2 FITTING: SHOP 24 INTRODUCTION ; ee i i work in engneering. fitting shop Fiting Wot OS ao mp ihe help of hand tools. It is done for unwanted material is removed wil aa i air and manufacturing purposes. ae ig called fitter. A fitter should have the complete knowldge of the tools used in the shop. Commonly used tools are hacksaw, files, chiesels ete: LS r SICAL PROPERTIES OF META! 7 ae Is are used in fitting shop, therefore it is i s of metal i ale Students to have some knowledge about the physical properties of metals. i 4. Lustre: Lustre is the ability of a metal surface to reflect light rays. 2. Colour: Colour is the property of a metal to show a specific surface appearance. It depends upon the composition of the metal. Density: Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of the metal. It is measured in Kg/cm®. 4. Melting Point : the temperature at which a metal flows like a fluid is known as melting point. Melting point of iron is 1539°C. Boiling Point : The temperature at which a metal starts boiling is known. as boiling point of the metal. Plasticity: By this property of the metal it can be converted into required shape and size for commercial use either by application of heat or pressure or both. Elasticity: It is the property of the metal by which it can resist permanent deformation in new shape and size due to external pressure. . Stiffness: Due to this property material resists deflection due to external load. 9. Malleability: It is the property by which metal can be elongated in all directions by the application of external pressure, due to this Property metal can be converted into sheets. , 10. Toughness: Du i i fates le to this property metal can withstand bending without 9 ba nx 1 + Ductility: By this pro in inca ene Property metal can be drawn in the form of wires, Scanned with CamScanner person working in fitting |yr «ne sHoP gsiFICATION OF METALS 03 Cc als are classified into two categories: i . i mel Ferrous Metals: e.g., Mild steel, Cast iron, High speed steel. (a i i) Non-Ferrous Metals: €.9., Copper, Brass, aluminium, tin 39 ous Metals 1 fer ous metals the percentage of iron is very high. These are monly used for engineering purposes. Some other materials like cot n, sulphur, nickel etc., are also mixed into ferrous metals to change cabo: Ses, Ferrous metals are magnetic in nature and have more ie gs SOME ferrous metals are discussed as under: pat 1 Steel: Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon. It is very widely » eed in engineering for different purposes. le Showing the Classification of Steel is Given Below: Tabl Table 2.1 Steel Carbon Content Uses Tow Carbon Steel 0.08. — 0.25% General engineering purposes e.g., forging, casting, angles, channels etc., Medium Carbon Steel| 0.25 — 0.65% Spindles, shafts, pin etc. High Carbon Steel 0.55 — 0.8% Chiesels, dies, punches etc. Tool Stee! 0.8 — 1.5% Drills, reamers, tapps etc. 2. Alloy steel: Alloy steel is made by combining some percentage of additional elements into plain carbon steels. The material to be mixed depends upon the properties fequired from alloy steel. Generally strength, hardness, resistance to corrosion are the main desirable properties. Nickel, Phosphorus, Silicon, Chro- mium, Molebdenum etc., are added to make alloy steels. 3. Cast Iron: The iron containing carbon more than 2% is known as Cast iron. It is a hard and brittle material. It is generally used for making machine beds, ‘and heavy parts of machines. It is of two types: 1. Grey cast iron 2, White cast iron : Grey cast iron is self lubricated material and is easy to machine due to free graphites. White cast iron is difficult to’ machine due to the presence of cementite. Scanned with CamScannerve MANUFACTURING PRACT; ce | 40 : ; aon | iron is almost pure iron cntaining 99.9%, of carbon is low. It is ductile and gq | 4, Wrought fron: Wrought drawn into long wires. Iron rivet, i tage f iron. The percen itean be rolled into sheets or are made of wrought iron. | speed steels are used for making | i d Steels: High : on eee working at high speeds. They are able to retain the | hal ness at high temperatures. The composition of high speeq uaal is 18% tungsten, 4% Chromium, 1% Vanadium and 0.7% Carbon. - | 6. Spring Steel: It is used for making springs or blades. It con. tains 0.5-0.6% carbon. 5. Ferrous Metals : : ths metals which contain negligible or no quantity of iron are known as non-ferrous metals. Copper, aluminium, brass, bronze, tin, lead are the common examples ‘of non-ferrous metals. er: It is widely used in, engineering industry. Copper is ie aon ancile having reddish brown colour. It has high elec- trical and thermal conductivity. It is commonly .used for electri- cal purposes. Sulphur, Nickel, Tin and Cadmium are added to it to change the properties of copper. Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. There is no effect 2. of corrosion on brass. It can be easily soldered this is also a soft and ductile material. 3. Bronze: It is an alloy of Tin and Copper. Bronze have a good resistance to atmospheric corrosion and have no effect of water on it. It is a wear resistant material. 4. Gun Metal: Gun metal is an alloy of copper, Tin and zinc. Tin is 10% and Zinc is 2% in it. It is used for making castings. 5. Aluminium: It is a soft material with a white colour. It is very light and have good electrical and ‘thermal conductivity. Alu- minium is used for electric and decorative work. 2.4 TOOLS USED IN FITTING SHOP Fitting shop tools are classified as under 1. Clamping Tools 2. Measuring and Marking Tools 3. Cutting Tools 4. Striking Tools 5. Drilling Tools 6. Threading Tools 2.5 CLAMPING TOOLS The clamping tools that are used in fitting shop are called vices and this is i a " $ used for holding the jobs firmly during various fittina aneratians Scanned wih ComScannerogee | wn prrrine SHOP piferent types of vices are as follows: a ) Bench Vice: It is a common tool used for holding jobs. It consists of a cast iron body and cast iron jaws. Two jaw plates fre fitted on both the jaws. Jaw plates are made up of high on steel and are wear resistant. carb Jaw Plate Body —™, Sliding Jaw Handle (c) (d) (b) Fig. 2.1 Bench Vice One jaw is fixed to the body and the second slides on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle. The jaws are opened upto required length, job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened with handle. It is fixed at the four corners of the fitters’s working bench, and it is upto the waist height. is made of mild steel and the jaws are of cast han the parallel jaw bench vice and used hen the operation such as chipping Flange Nut Leg Vice: It steel, it is stronger t for heavy work. It is used wl ‘or hammering is to be performed. It is fixed on the Bench or grouted in a foundation. Hand Vice: Hand vice is used to grip very small objects. These are made in different shapes and sizes. A commonly used hand vice is shown in the figure. It consists of the two steel legs hinged together at the bottom. A Spring is provided between two