FORMWORK

What is Formwork
Formwork is a die or a mould including all supporting structures, used to shape and support the concrete
until it attains sufficient strength to carry its own weight. It should be capable of carrying all imposed dead
and live loads apart from its own weight.
INTRODUCTION TO FORMWORK
 Formwork has been in use since the beginning of concrete construction.
 New materials such as steel, plastics and fiberglass are used in formwork.
 greater attention is being given to the design, fabrication, erection and dismantling of
formwork
DEFENITION:
 As a structure,
 Temporary which is designed to contain fresh fluid concrete.
 Form it into the required shape and dimensions.
 Support it until it cures sufficiently to become self supporting.
The term ‘formwork’ includes the actual material contact with the concrete, known asform face, and all the
necessary associated supporting structure.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FORMWORK SYSTEM

 How formwork can be erected and de-shuttered fast.

 How good concrete quality and surface finish can be achieved.
 What is the optimum stock of formwork required for the size of work force, the specified time schedule and
flow of materials.
 What is the overall cost savings that can be achieved using the right type of formwork.
 How SAFETY can be improved for the site personnel.

In order to successfully carry out its function, formwork must achieve a balance of following requirements:
 Containment
 Strength
 Resistance To Leakage
 Accuracy
 Ease Of Handling
 Finish And Reuse Potential
 Access For Concerted
 Economy

Containment: formwork must be capable of shaping and supporting the fluid concrete until it cures.
Strength: formwork must be capable of safely withstanding without distortion or danger the dead weight of
the fluid concrete is placed on it, labour weight, equipment weight and any environmental loadings.
Resistance to leakage: all joints in form work must be either close fitting of covered with form tape to
make them grout tight. If grout leakage occurs the concrete Will leak at that point. Leakages cause
honeycombing of the surface.
Accuracy: formwork must be accurately set out so that the resulting concrete product is in a right place
and is of correct shape and dimensions.

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 Ease of handling: form panels and units should be designed so that their maximum size does not exceed
that which can be easily handled by hand or mechanical means. In addition all formwork must also be
designed and constructed to include facilities for adjustments, leveling, easing and striking without
damage to the form work or concrete.
Finish and reuse potential: the form face material must be selected to be capable of consistently imparting
the desired concrete finish (smooth, textured, featured or exposed aggregate etc.) At the same time it
should also achieve the required number of reuse.
Access for concrete: any formwork arrangement must be provide access for placing of the concrete. The
extent of this provision will be dependent on the ease of carrying out the concrete operations.
Economy: all the formwork is very expensive. On average about 35% of the total cost of any finished
concrete unit or element can be attributed to its formwork; of this just over 40% can be taken for material
for formwork and 60% for labour. The formwork designer must therefore not only consider the maximum
number of times that any form can be reused, but also produce a design that will minimize the time taken
for erection and striking.

FORMWORK BASED ON MATERIALS

MATERIALS FOR FORMWORK

Formwork can be made out of a large variety of materials.
 The material most commonly being used to date is timber. However, due to the depleting
forest reserves and increasing cost of timber the use of alternate materials such as plywood and steel has
become prominent.
 More recently, materials such as plastics and fiberglass are also being used for pre-
fabricating formwork.
 The type of material to be used depends on the nature of construction as well as
availability and cost of material.
 The constraints on the project such as overall cost, time of completion also play a major
role in the use of a particular material for formwork.

TIMBER FORMS
Timber is required for practically all jobs of formwork. The timber bring used for formwork must satisfy the
following requirements:
I. It should be durable and treatable
II. It should have sufficient strength characteristics
III. It should be light weight and well seasoned without warping,
IV. It should hold nails well.
Advantages of using timber forms:
I. It is economical for small construction jobs
II. It is design flexible and easy to erect
III. It has good thermal insulation which makes it useful to be used in colder
Regions
Iv. It can easily be made into any shape or size
Plywood forms (in combination with timber)

 Concrete shuttering plywood is bwp grade plywood, preservative treated and specially suited for
use in concrete shuttering and formwork.

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  The plywood is built up of odd number of layers with grain of adjacent layers perpendicular to
each other.
 Plywood is used extensively for formwork for concrete, especially for sheathing, decking and form
linings.
 There are two types of plywood - internal and exterior.
 The interior type is bonded with water resistant glue and exterior type is bonded with water proof
glue.
Hardboard forms
 Hardboard is a board material manufactured of wood fiber, which is then refined or partly
refined to form a panel having a density range of approximately 50 to 80 pounds per cubic foot.
 Hardboards are standard / non-tempered or tempered.
 The tempered one being used for formwork. Tempered hardboard is solid or perforated
hardboard panels impregnated with resin under high pressure to make them stronger and more resistant
to moisture and abrasion.
 The boards available in large sheets have a hard, smooth surface that produces a
concrete whose surface is relatively free of blemishes and joint marks.
 The thin sheets can be bent to small radii, which is an advantage when casting concrete
members with curved surfaces.

ALUMINIUM FORMS
 Forms made from aluminum are in many respects similar to those made of steel.
 However, because of their lower density, aluminum forms are lighter than steel forms,
and this is their primary advantage when compared to steel.
 As the strength of aluminum in handling, tension and compression is less than the
strength of steel, it is necessary to use large sections.
 The formwork turns out to be economical if large numbers of reuses are made in
construction.
 The major disadvantage of aluminum forms is that no changes can be made once the
formwork is fabricated.

PLASTICS
These forms have become increasingly popular for casting unique shapes and patterns being
designed in concrete because of the excellent finish obtained requiring minimum or no surface treatment
and repairs.
Different types of plastic forms are available like glass reinforced plastic, fiber reinforced plastic
and thermoplastics etc.
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic is the most common and has several advantages such as
I. The material allows greater freedom of design
II. Unusual textures and designs can be molded into the form
III. It allows the contractor to pour structural and finished concrete
Simultaneously
IV. Because sections can be joined on the job site in such a way so as to eliminate joints, there is no
size limitation
If carefully handled, a number of reuses are possible making it highly
Economical
Vi. It is lightweight and easily stripped

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 The disadvantage of using plastic forms is that it does not lend itself to field fabrication Hence, the
design and planning of this form must be carefully carried out.Also care must take not to damage the
plastic by the heat applied for accelerated curing of the concrete. Trough and waffle units in fiberglass are
used in construction of large floor areas and multistoried office buildings.

