow during this period will be zero. Once
the water in the reservoir attains the level of the spillway crest, the procedure is similar to that discussed therein.
The outflow hydrograph will thus start at a later time and its peak will be lower compared to what it would have
been if the reservoir was full to start with. The outflow hydrograph with different values of empty space can be
obtained and the one which has a peak equal to that desired on the downstream side then gives the storage to be
reserved for flood control.

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WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PLANS

WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURES
PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

As mentioned in Chapter-V, there are many ways of harvesting water. All these methods basically fall under three
main categories viz.:

• Surface water collection

• Ground water collection
• Augmentation of ground water recharge

The methods which are particularly useful in augmenting drinking water availability especially in the rural areas and
which can be easily adopted at a moderate cost with the involvement of the local people are discussed in the
following paras.

6.1 ROOF TOP HARVESTING

Rain water may be harvested in areas, having rainfall of considerable intensity, spread over the larger part of the
year e.g. the Himalayan areas, northeastern states, Andaman Nicobar, Lakshadweep islands and southern parts
of Kerela and Tamil Nadu. This is an ideal solution of water problem where there is inadequate groundwater
supply and surface sources are either lacking or insignificant. Rain water is bacteriologically pure, free from
organic matter and soft in nature.

In this system, only roof top is the catchment (see Figure 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3). The roofing should be of galvanized
iron sheets (G.I.), aluminium, clay tiles, asbestos or concrete. In case of thatch-roof, it may be covered with
waterproof LDPE sheeting. For collection of water, a drain is provided (Gutter) along the edge of the roof. It is
fixed with a gentle slope towards down pipe, which is meant for free flow of water to the storage tank. This may
be made up of G.I. sheet, wood, bamboo or any other locally available material. The down pipe should be at least
100 mm diameter and be provided with a 20 mesh wire screen at the inlet to prevent dry leaves and other debris

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from entering it.

During the period of no rain, dust, bird droppings etc. accumulate on the roof. These are washed off with the first
rains and enter the storage tank to contaminate the water. This can be prevented by two methods :

(a) Simple diversion of foul water

(b) Installation of foul flush system

Figure 6.1 : Typical Roof Top Harvesting Structure

Under method (a), the down pipe is moved away from the inlet of the storage tank initially during the rains, until
clean water flows. Under method (b), storage provision for initial rain is kept in a pipe. These are cleaned off after
each heavy rain. These are provided between down pipe and the storage tank. Filter materials such as sand,
gravel or coconut/ palm/ betalnut fibre etc. are used as filter media.

Storage tank can be constructed underground or above ground. The underground tank may be masonry or
R.C.C. structure suitably lined with water proofing materials. The surface tank may be of G.I. sheet, R.C.C.,
Plastic/ HDP or Ferrocement Tank placed at a little higher elevation on a raised platform. To facilitate cleaning of

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the tank, an outlet pipe may be fitted and fixed in the tank at bottom level. The size of the tank will depend upon
the factors such as daily demand, duration of dry spell, catchment area and rainfall.

The tank is provided with :

- a manhole of 0.50 m × 0.50 m size with cover

- vent pipe/ over flow pipe (with screen) of 100 mm dia.
- drain pipe (100 mm dia.) at bottom

Choice of the tank depends on locally available materials and space available. When the tank is constructed
underground, at least 30 cm of the tank should remain above ground. The withdrawal of water from the
underground tank is made by installing hand pump on it. In case of surface tank, tap can be provided.
Before the tank is put into use it should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with high dosage of chlorine. Since
the water shall remain stored for quite a long time, periodical disinfection of stored water is essential to prevent
growth of pathogenic bacteria. Typical drawings of roof water harvesting structures are shown in Figure 6.1, 6.2
and 6.3.

Figure 6.2 : Roof Water Harvesting Scheme

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Figure : Roof Water Collection Structures

 Water Availability

Since the available roof area is usually limited, the system is used to meet water requirements during the summer
months i.e. about 90 days. Water availability for a given roof top area and rainfall can be determined from Table A-
1.1 of Appendix-I.

 Site Assessment

Assessing the site conditions together with the future tank owners is the first step towards a sound system
design. The five main site conditions to be assessed are :

• availability of suitable roof catchment

• foundation characteristics of soil near the house
• location of trees

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• estimated runoff to be captured per unit area of the roof

• availability and location of construction material

 Advantages

(i) Since the rainwater flows over gently sloping (3 to 4 % slope) sandy terrain, very little sediment flows into
the storage tank. However, the sediment comprising only sand particles quickly settles down at the bottom
of the tank and therefore clear and clean water is available for drinking. With the tank fully covered at the
top, the evaporation losses are negligible.
(ii) This method of rainwater harvesting being cheap, environment-friendly and effective, can be used widely
to solve the problem of drinking water scarcity.

 Disadvantages

(i) Requires constant vigil during the rainy season to prevent entry of cattle and human activity with in the
catchment area to prevent contamination of water.
(ii) Requires pre-monsoon cleaning of the Tanka and the catchment.
(iii) Special care is required to prevent entry of reptiles and small animals into the Tanka through the inlets/
outlet and the opening at the top.

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 Conclusions and needs:

 Indicators are needed for monitoring the system from source to tap, including aesthetic changes, water
quality indicators, suspicious activity, changes in water pressure and illness in the community.
 Action plans for management of both accidental and intentional pollution with biologicals and
chemicals should include a base line understanding of the vulnerabilities and baseline quality.
 Triggers for action must be put in place: notification, rainfall, raw water turbidity, fecal indicators
and public health indicators.
 The physical/chemical/biological and geological nature of the water system under study must be
considered. Site assessment is an important component of the risk/management framework.
 Integration of inventory of risks to the watershed, along with climate prediction factors and the
monitoring of the raw ambient water quality are critical.
 Monitoring recovery after contamination events is essential, this will require that baseline data sets
are available.
 Climatic factors and meterological data continue to show a pattern associated with water quality
impacts ( during floods but even droughts) and are often associated with treatment and
management failures. Thus meterological data, weather forecasting and climate prediction
scenarios should be integrated in the development of any assessment and management strategy.

 Increased sewage treatment is needed to enhance pathogen, nutrient, emerging contaminant

reductions and enhance possible wastewater recylcing
 Attention to ground water quality is paramount.

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 REFERENCES

Dyanyanshwar k. Khopade , Asmita m. Bansode , seema u. Kolhe

Hydraulics – Techinical publication

National water policy

M.N Gangrade Hydraulics - Nirali Publications

www. Wikipedia . com

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