legs. The jaws may be adjusted from a flange nut. Fig. 2.2 Hand Vice Pin Vice: Pin vice is used to hold wire or small diameter rods. It is also used for grinding small drills. It consists of a small chuck made up of tool steel and a mild steel handle. Fig. 2.3. Pin Vice Scanned with CamScannerSF 42 ; MANUFACTURING pp, ACriy | (e) Pipe Vice: It is used to hold pipes. It consists of a vert | al sera, | with square threads. A handle is attached on the top of the go" A moveable jaw is fixed on the lower end of the screw, mu | the pipe at four points.The jaws of this pipe vice are Veshaois This vice can be fixed on the bench or it can be grouteg, Pt. Handle Work Piece Jaw Fig. 2.4 Pipe Vice 2.6 MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS (a) Try Square: It is used for checking squareness of two sur. faces. It consists of a blade made up of steel which is attached to a base at 90°. The base is made up of cast iron or steel. Try square is also used for marking right angles and measurin straightness of surfaces. It is an instrument used to draw straight lines at right angles to a true surface. Blade Stock Fig. 2.5 Try Square (b) Bevel Protector: It consists of a steel dial divided into 360 divisions. The dial can be rotated around the centre. The lines at any angle can be marked or measured by the straight edge. Straight edge can be slided along the length. Scanned with CamScanner43 Graduated Disc Lock Screw Blade Fig. 2.6 Bevel Protector ination Set: It is a multi-purpose instrument that can be som © spas as a protector, a level, a mitre, a centre square and a try square. centre Square Protector Try Square Scale Fig. 2.7 Combination Set (@ Centre Square: A centre square is used to find the centre of the round jobs. it consists of a straight edge and two arms. For finding out the centre, the round job is placed between two arms. Je Scale Am Fig. 2.8 Centre Square (©) Scriber and Surface Gauge: Scriber is made up of high carbon Steel and is hardened from the front edge. It Is used for marking — Scanned with CamScanner() MANUFACTURING PRacy, IC | of lines. Scriber | mounted on a verti- | cal bar is called sur- | face gauge. A heavy base is provided at the bottom. There is nut fixed on the bar and by this nut the scriber can be loosened and fixed anywhere in the bar in this way the inclination can also be varied. It is kept on the surface plate dur- ing any measurement. Primarily it is used fir, aM Base Lz Wis along with V block to ys) draw lines parallel to a surface. Fig. 2.9 Scriber & Surface Gauge Universal Marking Surface Guage: It consists of a heavy base, a scriber and a bar. The scriber can be adjusted to any position with the help of screw and nut. It is used for marking purposes. It is used to draw parallel lines at any desired height with respect to surface Scriber plate. Scriber Scriber ae Rocker Adjusting Spindle Nut Base Fig.! 2.10- Universal Marking Surface Gauge Scanned with CamScannery a oP os" i : for marki f neh: It is used for marking dotteg | o en carbon steel or high speed steel, on ol nmering is done on the second end Ve punch 45 lines. It 'S made y while snd ia sharpened, ng end is 60°, Working. Angle of punching Edge Head Fig. 2.11 Dot Punch re Punch: It is like a dot punch exc, d is 90°. It is used to mark the cer Punching Edgo Pt tha angle of punch- cent Nntre of the hole before ing ent drilling. Fig, 2.12 Centre Punch j) Surface Plate: Surface plate is used for testing the flatness, tueness of the surfaces. It is made up of cast iron or graphite. its upper face is planed to form a very smooth surface. It is covered with a wooden cover while not in use. It is used to test a try square and this plate is used as a,basé for V block, sine bar etc., and other measuring instruments during measurement. + True Surface Stand Fig. 2.13 Surface Plate () Angle Plate: It consists of cast iron in which two ts : — standing at right angle to each other. Holes are provide een purposes, It is used for holding and supporting . Holes for Clamping Bolts a Fig. 2.14 Angle Plate Scanned with CamScanner(k) V-Block: Pe MANUFACTURING PRACTIgg ting as well as mark is also used for suppor! v 7 S. ena jobs are generally placed on it to mark Centrg oe It is made up of cast iron or steel. It is used along with peas to hold cylindrical piece during measurement. It hoig, the job in ‘V’ portion. V-Block Fig. 2.15 V-Block (I) Steel Rules: These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from % Ft to 2 Ft. These are marked in inches or millimetres. The edges of streel rules should be protected from rough handiling. (m) Vernier Calliper: Vernier Calli Centimeter Scale Ce voles taned a bant 2) Inch Scale Fig. 2.46 Steel Rule J iper is a precision instrument used for measuring lengths and diameters, It can be used for meas- uring external and ij i . It consists of a gradu- (0 jaws, one is moveble is fixed. A fine adjust- ched to the head. The dimension is meas- d is indicated on graduated bar. Minimum @ expressed on vernier caliper is known as head and the other Scanned with CamScannerpiTTING SHOP 47 Lock Nut a Fine Adjustment Nut Sliding Jaws Fig. 2.17. Vernier Calliper (n) Micrometer: It is used for measuring diameters or thickness of any job. It is more precision than vernier caliper. It consists of a hook type frame. A hard anvil is screwed on one end. On the second end a spindle moves to and for carrying another small anvil on its end. Gy turing the spindle knob the job diameter is measured from the scale. The sleeve on the spindle is gradu- ated. Another barrel which is fitted on outer side of the sleeve is attached with the spindle. This barrel is also graduated. A ratchet is provided on the side of the spindle. The graduation on micrometers are available in inches as well as in millimetres. The least count of the micrometre is generally .001” or .0001" or .01 mm or .05mm. Lock Nut, Sleeve « Anvil J ee Spindle FT] Thimble a Ratchet Stop Frame Fig, 2.18 Micrometer (0) Dial Indicator; A round gauge in which a pointer moves over a graduated scale, The movement is magnified through links. A spring loaded plunger is fitted on the bottom. And a small round point is provided on the lower end of the plunger. It touches the job while measurement. It is generally used to check the runout or ovality of jobs. 6 Scanned with CamScanneryp ary MANUFACTURING PRACTigg | Head for | Zero ———> a Adjustment — Casing Dial | Main Pointer Plunger Pin Fig. 2.19 Dial Indicator (p) Dividers: These are made up of steel. Dividers have two legs having sharp feet. These are hinged at the top. It is used for marking arcs, dividing a line or, transferring the dimension. @ Legs bolts. The edges are Made to just touch the j i alts. | job, ther - ‘Sian is measured with the help of st f aereatiad teel rules, types of callipers: ules. There are four Scanned with CamScannerirmina SHOP 49 1, Outside calliper 2. Inside calliper ) Odd Leg 3. Spring caliper i 4, Jenny calliper or odd leg calliper Fig. 2.21 Calipers GAUGES (i) Depth Gauge: It consists of a stainless steel