STEEL FORMWORK:
Mostly used in large construction projects or in situations where large number of re-uses of the
same shuttering is possible. Suitable for circular or curved shaped structures such as tanks, columns,
chimneys. Etc. & for structures like sewer tunnel and retaining wall.
Advantages of steel formwork over timber form:
I. strong, durable & have longer life
II. Reuses can be assumed to vary from 100 to 120 wares timber varies from 10 to 12.
III. Steel can be installed & dismantled with greater ease & speed resulting in saving in labour
cost.
IV. Excellent quality of exposed concrete surface obtained. Thus saving in the cost of
finishing the conc. surface.
V. no danger of formwork absorbing water from the conc. & hence minimizing honeycombing

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMWORK:
• propping and centering
• shuttering
• provision of camber
• cleaning & surface treatment
Propping and centering:
The props used for centering may be of steel, timber post or ballies.pillars made up of
brick masonry in mud mortar are also sometimes used as props.
Shuttering:
can be made up of timber planks or it may be in the form of panel unit made either by
fixing ply wood to timber frames or by welding steel plates to angle framing.
Provision of camber
Certain amount of deflection in structure is unavoidable. It is therefore desirable to give an
upward camber in the horizontal member of conc. Structure to counteract the effect of deflection.
Surface treatment
 Before laying conc. The formwork should be cleaned of all rubbish particularly the
sawdust savings & chippings etc.
 Before laying conc. the face of formwork in contact with conc. shall be cleaned & treated
with release agent like raw linseed oil or soft soap solution as to prevent the conc. getting struck to the
formwork.
Order and method of removing formwork:
 Shuttering forming vertical faces of walls, beams & column sides should be removed
first. Shuttering forming sofit to slab should be removed next.
 Shuttering forming soffit to beams, girders or other heavily loaded member should be
removed in the end.

DURATION TAKEN FOR REMOVAL OF FORMWORK

1 WALLS COLUMNS & VERTICAL SIDES
OF BEAMS 1-2 DAY

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2 SLABS 3 DAYS
3 BEAM SOFFIT 7 DAYS
4 REMOVAL OF PROPS TO SLABS
A) SLAB SPANNINIG UPTO 4.5M 7 DAYS
B) SLAB SPANNINIG OVER 4.5M 14 DAYS
5 REMOVAL OF PROPS TO BEAMS
AND ARCHES
A) SPANNING UPTO 6 MTS 14 DAYS
B) SPANNING OVER 6 MTS 21 DAYS

TYPES OF FORMWORK
There are different types of formwork available for different purposes. Generally, the
formworks for vertical concreting are called wall forms and those for horizontal concreting are called slab
or floor forms. The various types of formwork available today in the market are discussed in detail.

TRADITIONAL FORMWORK
 This usually consists of standard framed panels tied together over their backs with
horizontal members called waling.
 The waling is provided with the basic function of resisting the horizontal force of wet
concrete.
 One side of the wall formwork is first assembled ensuring that it is correctly aligned,
plumbed and strutted.
 The steel reinforcement cage is then placed and positioned before the other side of the
formwork is erected and fixed.
 Plywood sheet in combination with timber is the most common material used for wall
formwork.
 The usual method is to make up wall forms as framed panels with the plywood facing
sheet screwed on to studs on a timber frame. This allows for the plywood to be easily removed and
reversed and used on both sides so as to increase the number of reuses.
 The wall forms are susceptible to edge and corner damage and must be carefully
handled.
 Special attention must be given to comers and attached piers since the increased
pressures applied by wet concrete could cause the abutments to open up, giving rise to unacceptable
grout escape and a poor finish to the cast wall.

CLIMBING FORMWORK
 Method of casting walls consists of a climbing formwork, the climbing of which may be
manual or crane assisted.
 It employs a common set of forms used in a repetitive manner for casting walls in set
vertical lifts.
 After each casting the forms are removed and raised to form the next lift until the
required height has been reached.

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 These forms are widely used in the construction of industrial chimneys, silos, high rise
towers & building cores, bridge piers & pylons, airport control towers, telecommunication, towers etc.
The climbing form has many advantages such as the following
 Staged construction process allows balance of site resources.
 Anchor accessories can be reused after each pour, reducing material costs on current
and future construction programs.
 In case of trolley mounted formwork, the panel retracts from the face, providing space
for cleaning and fixing of concrete.
 Formwork & access platforms lifted as one, minimizing crane support, reducing labour
and material costs.
 fine adjustments of the form face can be made during construction, providing accurate
alignment of the form face vertically & laterally.

SLIDING FORMWORK OR SLIPFORMING

 slip form means a continuously moving form, moving with such a speed that concrete
when exposed has already achieved enough strength to support the vertical pressure from concrete still
in the form as well as to withstand lateral pressure caused by wind etc.
 Thus, the slip form concreting technique is a rapid and economical construction method
that can be applied with great advantage to many types of construction projects such as chimneys, silos,
water towers, bridge-columns, lift shaft cores and shaft lining etc.
 The technique is based on movable forms which are gradually lifted by hydraulic jacks.
 It is a continuous process where wet concrete is added to wet concrete. Reinforcing
steel and/or post tensioned cables are continuously fixed as the normal slipping speed is 3 to 6 meters
per 24 hours. The slip form construction is designed for each project depending on the structure of the
project. The advantages of slip forming are
 Minimum consumption of timber and steel plates.
 Total elimination of traditional scaffolding
 Minimum requirements of carpenters for assembling.
 It gives a monolithic structure.
 The concrete surfaces can be treated and finished while concrete is green,
 Depending on the weather conditions, it is possible to achieve a vertical rise to the tune
of 4 to 5 m in summer and 2 to 3 m in winter.
 The procedure of continuous slipping is applied to making both inner and outer walls as
well as columns of a building.
 Form climbs.

PERMANENT FORMWORK
 Permanent form or stay-in-place formwork is one in which the form is left as an integral
part of the structure.
 Permanent formwork can also be utilized as the facing materials of in situ reinforced
concrete. They can be of two types—participating and non-participating.
 The material used for these forms must be durable and of sufficient strength. Commonly
used materials include polyvinyl chloride (pvc), galvanized coiled sheet steel, fabricated steel,
carbon/epoxy thin shell.

