DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A

LAB SCALE CUPOLA FURNACE

GROUP NO.2

Name Roll Number

Hammad Pervez ME141016
Zia Ul Hassan ME141058
Wasi Ahmed Khan ME141013
Talha Fareed ME141077

Advisor Engr.Mohammad Khurram

Co-Advisor Engr.Ameen Uddin Ammar

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DHA SUFFA UNIVERSITY
 CERTIFICATE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree of

Bachelors of Engineering (Mechanical Engineering).

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A LAB SCALE CUPOLA

FURNACE
GROUP NO.2

Name Roll Number

Hammad Pervez ME141016
Zia Ul Hassan ME141058
Wasi Ahmed Khan ME141013
Talha Fareed ME141077

__________________________ __________________________

Advisor Co-Advisor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINERRING

DHA SUFFA UNIVERSITY

Ⅰ
 Acknowledgements

By the grace of almighty Allah, we were granted the opportunity to build the cupola
furnace so that students of DHA Suffa University may benefit from the knowledge of our
findings.
With the helping hand of our advisor Engr. Mohammad Khurram, co-advisor
Engr.Ameen Uddin Ammar for guiding us through the manufacturing processes and
material selection. Furthermore, we would also like to thank faculty members of
Mechanical Engineering Department specially Dr. Usama Siddiqui for aiding us in the
cupola furnaces’ thermal analysis.

Ⅱ
 Abstract

The Cupola furnace is a vertical cylindrical furnace used for melting iron either for casting or for
charging in other furnaces. Its advantages and disadvantages were also studied. The fuel (Coke)
(section 2.2) used in the furnace has a certain physical and chemical characteristic which impacts
the physical and chemical properties of the obtained molten Iron. The resulting slag (section2.4)
is also influenced from the properties of coke, other impurities residing within the furnace and
also the refractory lining.

The design calculations were based on 10-inch internal diameter of the furnace. Moreover, CAD
model of the resulting design was constructed and its dimensions were duly included (section
3.1.2). Using the COMSOL Multiphysics software (section 3.1.5), a temperature distribution
profile along the furnace wall was simulated in order to determine the shell temperature and that
it is significantly below the service temperature of mild steel. Furthermore, a mesh independent
analysis was conducted to determine the optimum mesh quality for analysis.

The design was henceforth compared with two other designs (section 3.2.1) which were selected
beforehand. Finally, the pros and cons of the three shortlisted designs were listed and then
quantified (section 3.2.1). The weighted design matrix (Table 3) highlighted the calculated
design (design 3) as the design to be chosen according to our requirements.

Ⅲ
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate Ⅰ

Acknowledgement Ⅱ

Abstract Ⅲ

Table Of Contents Ⅳ

List of Figures Ⅸ

List of Tables Ⅹ

List of Equations Ⅺ

List of Abbreviations Ⅻ

List of symbols ⅩⅢ

Chapter 1: Introduction 11

1.1 Furnace ............................................................................................................................................... 11

1.2 Cupola Furnace ................................................................................................................................... 12

1.2.1 Advantages ................................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.2 Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 13

1.3 Project Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2: Literature Review 15

2.1 Cupola theory and design considerations: .......................................................................................... 15

2.1.1 Cupola Structure and Components ............................................................................................. 15

2.1.2 Cupola Zones .............................................................................................................................. 16

2.1.2.1 Stack Zone ......................................................................................................................... 16

2.1.2.2 Preheating Zone .................................................................................................................. 16

1
Ⅳ
 2.1.2.3 Melting Zone ....................................................................................................................... 17

2.1.2.4 Reducing Zone or Protective Zone .................................................................................. 17

2.1.2.5 Combustion or Oxidizing Zone ....................................................................................... 17

2.1.2.6 Well .................................................................................................................................... 18

2.1.3 Efficiency of Cupola ........................................................................................................................ 19

2.2 Coke.................................................................................................................................................... 20

2.3 Slag formation and chemistry ............................................................................................................. 22

2.4 Refractories......................................................................................................................................... 23

2.4.1 Properties of refractories ............................................................................................................. 23

2.4.1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 23

2.4.1.2 Physical Properties .............................................................................................................. 24

2.4.1.3 Thermal Properties .............................................................................................................. 25

2.4.2 Corrosion Of Refractories ........................................................................................................... 26

2.4.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 26

2.4.2.2 Refractory and Slag compatibility ....................................................................................... 26

2.4.2.3 Porosity and corrosion rates ................................................................................................ 27

2.4.3 Temperature and slag penetration ............................................................................................... 27

2.4.3.1 Gas-Phase Reactions ........................................................................................................... 29