head and a beam. The head slides along the beam and can be tightened with the help of a screw. The beam is graduated in inches or millimetres. \t—— Head Beam Fig. 2.22 Depth Gauge Scanned with CamScannerPo MANUFACTURING PRagr, | 50 Cl 2 Iti k the gap between two mar. ii) Gauge: It is used to checl matin (ii) ai consists of a number of metal leaves. These leave have different thickness and are fastened together in a smal holder. The material of the leaves is stainless steel. Leaves Ni | | Holder | Fig. 2.23 Feeler Gauge (iii) Radius Gauge: It is just like a feeler gague. Every leave has different radius. It is of two types: 1. Internal 2. External It is used to check the radius of outer and inner surfaces, Scanned with CamScannerSHOP ne 51 Vertical Bar ———__f Main Scale A Fine Adjustment | PL Screw I oud 4 rt tes Vernier Scale Bracket —___, Clamping Screw Clamp i" Scribing Jaw Base ————, Fig. 2.25 Vernier Height Gauge (v) Thread Gauge: It is used to check the pitch of threads. It consists of a number of leaves. On every leaf cuts are provided to fit into thread while checking. All leaves are assembled in a holder as shown in the figure. The material of the leaves is stainelss steel. Body Fig, 2.26 Thread Gauge ‘a wire gauge. It is used to check vi) Wi : The fi : 4 sine dense Nomen te de up of a steel sheet disc. the diameter of wires. It is mat Scanned with CamScannerMANUFACTURING PRACTICg 52 fi | Fig. 2.27 Wire Gauge 2.7 CUTTING TOOLS | The tools which are used to remove the materials are known as cutting tools. These are described below: (a) Hacksaw: Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, flats etc. The blade of the hacksaw -is made up of high carban steel or high speed steel. And the frame is made from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with the help of a flange nut. The teeth of saw blades are generally forward cut. The hack- , saw should be used in straight direction otherwise it will resutl in breaking of the blade. The length of blade varies from 8” to 14”, but generally 12” blade is used in fixed frame hacksaw. Handle Solid Frame Stand Blade Pin Wing Nut Fig. 2.28 Hacksaw (Fixed Frame) The thickness and width of the blade are 1 ” 7 Blades are classified as under: ee ond rea (a) Depending upon the direction of cut () Forward cut (ii) Backward cut Scanned with CamScanneryr ¢ SHOP Artin & b) Depending upon the pitch of the teeth { Coarse (8-14 Teeth per inch) (ii) Medium (16-20 Teeth per inch) (ii) Fine (24-32 Teeth per inch) es of hacksaw Frames: There are two types of hacksaw Frames: () Fixed frame (ii) Adjustable frame In fixed frame only one type of blade is used whereas in adjustable me, the length of the frame can be increased or decreased. as per mvvement. And the blade from 8" to 14” long can be used in i. Adjustable Frame fral req! Fig. 2.29 Hacksaw (Adjustable Frame) Pitch of hacksaw: It is the number of teeth on blade in one cen- timetre. Hacksaw blades with small pitch are used for thin sections and the large pitch are used for thick sections. Use of hacksaw: The material to be cut with hacksaw is clamped into vice. Marking is done with the help of a file. The handle of hacksaw is held in right hand and the left hand is kept on the frame. Start sawing at the marking, Keeping the blade slightly inclined to the horizontal. The saw is brought to the horizontal position after starting the cut. The hacksaw should be moved perfectly straight and horizontal. The speed of the hacksaw should be 15-25 strokes per minute. Sufficient pressure should be given to the frame with left hand while in forward stroke. Water can be used as a coolant for sawing. Care of hacksaw: The following precaul while using hacksaw: . Always move the hac! direction. Never tilt the frame while sawing. . While cutting thin sections wooden piece must be clamped along with the work pieces. Do not use a new blade in the cut made by another blade. . The blade should be tightened sufficiently. tions should be observed ksaw in perfect straight and horizontal er os Scanned with CamScanner\d | 54 MANUFACTURING PRagr € (b) Files: File is also a multi tooth tool. It is used 10 rem material by rubbing it on the metal. Files are available int number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness, Clasgip, cation of files on the basis of grade: fi (i) Rough (20 Teeth per inch (ii) Bastard (30 Teeth per inch) (iii) Second cut (40 Teeth per inch) | (iv) Smooth File (80-60 Teeth per inch) (v) Dead Smooth (100 Teeth per inch) Heel Face Tang Edge Fig. 2.30 Parts of a File Rough and bastard are the big cut files. These are used for rough cutting where the material removing is more. These files have bigger teeth. Dead smooth and smooth files have smaller teeth and are used for finishing work. Second cut file has the degree of finish midway between bastard and smooth file. Classification on the basis of shape and size: Files are available in a number of shapes and sizes. The length of files vary from 4” to 14". The shapes available are flat, square, round, triangular, half round etc. TU La O a 6 1. Square 2. Triangular or three square 3. Round 4. Half ro 5, Flat 6. Hand file 7. Knife edge 8. Diamond file. und Fig. 2.31 Different shapes of Files Classification on the basis of number of cuts Files are classified into two categories i.e., single cut and double Scanned with CamScanner55 in single cut the teeth aro cut in parallel rows at an angle of ut 105 Mace. An other row of teeth is added in opposite direction in fo" Me ble cut files. Material removing rate is more in double cut ot Sn single cut file. on Yj Lis Fig. 2.92 Single cut File Fig. 2.33 Double cut File picth: The number of teeth in one centimetre is called the pitch of the file, The number of teeth varies from 10 to 40 in one centimetre. Use of File: The file should be used in perfect horizontal position. fost of the files have their teeth pointing forward. So the pressure Thould be applied on the forward stroke only. The work is held in a vice ster marking. Keeping right hand on the handle and left hand on the front end, file is moved to and for with a speed of 15 to 25 strokes per minute, Rough files are used, where material removing is more and fine {les are used for finishging work. Care of files: The following points should be kept in mind while using and storing the files : 1, The teeth should be protected from excessive wearing. 2. Files should be stored in wooden racks. 3. File cleaner should be used for cleaning the files. 