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  The high initial cost of design and installation, lack of familiarity for installation and
maintenance and more specified form design are some of the barriers to the use of this form.
 However, there are various advantages like low cost of transportation and installation,
precise form design, maximum flexibility, greater durability with reduced long term maintenance and
versatility.

SPECIAL FORMS
These are those forms that are specially designed and manufactured for a particular kind of
construction. The need for a special formwork may arise due to several factors such as
• when the contract demands the highest class of dimensional tolerance to be followed
• Where the form work shape required becomes uneconomical or impracticable for site fabrication
• Where the formwork is required to be self-contained i.e. self propelled,
• Where rate of concreting, admixtures or types of concrete are such that concrete pressure developed
within forms and stresses in the forms demand special attention where a substantial number of re-uses is
envisaged

TABLE FORM
 This is a special formwork designed for use in casting large repetitive floor slabs in
medium to high-rise structures.
 The main objective of reducing the time required re-erecting, striking and re-erecting slab
formwork.
 A system which can be put as an entire unit, removed, hoisted and repositioned without
any dismantling.

GANGED PANEL FORM

 The increasing pace in the construction of multi-storey and massive concrete structures,
and the parallel progress in development of cranes and other mechanical methods of transporting forms
have made the use of ganged prefabricated forms for the concreting of large sections of high walls very
common.
 Ranging up to 30x50 ft, their size is limited only by the mechanics of handling. Large
panels can be assembled flat on the ground where it is easier to work. Delay and lost motion are avoided
in stripping because the gang forms are stripped as a unit.

TUNNEL FORM
The tunnel formwork is a room sized structural steel fabricated form which is used to cast the rcc
walls and floor slabs of a building as a monolithic structure in a continuous pour. The forms are then
heated using hot air blowers for accelerated curing of the concrete. This system is most economical when
the structure consists of large number of identical units. There exist two versions of this type of formwork.
They are:
A. The half tunnel formwork used to cast only one wall and slab simultaneously
B. The full tunnel formwork used to cast two walls and a slab simultaneously
The sequence of construction involves placing of reinforcement, electrical and sanitary conduits
along with the tunnel forms. Concrete is then poured and the open side of the forms is covered and hot air
blowers placed inside. The forms are removed the next day and placed on the next site using cranes. The
optimum use of tunnel form is in multiunit shear wall structure with identical floor layout at each level.

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 DOKA FormWork System.

I. Doka System Components

The various basic components that make up the various DOKA system are as follows:
1. Doka formwork beams
2. Doka formwork sheets
3. Dokadur panels
4. Doka floor props
5. Form ties and suspension cones
6. Multi-trip packaging

1. Doka formwork beams

The core of the system lies in the usage of an Engineered timber component, the H-Beam.
The H-beams are manufactured in a modern automated plant at Pondicherry under strict quality control
the flanges are made of seasoned chemically treated timber. The web is made of boiling water proof ply
wood and joined with the flange by the unique finger jointing method. The H-beams thus manufactured
are light, dimensionally stable and retains its structural properties over a period of time even after
repeated usage. It is more predictable, easy to design and use, The number of reuses of H-Beams is
more than 100 times (8 times that of conventional timber) and it consumes only 40% of timber volume
required.

The H-beams are available in two size namely in H-16 - 16 cms depth & H-20 - 20 cms depth, length
varying between 1m to 6m.

Salient Feature

• Reduction in consumption of timber.

• Making work at site minimized.
• No. of reuses more than 8 times that of conventional timber.
• Dimensionally stable, uniform in size and consistent in strength.
• Cost ratio per use H-16 beam : conventional timber = 1:3.5
• Economical and long - lasting.
• Light weight  6kgs per RMT.
Max. Shear Force Max. Bending EI
Moment
11 KN 4 KN/M 170 x 106 KG.CM2

Doka beam H20

Innovative end reinforcement .

 For less damage to the ends of the beams
 For outstanding durability

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 Outstanding production level.

 Ensures uniformly high quality and load-bearing strength for safe and dependable usage
 Is the basis for the reliability of the Doka beam formwork and Dokaflex floor formwork
 From mechanical strenght grading

Practical marks for all standard lengths.

 As a grid for easy installation and checking of the Dokaflex 1-2-4 system

Doka beam H20 eco

Ends of beams bevelled for more strength but has no end reinforcement.

2. Doka formwork sheets

Doka has an extensive range of formwork sheets for the most varied areas of application. All sheets are
made of glue-bonded layered wood and are extremely strong and dimensionally stable.

Formwork sheet 3-S Plus

Three-ply concrete-formwork sheet, made of European spruce (picea abies), designed specially for
building. Produces a uniform concrete surface.

Surface: Synthetic melamine resin glue with PU sealant and light corundum sanding on one side
Bonding: Boilproof and weatherproof
Edges: Impregnating emulsion,
Doka yellow
Thicknesses: 21 and 27 mm
Formwork sheet 3-SO
Three-ply concrete-formwork sheet, made of European spruce. Produces a uniform concrete surface.

 Surface: Synthetic melamine resin glue

 Bonding: Boilproof and weatherproof
 Edges: Impregnating emulsion,
 Doka yellow
 Thicknesses: 21 and 27 mm

Dokaplex Multi-ply sheets

High-grade multi-ply sheet made of Finnish birch hardwood for use again and again. Produces a high-
quality, smooth concrete surface.

 Surface: Phenol-resin coating, 120 g/m²

 Bonding: Boilproof and weatherproof phenol-resin glue (BFU 100) to DIN 68705-T3
 Edges: Dispersion
 Thickness: 21 mm

3. Dokadur panels

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 Dokadur panels are the state of the art for floor-slab panels. All-round edge and surface sealing
dependably protects the panel against the wear and tear of everyday construction work.
Maximised number of reuses and best-quality concrete surfaces.
 From special surface sealing by means of PUR varnish and melamine resin coating with
precision-metered corundum sanding
 For improved safety at work, because risk of slipping is reduced
 From significantly reduced moisture absorption for much-reduced discolouration, structuring and
cracking

Big savings on costs

 From easy cleaning of the surfaces, ready for the next use
 From all-round edge protection made of high-grade PU
 For exact edges with minimal cleaning
 For low costs on account of easy and fast reconditioning of the edge
4. Doka Floor Props.
Doka floor props are the right choice for every application. High load-bearing strength plus many practical
details that help to make handling easier.