4, When not in use, files should be coated with oil. Soft edge File: It is a file having one edge without teeth. Soft edge file is used in complex shaped workpieces in order to avoid cutting with upper side of the file. (c) Chiesels: These are used for chipping away the material from the work piece. These are made up of high carbon steel gener- ally 6” to 8” long. The top is flattened and a sharp cutting edge is made on the bottom side. Chiesels are classified on the basis of their shape and width of the cuttng edge. Commonly used forms of chiesels are flat, cross cut, half round and dia- mond point chiesel. Cutting angle of chiesels is kept as under: (a) For hard materials — 70° to 75° (b) For Medium hard materials — 60° (c) For soft materials — 40° ee chiesel is used for chipping a large surface. This chiesel is foom temperature so it is also called as cold chiesel. Scanned with CamScannerMANUFACTURING , Ra 56 Ng Cross cut chiesel Half round chiesel Flat chiesel Diamond point chiesel Cutting edge Fig. 2.34 Chiesels jesel i iesel and thickness of the A cross cut chiesel is narrow chiese é ee edge is broader than flat chiesel. It is used for cutting grooves, A half round chiesel is used to cut oil grooves | in the bushes and also clearing small round corners. A diamond point Chiesel chiesel is used for chipping plates. It is also used for cleaning the comer of the slots cut at an angle or of square shape. Chipping with a chiesel The workpiece is clamped into the vice. The material is removed with ame a eenate Fig. 2.35 Chipping Operation hammer. The chiesel is held at an angle to the work piece. The chiesel is held firmly while striking it. 2.8 STRIKING TOOLS Hammers are the only tools generally used for striking in fitting shop. These’ are used for chipping, fitting, punching etc. A hammer consists of a heavy iron body with a wooden handle. The weight ranges from 0.25 kg to 2 kg. The main types of hammers are as under and are shown in figure. The classification of a hammer is done based on thé shape of the peans. If the shape of the pean is ball or spherical ther Work he : : Scanned wih ComScannet| 7 no SHOP g as Ball pean. If the pean is parallel to the handle of the ee “nea it is straight pean hammer. If pean is across the handle mer ther then it is cross pean hammer. if shape of the pean is the rere, then it is double ended hammer. ne (a) Ball pean hammer (b) Straight pean hammer (c) Cross pean hammer Fig. 2.36 (a) Malin parts of a Hammer Different part of a hammer are also shown in the figure. Fig. 2.36 (b) Different types of Hammers 29 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS Drill: The tool used for making round holes is called drill. It is made Up of high speed steel. The parts of a twist drill are shown as under: There are several types of drills. Mostcommon type of drill is flat aa 'tis flat in shape at the cutting edge and it is the cheapest drill. can be used only for drilling a hole of smaller depth. Twist drill is another form of drill. It consists of a spiral flute. This is also further” Po Scanned with CamScanner-_ | 58 MANUFACTURING PRACTIgg ivided i ie, i i lel then it is | divided into two parts i.e., if the shank is paral Paralig shank twist drill. If the shank is tapered then it is Tapered shank twig drill. The chips are driven out of the hole through the flutes, a Body Parallel Land or Margin Point Angle lut A Neck a (118 ° in general) Fig. 2.37 Main Parts of a Drill Reamer: Reamer is used to finish the drilled hole. It has many cutting edges. Commonly used reamers are shown below: Fig. 2.38 Reamers Counter Sink: Counter sinks awe taper outters used to make the hole cone shaped from the upper ag. It is mad8tor fitting screws and nails, Counter Bore: It is used té ‘ehlarge a’ portion of hole. It is also made for fitting the heads of boks and sérews. : Taps: Taps are used for making in- ternal threads. it is inserted into the face . of the hole at right angle. In hand tap- Ping, a set of three taps is used as shown in the figure. Tap have a toothed body with a cylindrical shape. It also consists of a flute and the taps are available in a set of three taps namely Taper, Interme- diate and Plug tap and during tapping it is used in the same order as shown in Fig. 2.40 (a). The tap is held by tap holder and before tapping hole must be drilled to the size of the root diameter of the thread. Fig. 2.39 Counter-Sink Before tapping tap must be held at right angle to the plane of the work piece as shown in Fig 2.40 (b). Teeth Scanned with CamScanner<<. irTing SHOP = 8-10 threads ‘st taper Taper tap 3-4 threads Intermediate tap oe ag tap wrench Fig. 2.40 (b) Holding 2 Scanned with CamScanner» o MANUFACTURING PRACTicg | | Die and Die Stock : ' Die and Die stock are used for cutting external threads. Dies a made from tool steel and have internal threads. Before starting the operation the job is held firmly in a ed i Diet tem i jie i the de: en devices. The proper die is selected for hrea it i job i: that the die is property ag, oint of the job is chamfered so fata oa job. By holding the die into die stock, the handle is rotateg by hand. It is shown in Fig. 2.41. Centre Spring Fig. 2.41 (b) Holding a Die stock 2.10 BENCH WORKING PROCESSES t consists of number of operations that are performed manually. Some of the important operations are as follows: 1, Marking 2. Chipping 3, Sawing 4. Filing Scanned with CamScannerer arte SHOP 5, Scraping 7, Tapping 8. Dieing 4, Marking: It is the first and important operation that is performed in * sench working, since the accuracy of the product depends upon this. Before marking the surface to be marked is quoted by the chalk paste and allowed to dry. Then the job is kept either on surface plate or on V block. Then measurement is performed on the job by appropriate measuring instrument, then marking is done by scriber, Surface gauge and indentification is done by punches. 2. Chipping: In this operation the material is removed in a stock by the help of chiesels at room temperature. For large surface first the.melal is removed by cross cut chiesel and then remaining: metal is chip off by other chiesels while chapping lubrication is necessary for better life of chiesels. For chipping operation three things are important first proper selection of chiesel based on operation, secondly proper grip of the chiesels and appropriate position of standing by the operator. It is a very accurate method of removing metal in a more quantity with a reasonable finish. 3. Sawing: It is an operation which is required to cut the metal in different sizes and shapes. It should be done slowly, and standing , position is appropriate for this operation. Cutting takes place in” forward stroke of hack saw back stroke is ideal. During operation full length of the blade should be used. The best result is obtained if the hack saw blade is fixed in proper direction with correct tension. Coolant must be used during sawing. 4. Filing: It is an operation which is performed by the help of files. The pressure for cutting should be exerted in the forward stroke and backward stroke is ideal. If the file is moved diagonally on the flat surface then it gives the best results. Initially a rough file is used to remove the rough metal followed by a smooth file for better finish. Filing is done by three ways first cross filing for more metal removal then followed by straight filing and draw filing for final finish. cd Scraping: This is a manual operation done in a fitting shop for producing more accurate finish than obtained by filing. In this Operation removal of metal takes place in a small quantity at a localised portion. In this first a prussian blue is applied on the surface in which higher spots will be noticed. By this operation the higher spots are removed till entire surface becomes perfectly Smooth and uniform. Drilling: It is an operation done to produce holes either blind or through in a metal piece by the help of drills that are discussed earlier. It is done on the drilling machine in which first the job in held firmly on machine vice. Then the drill is fixed on the machine Scanned with CamScannerOY 62 MANUFACTURING PRACTI¢g | and it is lowered by the hand wheel. Appropriate coolent is Useg for cooling during operation. | 7. Tapping: It is an operation of cutting the interval threads by the help of tap and a tap holder manually. It is already discusseg | earlier. | 8. Dieing: It is the process of cutting external threads by the help of die and die holder. It is also discussed earlier. 2.11 DRILLING MACHINES The following drilling machines are generally used in fitting shop: 1. Bench drilling machine 2. Hand Drilling machine 3. Portable drilling machine. 1. Bench Drilling Machine: Figure shows the main parts of bench | drilling machine. It is used for drilling, reaming, counter sinking | and counter boring etc. Main Drive Feed Electric Drive Motor Drill Spindle el f Column ae a Fig. 2.42 Drilling Machine 2. Hand Drilling Machine: It is used for making very small holes. The spindle of this machine is rotated by a crank. It is pressed from the handle with left hand while crank is rotated with right hand. 3. Portable Drilling Machine: It is used for medium size holes. The machine is compact and small in size. It can be brought near to the work place for drilling. A small motor is attached on the drilling machine. Scanned with CamScannerHOP pirTinG S 63 SS V-Threads ‘Square-Threads Acme Threads Fig. 2.43 Various types of Threads 2.42 SCREW THREADS There are many types of threads available in engineering. 1. British standard whitworth Threads (B.S.W): The thread is gen- erally used on bolts and nuts. It is a V-shaped thread having an angle of 55°. 2. Metric Threads: Metric threads are also V-shaped threads. Thread angle is kept 60° in metric threads. 3. Square Threads: The shape of the thread is square. Such threads are less stronger than V-shape threads. Wear and tear is also less. These are used in screw jacks. 4. Acme Threads: It is a modified form of square threads. These threads are stonger than square threads. The thread angle of acme threads is 29°. On lead screw shaft of lathe, acme threads are used, Scanned with CamScanner3 WELDING SHOP 3,1 INTRODUCTION Welding is a process of joining two materia or pressure or by some other means, The cost as compared to other processes and forms a reason it is largely used in the following fi 1, Manufacturing of machine tools, autoparts, cycle parts ete, 2. Fabrication of farm machinery and equipment. : 3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges and ships, 4, Construction of boilers, furnaces, rockets and missiles. Is with the help of heat of welding is very less strong joint. For this elds of engineering: railways, cars, aeroplanes, 5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets etc. Main purpose of welding is to join two pieces. For this initially temperature of the parent metal is raised upto melting point, then filler metal is used as a suppliment for molten pool. A homogenous mixture is formed at the joint then it is allowed to solidify to form a weld. This is fusion welding. In next process the ends to be joined are brought to the plastic stage and then apply external pressure to join them. It is pressure welding. In both the above cases the source of heat is as follows for ex it is furnace in forge welding, it is gases in gas welding it is electrical energy in Arc welding, it is chemical reactions in Thermit welding etc. 3.2 TYPES OF WELDING Many types of welding processes has been developed depending upon the field of their applications. Some of the processes are listed below: 1. Forge welding 2. Gas welding 3. Electric arc welding 4. Spot welding 5. Seam welding 6. Thermit welding 7. TIG welding 8. MIG welding 9. CO,-MIG welding 40. Plasma are welding 3.2.1, Forge welding: This welding is done by the black-smiths. in this two ‘similar metal pieces are heated upto the plastic stage in the furnace. Then it is hammered so that a homogeneous mixture 69 Scanned with CamScannery MANUFACTURING PRA, 70 ACTIog i leaned and at the joint. The surface to be joined should bo ¢ made i of any foreign particle, this is done by brushing. 3.2.2 Gas Welding fing it in i is flame is used to raj, Gas welding is the process in which a ga is the temperature of the metals to be joined. The metals are heated y to melting. The metal flows and on cooling it solidifies. A filler Meta, may be added to the flowing molten metal to fill up cavity made during the end preparation. Filler Metal Work Piece Fig. 3.1. Gas Welding Many combinations of gases are used in gas welding. But the most common of these is oxygen anJ acetylene. 3.2.2.1 Oxy-Acetylene welding The process of oxy-acetylene welding can be used for almost all metals and alloys for engineering purposes. A high temperature flame (3200°C) can be produced by this method. There are two systems of oxygen-acetylene welding. (i) High pressure system: In this Process the oxygen and acety- lene are taken for use from high pressure cylinders. (ii) Low pressure system: In this system oxygen is taken from high Pressure cylinder and the acetylene is Produced by the action of Calcium carbide and water, CaC, + 2H,O = Ca (OH), + C,H, 3.2.2.2 Principle of oxy-acetylene welding A very hot flame is produced by burning of the gases coming through the torch tip. The edges to be welded are heated up to melting. A filler metal is also added to complete the welding. This molten metal mixture when solidifies on cooling forms a welded joint. 3.2.2.3 Apparatus Apparatus used for oxy-acetylene (high pressui Iding i in the figure and consists of the following: fs gene saoen Scanned with CamScannern \ HOP % wervine st Outlet Pressure Gauge inder Pressure | cylinder ‘Gauge '+— Pressure Regulating Screw Oxygen Hose Valve Cylinder Pressure Gauge Outlet Pressure Gauge Pressure Regulating Gauge pressure Acetylene Generaior Valve oxygen Cylinder Acetylene Cylinder \ Hose pipes Fig. 3.2 Apparatus for Gas Welding 1. Oxygen cylinder 2. Acetylene cylinder 3. Pressure Gauges 4. Valves 5. Hose pipes 6. Torch 7. Welding tip 8. Pressure regulators 9. Lighter 10. Goggles : Oxygen cylinder and acetylene cylinder are filled with gases. Both the Yinders are attached with pressure gauges, regulators and cylinder valves. ene’? Svlinder containing oxygen is painted black whereas the acety- atin cylinder is painted maroon. Hose pipes are provided with each nder. These pipes are connected to welding torch Scanned with CamScanner7 MAN 72 JUFACTURING, PRACT eg Welding Process To start welding, the acetylene control valve is turned first Wh, acetylene comes out of the nozzle, it should be ignited with spark lighten It will give a yellow-coloured smoke flame. After it oxygen cylinder yar is opened and supply is increased until a best suitable flame is obtain Then the flame is focussed on the edges to be welded. Flux ang filler metal are also added with the heat of flame, the edges ang filler metal melts and a joint is formed after cooling of the molten metaj, The joint may be formed with or without using filler metal. Applications: All the metals can be welded with proper filler metals. Same equip. ment may be used for cutting purposes. Oxyacetylene welding is par. ticularly used for sheet metal work. Advantages of oxy-acetylene welding: 1. Equipment is cheap. | 2. It can be used for welding all metals. | 3. Maintenance of equipment is very less. 4. It is a portable process. 