 The props are available in various sizes viz. CT-250,CT-300,CT-340 & CT-410. The number
indicates the extended length of props in cms.

 Carrying capacity is rated from 20 kN to 30 kN.

 The tripods make the props self standing for easier and faster erection of the shuttering system.
The adjustments in height are obtained by operating the prop nut. The required dimension in plan is
obtained by side-lapping of the H-Beams in the primary or secondary layer.

 A very accurate and convenient shutter is ready for tying of reinforcement and concreting.

 The system also facilitates re-propping. By adopting the method of repropping it is possible to
reduce the total quantity of formwork materials significantly. The system is very well adapted for use
alongwith the L&T-Doka Beam Forming Supporting system.

5. Form ties and suspension cones

Doka has a complete range of tried-and-tested formtie solutions and dependable suspension points for
wall formwork, single-sided formwork and climbing formwork in uncompromising quality for maximum
safety.

Doka tie rods and anchor accessories

 Provide safety through superb manufacturing quality

 Reduce labour costs for installing ties, because a hammer is all that is needed for easy installation
 Are durable, robust and unaffected by dirt

Robustly dimensioned universal climbing cones

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 ensure firm connections between structure and formwork
 for safety on high structures
 for all kinds of climbing formwork

Safe suspension solutions for working and protection platforms

 With different attachments to suit the application

 Ideally matched to the carrying capacity of Doka working and protection platforms
 Easy to install and reusable.

6. Multi-trip packaging
Multi-trip packaging such as containers, stacking pallets and skeleton transport boxes keep everything in
place on the site, minimise time wasted searching for parts, and streamline the storage and transport of
system components, small items and accessories.
Savings on material overheads and labour costs.

 Through faster loading and unloading of system components, small items and accessories
 Through easy relocation to the next point where the parts are needed
 Through safe storage in stacks, particularly when space is at a premium

Stacking pallets 150 and 120 simplify the storage and transport of floor props, removable folding tripods,
formwork beams and Dokadur panels. The clamp-on wheels make the stacking pallets mobile, so they
can easily be steered through standard door-size openings in residential accommodation projects.

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II. DOKA Floor System
No matter what the room height, the shape of the layout or the slab thickness, with Doka you always have
exactly co-ordinated formwork in one single consistent system, comprising a conveniently small number
of easy to manage system components.

Dokaflex 1-2-4
Dokaflex 1-2-4 is the fast, versatile floor formwork for floorplans of any shape, for beams, slab
overhangs and semifinished floor elements – and the ready reckoner is ideal for calculating the quantities
of materials, so there's no need for formwork planning. The free choice of formwork sheets leaves nothing
to be desired when it comes to the finished structure of the fair-face concrete.

 The L&T-Doka Fex system is suitable for RC-floors upto 4.40 m high.

 The plywood sheathing is supported by a layer of secondary H-Beams at the designed spacing.
The primary layer of H-Beams are supported with necessary accessories over the collapsible telescopic
props fitted with tripods to ensure lateral stability.

Defined positioning grid with full flexibility in floorplan geometry

 For quick erection of the formwork, because the positioning points are clear
 Enables rapid adaptation to walls and columns by simply telescoping the transverse and
longitudinal beams

Speedy progress and simple logistics

 Because there is only a small number of matched individual components
 With high-grade Eurex floor props with consecutively numbered pegging holes and low release
forces
 With high-grade Eurex floor props with consecutively numbered pegging holes and low release
forces
 Because the ready reckoner makes it easy to calculate the quantities needed
 Because dispensing with planning and preparatory operations cuts costs by a significant margin
 Because the maximum pitches for longitudinal and transverse beams and props are marked on
the beams - for floor-slab thicknesses up to 30 cm

Safety and economy

 From durable and robust individual components
 Because the panels can be rented
 With high-grade polyurethane surround for first-class concrete surfaces and reduced investment
costs
 With non-slip surfaces for significantly enhanced safety at work
 With high-grade Eurex floor props with consecutively numbered pegging holes and low release
forces
 With the new, much-improved longitudinal and transverse beams for significantly reduced post-
use costs

Every requirement for fair-faced concrete fulfilled

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  By free choice of formwork sheets
 By the sealed surface of the rentable panels

Dokamatic table
The innovative design of the Dokamatic table makes for even faster formwork handling whenever large
floor slabs have to be cast. Standard functional components can be installed for straightforward, speedy
adaptation to changing requirements on the construction site.
Fast repositioning reduces labour costs
 Because fully assembled units are manoeuvred quickly into place - no laborious carrying of
individual components from one location to the next
 Because practical shifting devices makes for virtually fatigue-free operations
 Because easier to handle and safer than hand-operated formwork, particularly as room heights
increase
The Dokamatic table helps save on labour and on crane time: One man using the shifting trolley with
attachable drive unit can move the tables to the next casting location on the same level. The system is
optimised for minimal forming times on large-area projects and deals easily with varying requirements in
terms of statics and geometry.

Dokamatic table sizes

 Comes in 4 rentable standard sizes with grid logic: 4.0 x 2.0 m, 4.0 x 2.5 m, 5.0 x 2.0 m and 5.0 x
2.5 m
 Special sizes for special applications can be supplied at any time
 Made up of high-grade system components such as the sturdy Dokamatic table waling 12 and
Doka beams H20 top for outstanding durability and minimum post-use costs
 Fully assembled Dokamatic tables delivered to your site right on time
Load-bearing tower Staxo
Staxo is a high-strength load-bearing tower made of robust steel frames for high shoring and heavy loads.
Integrated connectors for rapid assembly. This modern load-bearing tower system comprises only a few
individual parts and is extremely versatile. A comprehensive range of safety accessories completes the
system.