5. It can be used for cutting of metals. 6. It is specially used for sheet metal work. Disadvantages: 1. It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding. 2. Heat affected area is more. 3. Gases are expensive and difficult to store. 3.2.2.4 Types of Gas Flames There are three types of gas flames: 1. Oxidising Flame 2. Carburising Flame 3. Neutral Flame Outer Envelope Outer Envelope “Outer Envelope Intermediate Cone | Inner Inner Inner Cone Cone Cone Fig. 3.3 Types of Flames Scanned with CamScanner Outlet Pressure ——> Gauge Slow Pressure Outlet Fig. 3.8 Regulator 4, Torch: Torch is a device used to mix acetylene and oxygen in the correct proportion and the mixture flows to the tip of the torch. There are two types of torches: (i) Low pressure or Injector Torches. (ii) Medium pressure or Equal pressure torches 1. Torch mouth, 2. Mixing tube. 3. Injector. 4. Mixing nozzle. 5. Pressure nozzle. 6. Acetylene valve. @ 7. Oxygen valve. 8. Grip. 9. Acetylene entrance. 10, Oxygen entrance. Fig. 3.9 Welding Torch (i) Low pressure or injector torch: These torches are designed to use acetylene at low pressure. The pressure is kept very low up to 0.7 kg/cm?. But the oxygen pressure is very high. (ii) Medium pressure or Equal pressure torch: In this type of torch the acetylene is taken at a pressure equal to 1kg/om?. The oxygen is always supplied at high pressure. Both types of torches are provided with two needle valves. One regulates the flow of oxygen and the second valve con- trols the flow of acetylene. A mixing chamber is provided to mix the gases. 5. Torch tips: For different types of jobs, different tips are used. The size of the tip is specified by the outlet hole diameter. More than one hole is also provided in tips. The tip is screwed OF Scanned with CamScanneroP werdNG et 7 fited on tho front end of the torch, Vari : frown in the figure, eee eee eae | ‘Threaded Replaceable Piece ©» ove Fig. 3.10 Torch Tips ¢. Goggles: Gas flames produce high intensity light and heat rays, which are harmful to naked eye. To protect the eyes from these rays, goggles are used. Goggles also protect the eyes from flying sparks. 7. Lighter: For starting the flame, the spark should be given by a lighter. Fig. 3.11 Goggles Match sticks should not be used, as there is risk of burning hand. 8. Fire Extinguishers: Fire extinguishers are used to prevent the fire that may break out by chance. Sand filled buckets and closed cylinders are kept ready to meet such accidents. 42.2.9 Difference Between High Pressure and Low Pressure Gas Welding Low Pressure Welding ‘Acetylene is generated by the action of water and Calcium Carbide. Pressure is low. It ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 Ib/inch® | [S.No.| High Pressure Welding 1. | Acetylene is available in cylinders | 2, | Pressure is very high in the | acetylene cylinder. Minimum Pressure 250 Ib/inch? 3. | Pressure regulators are used on both cylinders 4. | Oxygen and acetylene gases are mixed in mixing chamber 5.__| Used for heavy work No need of pressure regulato on acetylene cylinder Injector is used to mix acetylene with oxygen Used for light work Scanned with CamScanner78 MANUFACTURING PRACH, cy The following safety precautions must be observed while Working welding shop: . Always handle the gas cylinders with care. 2. The adjusting screw on the regulator must be fully Teleasey before opening a cylinder valve. Never use matchsticks for lighting a torch. Never lubricate the regulator valve with oil or grease, cause explosion. Always use goggles while working. Proper ventilation must be provided in the shop. | Acetylene cylinders should be stored in up right position, Do not open acetylene cylinders near sparks or fire, Never remove torch tips with pliers. 10. The cylinder should be leak proof, 11, Always use protective caps over the valves, 12. Keep in mind the location of the fire extinguishers, | 3.2.3 ARC WELDING The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for | the purpose of joining two surfaces is called electric are welding, Principle Power supply is given to electrode and the work. A Suitable gap is Kept between the work and electrode. A high current is passed through the circuit. An arc is produced around the area to be welded, The i Producing a temperature dges to be welded and welding joint is obtained, | 3.2.2.10 Safety Precautions in Gas Welding | | in| | Be it may | PN - Electrode Holder Cable 5 Electrode go 2a ae 5 zo as Ty ee Work Clamp —_. Fig. 3.12 Are Welding Scanned with CamScannerweLing SHOP : tric power for welding reer current or DC current can be us ses, DC current is preferred. In D.C, weldi pat state rectifier 18 USEd. D.C. machines are an PC. Generator or ity range 600 Reecaa) The voltage in open circuit ig kept around das 95 volts and in closed circuit it is kept 17 to 25 volts DC. cu ‘0 ;. given in two ways: . DO. trent can (i) Straight polarity welding (ii) Reverse polarity welding. Electtode\ /Eathode GY -—Electron Flow / —Electron Fi low Work Anode (High Heat) Fig. 3.13. Straight Polarity Welding Work Cathode (Medium Heat) Fig. 3.14 Reverse Polarity Welding In straight polarity welding workpieco is made anode and the elec: trode is made cathode as shown in the figure. Electrons flow from cathode to anode thus heat is produced at the materials to be welded. In reverse polarity system the work is made cathode and the elec- trode is made anode. This welding is done specially for thin section. AC welding has the advantage of being cheap. Equipment used is simpler than DC welding. A transformer is used to increase the current output at the electrode. An AC welding circuit is shown in the figure. Tha current vary from 150 to 1000 amperes depending upon the type of work 3.2.3.1 Effect of Arc Length Arc length is the distance from the top of the electrode to the bottom of the arc, It should vary from 3 to 4 m.m. In short arc length the time of contact will be shorter. And will make a wide and shallow bead. The penetration is low as compared to long arc lengths. 3.2.3.2 Equipment used for Arc Welding Various equipments used for arc welding are as under: 1. D.C. Welding Equipment (a) AC Motor — Generator Set (b) Diesel Engine — Generator Set (c) Transformer — Rectifier welding set Scanned with CamScannerMANUFACTURING PRagy, leg 80 2. AC Equipment: | (a) Welding Transformer set 3. Equipment accessories | (a) Leads (b) Holder | (c) Connectors (d) Ground Clamps 4. Operator's tool | (a) Chipping hammer (b) Wire brush (c) Arc shield (d) Closed shoe | The details of the above equipment and acessories are describeg | below: 1. AC Motor Generator: In this a generator is driven by a suitable AC motor. The average voltage of the generator is 25 volt. The current ranges from 25 to 100 amperes, the voltage in the generator is variable. The voltage can be set to the desireg value with the help of rheostat. Diesel Engine Generator set: In this set, the drive is given by 2. a diesel engine. Rest of the system is same as in case of A.C. motor generator. Diesel engine generator sets are used in the | areas where electricity is not available. | 3. Transformer rectifier set: It allows the current to flow through it only in one direction. Because it has a one way valve or solid rectifier installed on the electrode side of the secondary coil. The set can supply straight polarity and reverse polarity power supply. The rectifiers are of two types: (i) Silicon diode. (ii) Selenium plate. | Electrode Rectifier Holder Core. Primary — Secondary Electrode Current Flow Fig. 3.15 (a) Transformer Rectifler Set 4. Welding Transformer set: It is used to step down the voltage supply. It consists of a primary and secondary circuit. The input Scanned with CamScanner| — wwerone SHOP at | js given to primary winding. By electromagnetic induction the | current flows through the secondary coil. The output can be controlled as per requirement. adjusting: ____— ‘screw Reactor ——>} Electrode Holder Line Fig. 3.15 (b) Welding Transformer Set 5. Cables or Leads: These leads are made up of copper or alu- minium wire. The wires are insulated with rubber and cloth fibre. A heavy insulation is necessary for these cables. 6. Face Shield: When arc is produced around the job, infrared rays and ultraviolet rays are produced. To protect the face and eyes from these dangerous rays, a shield is necessary. 7. Other accessories and Tools: Other accessories and tools used for arc welding are shown in the figure. [ Point Chipping hammer Wire brush Face Shield Fig. 3.16 Other acessories Welding Positions: ___ In horizontal position it is very easy to we! impossible to weld the job in horizontal position. Classified as under: weld. But many times it is Other positions are Scanned with CamScannerRo MANUFACTURING py PACTicg 1. Flat Position: In flat position the work piece is kept in nea, horizontal position. The surface to be welded is kept on up. side. The welding is done as illustrated in the figure, er ‘Work Pieces (a) Flat Position 2. Horizontal Position: In this position the work piece is kept as in the figure. Two surfaces rest one over the other with their flat faces in vertical plane. Welding is done from right side to left side. The axis of the weld is in a horizontal plane and its face in vertical plane. Groove Weld Parent Metal (b) Horizontal Position 3. Vertical Position: In this position the axis of the weld remains in approximate vertical plane. The welding is started at the bottom and proceeds towards top. Welding process is illustrated in figure. \—— Axis of Weld N\ Bead (c) Vertical Position (d) Over head Position Fig. 3.17 Welding Positions Scanned with CamScanneryr verona SHOP 4 Overhead Position: As show, ities... | 83 n in the figure the workpiece re. mains over the head of the welder. The workpiece and the on of the weld remains approxim; difficult position of welding, late in horizontal Plane. It is most 3.2.33 Comparison Between AC and OC Welding AC Welding DC Welding Equipment is cheaper and sim. pler. In AC transformer there is no moving part, therefore itis easy to maintain. It can be operated at large dis- tances from power sources as the voltage drop is negligible. Only coated electrodes can be used in AC welding. Less problem of arc blow. It can not be used for welding non-ferrous metals. It can be used only when AC current is available. Equipment is costlier and com- Plicated. DC generator set has many parts moving and its maintenance cost is higher than AC trans- formers, 'n DC the voltage drop is very high. Therefore shorter cables are used. Both coated and bare electrods can be used, More problem of arc blow, Almost all the metals can be welded, An engine generator can be used in case of non-availabil- ity of AC power. Electrodes: Electrodes are of two types: ()) Coated electrodes (ii) Bare electrode Coated electrodes are generally applied in arc welding processes. A metallic core is coated with some suitable material. The material used for core is mild steel, nickel steel, chromium molydenum steel etc. One end of the coated core is kept bare for holding. Bare Electrodes produce the welding of poor quality. These are cheaper than coated electrodes. These are generally used in modern welding process like MIG welding. Electrode Size: Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 m.m., 300 m.m., 350 T.m. 450 m.m., and the diameters are 1.6 m.m., 2 m.m., 2.5 mm., 3.2 ™m. 4 mm. 7 m.m., 8 m.m. and 9 m.m. a Scanned with CamScanner| 84 MANUFACTURING Pvc, CN Functions of Coatings: The coating on an electrode serves tho following functions; 1, To prevent oxidation. , 2. Forms slags with metal impurities. 3. It stabilises the arc. 4. Increases deposition of molten metal. 5. Controls depth of penetration. 6. Controls the cooling, rata, 7. Adds alloy elements to the joint. Specifications of electrodes: An electrode is specified by six digits with profile letter M. These six digits indicate the following matter: M: It indicates that it is suitable for metal arc welding, First digit: First digit may be from 1 to 8, which indicate the type of coating on the electrode. Second digit: It denotes the welding position for which electrode is manufactured. It varies from 1 to 6. Third digit: It denotes the current to be used for an electrode, It is taken from 0 to 7. Fourth digit: Fourth digit is from 1 to 8. Each digit represents the tensile strength of welded joint. Fifth digit: It carries any number from 1 to 5. This digit denotes a specific elogation in percentage of the metal deposited. Sixth digit: It carries any number from 1 to 5 and denotes impact strength of the joint. 