Highly stable and highly versatile

 With 1.52 m wide frame with non-buckling vertical sections
 With 50 cm grid for setting the frame spacing
 With the tower unit's large footprint
 Because horizontal loads are safely dissipated
 Load-bearing capacity up to 70 kN/leg

Speedy assembly, even when the towers are high

 Because there are only a few individual parts, they are light and easy to handle
 Because the vertical adapters for the next lift are integrated, without loose parts or add-ons
 With drop-in assembly battens and integrated climbing rungs

Less crane time needed

 Because the towers can be pre-assembled on the flat, then hoisted into position

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 With shifting carriages for horizontal repositioning

Staxo frame
 Extremely strong, galvanised steel frame for straightforward height adjustment in a 30 cm grid;
choice of three heights 0.90, 1.20 and 1.80 m
 Frame spacing with diagonal crosses from 1.00 to 2.50 m adjustable in 50 cm grid
 Reliably withstands horizontal forces such as wind loads
 Integrated next-lift frame adapters for ergonomic handling even high above the ground - no tools
required
 Integrated climbing rungs and drop-in assembly battens support safe assembly and disassembly

Diagonal cross
 Timesaving integration of horizontal and diagonal braces in a single component
 Different lengths for variable frame spacing
 Colour clips and stamping for clear marking of the lengths
 Safe assembly with captive gravity catches
Setting the next lift is always quick and safe: no time is lost looking for parts, because the locking springs
(1),
(3) and connecting sleeves (2) are captive, integrated into the frames.
No additional parts or loose parts, so even high above the ground handling is still straightforward.

Height adjustment
Height adjustment accurate to the millimetre, even under load. By means of screw-jack U-spindle at the
top, screw-jack foot or heavy-duty screw jack at the bottom. The heavy-duty screw jack 130 has an
extension height of 130 cm and is available for jobs requiring maximum versatility.

Beam forming support system

The L&T-Doka Beam Forming Support system is suitable for RC-Beams of depth between 30 cm to 120
cm.
Beam bottom
The plywood sheathing is supported by a layer of secondary H-20 Beams at the designed spacing to form
the beam bottom. The primary H-Beams in turn support the secondary layer.

Beam sides
The plywood sheathing is supported by H-Beams at the designed spacing running along the length of the
RC-beam to form the beam sides. The H-beams are supported by the beam forming support which are
clamped onto the H-20 beams provided for the Beam bottom. The beam forming support ensures the
right angle between the beam bottom and sides. The BFS extn. provides the necessary adjustment in
depth.

The beam forming support with extension are available in three sizes viz.BFS with extn.600mm long,
900mm long & 1200mm long.

III. Wall Formwork System

The L&T-Doka Wall formwork system is suitable for casting of RC-Walls including water tight structures.

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The plywood sheathing is supported by H-Beams which are in turn supported by the steel walers. The
wall formwork facilitates fixing of working platforms for access, checking of reinforcement, concreting etc.,
the panels also have provision for fixing for alignment system which ensure verticality. The pressure due
to concrete are sustained by High strength tie system.
The walers are available in sizes of 0.8m, 1.2m, 1.6m, 1.8m, 2m & 2.4m the inside corners are formed by
“universal inside corner” and the outside by universal outside fixing or angle plates. The high strength tie
system can be through tie system or lost anchor system depending on the structure. The H-Beams can
be butt jointed to form larger size of panels.

The formwork panel along with the working platform and alignment systems can be lifted as a single unit
using a crane thus the labour involved in each operation of erection and deshuttering is reduced to a
minimum. The panels are formed in the carpentry workshop at site and the number of
operations/assembly of components at each location is minimal and hence accuracy is maintained. Since
large panels are handled as a single unit, the damage/loss of small components is eliminated
contributing to very high material productivity. In the absence of a crane the panels can be dismantled
and handled separately. The wall formwork system can handle very large pressures generated due to
pumping of concrete.

The planners place the Doka formwork beams H 20 (1) and the bracing, which consists of steel waling (2)
to suit the anticipated load. The sheeting (3) is freely selectable – your choice of smooth fair-faced
concrete, wood-textured surface, and so on.

Doka framed formwork Frameco

The Frameco formwork system

 Forms wall heights up to 3.00 m without stacking

 Has sturdy, galvanised steel frames to produce smooth concrete surfaces
 Permissible fresh-concrete pressure 70 kN/m²
Only 2 anchors up to a height of 3.00 m
 Means fewer anchors have to be set, so forming work is faster
 Reduces labour costs for post-casting work on the anchorage holes

End-to-end 15 cm grid with only 5 panel widths

 Simplifies planning, forming and logistics on the construction site

 Reduces the number of cost-intensive closures
 Means matching panel formats for best possible utilisation of formwork
 Reduces quantities in stock and costs for rental, because of effortless adaptation to any floor plan
 Makes for compact lifting units for fast positioning and short crane times

IV. Column Formwork System

The L&T-Doka Column formwork system is suitable for casting of columns of minimum 15cm * 15cm .

In the Column formwork system the H-Beams along with steel walers and accessories makeup the
assembly. The Column formwork facilitates fixing of working platforms for access, checking of
reinforcement, concreting etc., The formwork panel along with the working platform and alignment
systems can be lifted as a single unit using a crane thus the labour involved in each operation of erection

15
and deshuttering is reduced to a minimum. The panels are formed in the carpentry workshop at site and
the number of operations/assembly of components at each location is minimal and hence accuracy is
maintained. Since large panels are handled as a single unit, the damage/loss of small components is
eliminated contributing to very high material productivity. In the absence of a crane the panels can be
dismantled and handled separately. The column formwork system can handle very large pressures
generated due to pumping of concrete.

Any column size, straight from the modular system ...

 For speedy forming of any column cross-section with standard parts

 For optimum adaptation to any special geometry up to 5 m in diameter
 For column cross-sections up to 120 x 120 cm with only one splice plate
 For first-class concrete surfaces with any sheeting
 Permissible fresh-concrete pressure 90 kN/m²

Some of the possible cross-sections of column

V. Climbing Formwork System

The L&T-Doka Climbing System are used for tall structures like cooling towers, etc where it is very
uneconomical to provide staging or scaffolding for supporting the external or internal wall formwork.

In this system a bracket is hooked on to anchors called lost anchors provided in the already cast wall and
supports/alignments are taken from these brackets. The brackets are suitably braced to prevent any sway
and are provided with walkways/working platforms / handrails etc for safety and ease of working.

Varying degrees of sophistication are available in the

Climbing formwork systems, a few of which are as listed.

CB - 150 A - Simple Climbing, Crane handled - platform width 1.50 m. The brackets & wall formwork are
to be handled separately.

CB - 150 F- Traveling Climbing, Crane handled - platform width 1.50 m. roll back arrangement for
deshuttering & cleaning of shutters. The wall formwork and climbing bracket are lifted as one unit.

Automatic climbing formwork, the wall formwork along with the climbing brackets slide along the wall
using motors, thus eliminating the need for crane. This system is very often used for natural draught
cooling towers.
MF - 240 - Simple Climbing, Crane handled - platform width 2.40 m. these brackets can also be fitted
with automatic climbers SKE-50 which is a hydraulic system with 5T carrying capacity or SKE-100 with
10T carrying capacity.
The MF 240 system

* Travelling unit MF (1):

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 Platform is 2.40 m wide for safe and convenient manipulation of the formwork. 75 cm retraction for
easy cleaning of the formwork and for working on the reinforcement.

* Climbing bracket MF (2):

Combines with beam and frame formwork, high load-bearing capacity (50 kN per climbing bracket),
angle of inclination ± 15° from vertical.
* Working brackets (2):
Modular principle for versatility: these brackets can be used as pouring, intermediate and suspension
brackets.

The SKE system

The modular system for automatic climbing

* Free positioning of brackets and automatic climbers as single-section climbing scaffold

* Lift heights up to 5.50 m
* Formwork systems:
• wall formwork FF 20 and large-area formwork Top 50
• framed formwork Framax and Alu-Framax
* Climbing speed 5 min/m

SKE 50

* Load-carrying capacity 5 metric tons per bracket

* Ideal solution for a huge number of climbing tasks
* Up to 40 automatic climbers per hydraulic unit

SKE 100

* Load-carrying capacity 10 metric tons per bracket

* Platform system for simultaneous work at different levels
* Extremely strong brackets permit wide, variable spacing

http://civil-resources.blogspot.com/2010/06/formwork.html

OFFSHORE PLATFORMS

Offshore structuring has become a prominent field of marine exploration, where, man has started trying his
manipulation by building mesmerizing structures along and inside the oceans. These structures are susceptible to
corrosion, damage caused by dropped objects, and contacts from vessels.

The technology needed to design and build deep-ocean compliant structures, such as tension leg platforms &
floaters, continues to evolve to meet technical and economic needs for deepwater development. This rapid
evolution in technology needs to be independently verified to ensure continued safety of operations and
protection of the environment. These structures are very helpful in manufacturing marsh gases, deep oil deposits
and petroleum. This paper presentation introduces you to various offshore platforms and their analysis.

The first oil offshore platform in the world is the Oil Rocks (Neft Daşları), built near Baku in Soviet Union. Building
on the platform began in 1949, with Soviet Tankers transporting Oil from the first Well to Baku in 1951.The Oil

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Rocks lies 45–50 km (about 25 nautical miles)offshore on the Caspian Sea. The most unique feature of the Oil
Rocks is that it is actually a functional city with a population of about 5000. The Oil Rocks is a city on the sea, with
over 200 km of streets built on piles of dirt and landfill. Most of the inhabitants work on shifts; a week on Oil Rocks
followed by a week on the shore.

Offshore platforms are used for exploration of Oil and Gas from under Seabed and processing. The
First Offshore platform was installed in 1947 off the coast of Louisiana in 6M depth of water. Today there are over
7,000 offshore platforms around the world in water depths up to 1,850M.

Specifications of platforms:

Platform size depends on facilities to be installed on top side eg. Oil rig, living quarters, Helipad etc.

Classification of water depths: 350 M- Shallow water, 1500 M - Deep water, 1500 M- Ultra deep water. US Mineral
Management Service (MMS) classifies water depths greater than 1,300 ft as deepwater, as and greater than 5,000
ft as ultra-deepwater.

Types of platforms:

Platforms are broadly divided as fixed and floating type platforms.

FIXED PLATFORMS:

1. Fixed Platforms: built on concrete and/or steel legs anchored directly onto the seabed, supporting a deck with
space for drilling rigs, production facilities and crew quarters. Such platforms are, by virtue of their immobility,
designed for very long term use (for instance theHibernia platform). Various types of structure are used, steel
jacket, concrete caisson, floating steel and even floating concrete. Steel jackets are vertical sections made of
tubular steel members, and are usually piled into the seabed. Concrete caisson structures, pioneered by
theCondeep concept, often have in-built oil storage in tanks below the sea surface and these tanks were often
used as a flotation capability, allowing them to be built close to shore. Fixed platforms are economically feasible
for installation in water depths up to about 1,700 feet (520 m).

2. Compliant Towers, consist of narrow, flexible towers and a piled foundation supporting a conventional deck for
drilling and production operations. Compliant towers are designed to sustain significant lateral deflections and
forces, and are typically used in water depths ranging from 1,500 and 3,000 feet (450 and 900 m).

3. Semi-submersible Platforms having legs of sufficient buoyancy to cause the structure to float, but of weight
sufficient to keep the structure upright. Semi-submersible rigs can be moved from place to place; and can be
ballasted up or down by altering the amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks; they are generally anchored by cable
anchors during drilling operations, though they can also be kept in place by the use of dynamic positioning. Semi-
submersible can be used in depths from 600 to 6,000 feet (180 to 1,800 m).

4. Jack-up Platforms, as the name suggests, are platforms that can be jacked up above the sea, by dint of legs than
can be lowered like jacks. These platforms, used in relatively low depths, are designed to move from place to place,
and then anchor themselves by deploying the jack-like legs.

5. Drillships, a maritime vessel that has been fitted with drilling apparatus. It is most often used for exploratory
drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water but can also be used for scientific drilling. It is often built on a modified
tanker hull and outfitted with a dynamic positioningsystem to maintain its position over the well.

FLOATING PLATFORMS:

Floating production systems are large ships equipped with processing facilities and moored to a location for a long
period. The main types of floating production systems are FPSO (floating production, storage, and offloading
system), FSO (floating storage and offloading system), and FSU (floating storage unit). These ships do not actually
drill for oil or gas.

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1. Tension-leg Platforms, consist of floating rigs tethered to the seabed in a manner that eliminates most vertical
movement of the structure. TLPS are used in water depths up to about 6,000 feet (2,000 m). The "conventional"
TLP is a 4-column design which looks similar to a semisubmersible. They are relatively low cost, used in water
depths between 600 and 3,500 feet (200 and 1,100 m). Mini TLPs can also be used as utility, satellite or early
production platforms for larger deepwater discoveries.