3.2.4. Spot Welding It is a method used for making Lap welds for sheets upto 13 mm thickness. It is expressed by the figure shown below. It consists of a transformer having primary and secondary windings P and C. This welding consists of two arms, first is a movable arm E, and the other is fixed arm E,, both these arms are connected by the secondary coil of the transformer. In the process we take two sheets S, and S, to be joined and it is placed in the manner shown between the two arms, then a supply of high amperage and low voltage is supplied between the two sheets. The pressure is also exerted by the fixed and the movable arm as a result the temperature of the adjoining surfaces is brought upto the melting point and it is joined due to external pressure. This principle is fixed in a spot welding machine in which the pressure is applied by lever ) fixed in the lower portion of the machine that is operated by foot. Scanned with CamScanneryr p a5 tN sHo! Sy 8) ef { P Spot — Transformer Fig. 3.18 Spot Welding gos. Seam Welding fre pincple of seam welding is same as that of a spot welding, only ‘Myerence is thatthe tips of the spot welding is replaced by rotating wheels ignown below. AS a result it is @ continuous welding process whereas spot Melding is intermittent in nature. \a — Electrode (3 x Seam Weld Sa (3 Electrode Fig. 3.19 Seam Welding In this process the two material strip is fed between the two rotating wheels that acts as an electrode, a supply of high ampearage and low voltage in maintained between the electrodes. Before welding the surface to be joined is cleaned by brush. It is a very fast welding Process, and the strength of joint obtained by seam welding is more. 3.2.6. Thermit Welding |t is used on those places where there is no availability of electric Supply or gas. It is a compact unit and can be moved easily upto the Site. It consists of a conical shape vessal with a brick lining inside. Mixture of powdered aluminium and iron oxide is placed inside the Vessal. This mixture is heated by the furnace upto molten stage, due "0 the reaction the Aluminium is converted in Aluminium Oxide. The rotten metal is allowed to fill in the cavity, Then the mould is allowed © Soliify. It is also economical and fast process. Welding joint made ‘his process is also very stronger. Pa Scanned with CamScannerMANUFACTURING PRAcy 86 i ® 3.2.7. Tongesten Inert Arc Welding It is a process in which electrode is held in a electrode ho} er such a way that it holds the electrode. It also ensures supply g° ia gas around the electrode that creates an inert atmosphere round 4," arc. Cooling during welding is done by the electrode holder by upg of water or air. It is a process which produces both Continuous a intermittent weld. Filler metal is not used in this process. It is Used join Al-alloys, Cu-alloys, Mg-alloys, nickle-alloys etc. | 3.2.8. Metal Inert Gas Welding In this case electrode is in the form of continuous wire that is feq into the arc, speed of the wire is controlled by an electric Motor. The electrode holder feeds the wire i.e., electrode and it also ensures Supply of inert gas to the arc that creates an atmosphere which Provides an | inert atmosphere for the arc. This is used for welding low alloys Steels, aluminium alloy, magnesium alloys and cu-alloys 3.2.9. CO, - MIG Welding | It is sim‘tar to Metal-Inert gas welding. CO, gas is used as an inert gas during this welding process as a Shield. The electrode is coated and it is fed similar to M-I-G. It is a fast welding method, initial Preparation before welding is not required. The joint produced by this method is very strong. 3.2.10. Plasma-Arc Welding In this process a mixture of gases such as argon, hydrozen and helium joined is heated through this and tongeston electrode is used as filler material with water as a Cooling agent. This can be used for cutting. 3.3 SOLDERING Soldering is a process of joining two metals by using another low temperature metal alloy. The metal used for the joining purpose is called solder. Solders are of two types : 1, Hard Solder 2. Soft Solder Hard solder is an alloy of copper and zinc whereas the soft solder is an alloy of tin and lead, Process The surfaces to be joined are cleaned and are placed on each other. A flux is employed to prevent oxidation, Zinc chloride is commonly used {or this purpose. The soldering iron (shown in the figure) is heated either Scanned with CamScanner| _—— oo 4OP * . ino SH wer ication a | palin ing is widely used for shoot metal work and in radio and sald ork fr joining wires. polo tages Noa pining cost Is low. b. Equipment is very simple and cheap, 2 Good sealing in fabrication as compared to other processes like * Fivet, spot weld and belts. It provides a positive electrical connection. | | th | 4 i 5, Due to low operating temperature, the properties of base metal are not affected. pisadvantage 1, Joints formed are weak. | | | | | ga BRAZING | ‘The process of joining two metal surfaces by heating and adding a | jentertous alloy with melting point above 400°C is known as brazing. | process The surfaces to be joined are cleaned from all oil, dirt or oxides. | Then both the surfaces are placed in joining position. Flux is sprinkled | orplaced on it. The heat is given to the surface and the filler metal. The | Tpolten filler metal flows to the surfaces to be joined. On cooling brazing joint is formed. The filler metals used are copper, copper alloy, silver alloy and aluminium alloys. In brazing the filler metal melts but the surfaces to be joined remain unmelted. The various methods used to melt the filler metal and flux are: (i) Gas torch brazing: It is a commonly used process in which oxy-acetylene torch is used. (ii) Furance brazing: The surfaces to be joined are placed in a furnace already hot. (iii) Dip Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are dipped in molten filler metal. iv) Electrical brazing: In electric brazing heat is produced by re- sistance or induction method. Applications Brazing is used for electrical items, radiators, heat exchangers, Pipes and pipe fittings and tool tips. Advantages 1. It is useful for joining dissimilar metals. 2. Thin sections can be easily joined. 3. Good finish is obtained on joint. Ree a Scanned with CamScanner5. Cost of operation is less as compared to other Welding in MANUFACTU 88 FING Pg, 'y 4. High production. Less skill is required. esses. "| Disadvantages: | | 1, Low strength. 2. Not applicable for hardened steel and aluminium alloys 3.4.1. Difference Between Soldering and Brazing S.No Brazing Soldering | 1. | Filler metal has the melting Filler metal has the melting point below 400°C. | point above 400°C. 2. More stable joints can be made. | Less stable joints can be mage, 3. | High pressure and temperature] Joints are affected by high temperature and pressure, do not affect the joint. 4. | Equipment cost is more. Equipment cost is very low, 3.5 TYPES OF JOINTS Basic types of welding joints are classified as under: Butt Joint In this type of joint, the edges are welded in the same plane with each other. V or U shape is given to the edges to make the joints strong. Some examples of butt joints are shown in the figure. Lap Joint This type of joint is used in joining two overlapping plates so that the corner of each plate is joined with the surface of other plate. Com- mon types of lap joints are single lap, double lap or offset lap joint. Single welded lap joint does not develope full strength as compared to double welded lap. AY DID XS (ii) Single Vee Butt Joint (i) Plane Butt Joint TIS WAS (iii) Double Vee Butt Joint (iv) U-Shaped Butt Joint Scanned with CamScanner