2. Spar Platforms, moored to the seabed like the TLP, but whereas the TLP has vertical tension tethers the Spar has
more conventional mooring lines. Spars have been designed in three configurations: the "conventional" one-piece
cylindrical hull, the "truss spar" where the midsection is composed of truss elements connecting the upper
buoyant hull with the bottom soft tank containing permanent ballast, and the "cell spar" which is built from
multiple vertical cylinders. The Spar may be more economical to build for small and medium sized rigs than the
TLP, and has more inherent stability than a TLP since it has a large counterweight at the bottom and does not
depend on the mooring to hold it upright. It also has the ability, by use of chain-jacks attached to the mooring
lines, to move horizontally over the oil field.

3. Normally unmanned installations are small platforms, consisting of little more than a well bay, helipad and
emergency shelter. They are designed for operate remotely under normal operations, only to be visited
occasionally for routine maintenance or well work.

4.FPSO: A Floating Production, Storage and Offloading vessel is a type of floating tank system used by
the offshore oil and gas industry and designed to take all of the oil or gas produced from a nearby platform (s),
process it, and store it until the oil or gas can be offloaded onto waiting tankers, or sent through a pipeline.
A FSO is a similar system, but without the possibility to do any processing of the oil or gas. Oil has been produced
from offshorelocations since the 1950s. Originally, all oil platforms sat on the seabed, but as exploration moved to
deeper waters and more distant locations in the 1970s, floating production systems came to be used.

Oil produced from offshore production platforms can be transported to the mainlandeither by pipeline or
by tanker. When a tanker solution is chosen, it is necessary to accumulate oil in some form of tank such
that an oil tanker is not continuously occupied while sufficient oil is produced to fill the tanker. Often the
solution is a decommissioned oil tanker which has been stripped down and equipped with facilities to be
connected to a mooring buoy. Oil is accumulated in the FPSO until there is sufficient amount to fill a
transport tanker, at which point the transport tanker connects to the stern of the floating storage unit
and offloads the oil.

PARTS OF A PLATFORM: There are 3 main parts.

1. Topside 2. Moorings and anchors 3. Risers.

TOPSIDE:

Topside is tailored to achieve weight and space saving. It is a flat opening which Incorporates process and utility
equipment. namely Drilling Rig, Injection Compressors, Gas Compressors, Gas Turbine Generators, Piping, HVAC,
Instrumentation, Accommodation for operating personnel, Crane for equipment handling, Helipad.

MOORINGS & ANCHORS:

These are used to tie platform in place. Anchors are usually made of steel in order to keep thestructure intact. The
other materials used are Steel chains, steel wire rope. If Catenary shape due to heavy weight is implemented, then
the total Length of rope is more as the structural weight is high. Even synthetic fiber ropes are used. If Taut shape
due to substantial less weight than steel ropes, less rope length is required and is Corrosion free

RISER:

Risers are various supports provided as link pipes. Pipes used for production, drilling, and export of Oil and Gas
from Seabed. Riser system is a key component for offshore drilling or floating production projects. The cost and
technical challenges of the riser system increase significantly with water depth. Design of riser system depends on

19
 filed layout, vessel interfaces, fluid properties and environmental condition. Risers Remains in tension due to self
weight. Profiles are designed to reduce load on topside.

Types of risers

-Rigid

-Flexible - Allows vessel motion due to wave loading and compensates heave motion. Simple Catenary risers:
Flexible pipe is freely suspended between surface vessel and the seabed.

INSTALATION OF PLATFORMS:

Since Platforms are huge structures, large cranes and computerized facilitators are required to function
the machines.

BARGE LOADOUT:

Various methods are deployed based on availability of resources and size of structure. Barge Crane is the most
efficient machine to unload and load the risers and topsides accurately. Flat over - Top side is installed on jackets.
Ballasting of barge includes Smaller jackets can be installed by lifting them off barge using a floating vessel with
cranes. Large 400’ x 100’ deck barges capable of carrying up to 12,000 tons are available as platforms or bases.

PLATFORM FOUNDATIONS:

The loads generated by environmental conditions plus by onboard equipment must be resisted by the piles at the
seabed and below. The soil investigation is vital to the design of any offshore structure. Geotech report is
developed by doing soil borings at the desired location, and performing in-situ and laboratory tests. Pile
penetrations depend on platform size and loads, and soil characteristics, but normally range from 30 meters to
about 100 meters.

Corrosion protection:

The usual form of corrosion protection of the underwater part of the jacket as well as the upper part of the piles in
soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. A sacrificial anode consists of a zinc/aluminum bar cast about
a steel tube and welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight is applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the members.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN:

Loads Design:

Offshore structure is designed for following types of loads:

– Permanent (dead) loads.

– Operating (live) loads.

– Environmental loads

Wind load

Wave load

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 Earthquake load

– Construction - installation loads.

– Accidental loads.

The design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads, especially wave load.

1. Permanent Loads:

Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of ballast. Weights of equipment, and associated structures
permanently mounted on the platform. Hydrostatic forces on the members below the waterline. These forces
include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures.

2. Operating (Live) Loads: Operating loads include the weight of all non-permanent equipment or material, as well
as forces generated during operation of equipment. The weight of drilling, production facilities, living quarters,
furniture, life support systems, heliport, consumable supplies, liquids, etc.Forces generated during operations, e.g.
drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter landing, and crane operations. Following Live load values are recommended in
BS6235: Crew quarters and passage ways: 3.2 KN/m2. Working areas: 8, 5 KN/m2

3. Wind Loads: Wind load act on portion of platform above the water level as well as on any equipment, housing,
derrick, etc.For combination with wave loads, codes recommend the more unfavorable of the following two
loadings: 1 minute sustained wind speeds combined with extreme waves. 3 second for gusts.

When, the ratio of height to the least horizontal dimension of structure is greater than 5, then API-RP2A
requires the dynamic effects of the wind to be taken into account and the flow induced cyclic wind loads due to
vortex shedding must be investigated.

4. Wave load: The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental
loadings. The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the water due to the waves Determination of
wave forces requires the solution of,

a) Sea state using an idealization of the wave surface profile and the wave kinematics by wave theory.

b) Computation of the wave forces on individual members and on the total structure, from the fluid motion.

Design wave concept is used, where a regular wave of given height and period is defined and the forces due to this
wave are calculated using a high-order wave theory. Usually the maximum wave with a return period of 100 years
is chosen. No dynamic behavior of the structure is considered. This static analysis is appropriate when the
dominant wave periods are well above the period of the structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves acting
on shallow water structures.

• Wave theories

Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water. They serve to calculate the particle velocities and
accelerations and the dynamic pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the waves. The waves are assumed
to be long-crested, i.e. they can be described by a two-dimensional flow field, and are characterized by the
parameters: wave height (H), period (T) and water depth (d).

Wave forces on structural members

Structures exposed to waves experience forces much higher than wind loadings. The forces result from the
dynamic pressure and the water particle motions. Two different cases can be distinguished:

Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave field by diffraction and
reflection. The forces on these bodies have to be determined by calculations based on diffraction theory.

21
 Slender, hydro-dynamically transparent structures have no significant influence on the wave field. The forces can
be calculated in a straight-forward manner with Morison's equation. The steel jackets of offshore structures can
usually be regarded as hydro-dynamically transparent

As a rule, Morison's equation may be applied when D/L < 0.2, where D is the member diameter and L is the wave
length.

- Morison's equation expresses the wave force as the sum of,

– An inertia force proportional to the particle acceleration

– A non-linear drag force proportional to the square of the particle velocity.

Earthquake load: Offshore structures are designed for two levels of earthquake intensity. Strength level.
Earthquake, defined as having a "reasonable likelihood of not being exceeded during the platform's life" (mean
recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to respond elastically. Earthquake, defined as close
to the "maximum credible earthquake" at the site, the structure is designed for inelastic response and to have
adequate reserve strength to avoid collapse.

5. Ice and Snow Loads: Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice
formation and expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical forces. In
addition, large blocks of ice driven by current, winds and waves with speeds up to 0.5 to 1.0 m/s, may hit the
structure and produce impact loads.

6. Temperature Load: Temperature gradients produce thermal stresses. To cater such stresses, extreme values of
sea and air temperatures which are likely to occur during the life of the structure shall be estimated. In addition to
the environmental sources, accidental release of cryogenic material can result in temperature increase, which
must be taken into account as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil and gas produced must also be
considered.

7. Marine Growth: Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the wave
forces on the members by increasing exposed areas and drag coefficient due to higher surface roughness. It is
accounted for in design through appropriate increases in the diameters and masses of the submerged members.

8. Installation Load: These are temporary loads and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its
components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting forces, while in the
installation phase forces are generated during platform load out, transportation to the site, launching and
upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.

All members and connections of a lifted component must be designed for the forces resulting from static
equilibrium of the lifted weight and the sling tensions.

Load out forces are generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto the barge. Depends on
friction co-efficient

9. Accidental Load: According to the DNV rules, accidental loads are loads, which may occur as a result of accident
or exceptional circumstances. Examples of accidental loads are collision with vessels, fire or explosion, dropped
objects, and unintended flooding of buoyancy tanks. Special measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from
accidental loads.

Load Combinations:

The load combinations depend upon the design method used, i.e. whether limit state or allowable stress design is
employed. The load combinations recommended for use with allowable stress procedures are: Normal operations

Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads. Dead loads
plus operating environmental loads plus minimum live loads.

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 Extreme operation: Dead loads plus extreme environmental loads plus maximum live loads. Dead loads
plus extreme environmental loads plus minimum live loads

Environmental loads should be combined in a manner consistent with their joint probability of occurrence.
Earthquake loads are to be imposed as a separate environmental load, i.e., not to be combined with waves, wind,
etc.

Analysis and modeling;

The analytical models used in offshore engineering are similar to other types of on shore steel structures. The
same model is used throughout the analysis except supports locations. Stick models are used extensively for
tubular structures (jackets, bridges, flare booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks).Each member is normally
rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model. In addition to its geometrical and material properties, each
member is characterized by hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g. relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow
wave forces to be automatically generated.

Structural analysis: Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are described by
plate elements. Deck shall be able to resist crane’s maximum overturning moments coupled with corresponding
maximum thrust loads for at least 8 positions of the crane boom around a full 360° path. The structural analysis
will be a static linear analysis of the structure above the seabed combined with a static non-linear analysis of the
soil with the piles. Transportation and installation of the structure may require additional analyses detailed fatigue
analysis should be performed to assess cumulative fatigue damage the offshore platform designs normally use pipe
or wide flange beams for all primary structural members.

Acceptance Criteria: The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a design
force or stress. It includes:

-a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield strength of the element,

-a stability check for elements in compression related to the buckling limit of the element.

-An element is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and mid span) against resistance and buckling.

-Tubular joints are checked against punching. These checks may indicate the need for local reinforcement of the
chord using larger thickness or internal ring-stiffeners.

-Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or durability wherever relevant

Offshore Standards (OS):

Provides technical requirements and acceptance criteria for general application by the offshore industry
eg.DNV-OS-C101

Recommended Practices (RP): Provides proven technology and sound engineering practice as well as guidance for
the higher level publications eg. API-RP-WSD

BS 6235: Code of practice for fixed offshore structures.

– British Standards Institution 1982.

What it is

An increasing portion of oil and gas production is coming from offshore fields. Advanced technologies now permit
production from deepwater fields and from marginal fields.
In parallel, platform technologies are evolving from fixed platforms suited for shallow waters, to semi-submersible
platforms (TLP, SPAR) and to Floating Production Units (FPU, FPSO). The latter reduce project lead-time, have
higher performance flexibility, and may be moved from a depleted field to a new field, thus greatly reducing

23
investments. They are the most common solution for deepwater and marginal fields.

Offshore platforms are equipped with the machinery needed to extract oil and natural gas but have some critical
challenges that should not be underestimated. Thanks to its many years of worldwide experience, GE Oil & Gas can
provide optimum technical solutions and the project management experience needed to maximize production
while helping customers to meet or accelerate their "First Oil" date.

How it works
Offshore production platforms/FPSO collect the hydrocarbons produced under the seabed by means of
specially designed flow-lines and risers. The platform also contains the necessary monitoring & control
equipment, and gear for furnishing electric and/or hydraulic power to the subsea equipment installed at
the various field wells.
Power generation, compression and pumping equipment are generally installed on the platform. This
machinery is used to collect the hydrocarbons and convey them to onshore receiving facilities, or for the
re-injection of associated gas back into the well to enhance production.

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