2.4.4 Fracture of Refractories .............................................................................................................. 30

2.4.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 30

Ⅴ
2
 2.4.4.2 Strength of Refractories ...................................................................................................... 30

2.4.5 Alumina-Silica Brick .................................................................................................................. 31

2.4.5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 31

2.4.5.2 Phase relationship of Alumina-Silica .................................................................................. 31

Chapter 3 : Design calculations, selection and risk assessment 34

3.1 Design Calculation ............................................................................................................................. 34

3.1.1 Tuyere Area and number of tuyeres ............................................................................................ 34

3.1.2 Cupola Height ............................................................................................................................. 35

3.1.3 Cupola Melt Capacity ................................................................................................................. 37

3.1.4 Mass Calculation......................................................................................................................... 38

3.1.5 Thermal Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 39

3.1.6 COMSOL Thermal Analysis ...................................................................................................... 41

3.1.6.1 Dataset................................................................................................................................. 42

3.1.6.2 Mesh Independence Study .................................................................................................. 43

3.2 Design Selection ................................................................................................................................. 45

3.2.1 Selected designs .......................................................................................................................... 45

3.2.1.1 Design 1 .............................................................................................................................. 45

3.2.1.2 Design 2 .............................................................................................................................. 47

3.2.1.3 Design 3 .............................................................................................................................. 48

3.2.2 Weighted Design Matrix ........................................................................................................ 49

3
Ⅵ
 3.3 Risk Assessment ................................................................................................................................. 50

3.3.1 FMEA ......................................................................................................................................... 50

3.3.2 Risk assessment distribution ....................................................................................................... 52

Chapter 4 : Manufacturing methodology 53

4.1 COMPONENTS, dimensions and manufacturing processes .............................................................. 53

4.1.1 Bottom plate ................................................................................................................................ 53

4.1.1.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 53

4.1.1.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 53

4.1.1.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 53

4.1.2 Drop down door .......................................................................................................................... 53

4.1.2.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 53

4.1.2.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 53

4.1.2.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 53

4.1.3 Legs ............................................................................................................................................ 54

4.1.3.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 54

4.1.3.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 54

4.1.3.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 54

4.1.4 Shell ............................................................................................................................................ 54

4.1.4.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 54

4.1.4.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 54

4
Ⅶ
 4.1.4.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 54

4.1.5 Installation of refractory ............................................................................................................. 54

4.1.5.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 54

4.1.5.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 54

4.1.5.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 55

4.1.6 Installation of thermocouple ....................................................................................................... 55

4.1.6.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 55

4.1.6.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 55

4.1.6.3 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 55

4.1.7 Assembly .................................................................................................................................... 55

Conclusion 56

References 57

Appendix 59

A ............................................................................................................................................................... 59

B gantt chart ............................................................................................................................................. 63

C designs .................................................................................................................................................. 65

D Similarity Index Summary .................................................................................................................... 67

5
Ⅸ
Ⅷ
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:Standard Cupola Furnace 12

Figure 2: Various zones of a Cupola Furnace 19

Figure 3:First stage of slag attack (showing surface corrosion). 28

Figure 4:Second stage of corrosion process (showing penetration due to broad temperature
gradient). 29

Figure 5: Three-point bend test of a sample refractory beam. 30

Figure 6: The alumina-silica phase equilibrium diagram. 32

Figure 7: Air required to burn unit quantity of Coke in Cupola (typical values) 37

Figure 8 : Radial Heat Conduction Surfaces 39

Figure 9 : Thermal Resistance Circuit Diagram 40

Figure 10 : Heat Distribution of Cupola Furnace 41

Figure 11: Multiplot of Mesh types on the temperature profile of outer shell 43

Figure 12 : Orthogonal Projection of Cupola Furnace 44

Figure 13: Heat Recuperating Cupola Furnace 45

Figure 14: Effect of hot blast vs. cold blast on the chemical composition of the molten Iron
46

Figure 15: Cupola Furnace 47

Figure 16: Lab Scale Cupola Furnace 48

6
Ⅸ
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Ideal compositions of coke constituents ............................................................. 21

Table 2: Cupola Dimensions in inches ............................................................................. 35

Table 3: Fan Capacity for Cupola Furnaces ..................................................................... 37

Table 4 : Variation of material properties with respect to temperature .......................... 42

Table 5 : Number of elements in different Mesh types .................................................... 43

Table 6 : Weighted Design Matrix.................................................................................... 49

Table 7: FMEA Table ....................................................................................................... 51

7
Ⅸ
Ⅹ
 LIST OF EQUATIONS

eqn 1: Formation of Iron Carbide ..................................................................................... 17

eqn 2: Reduction of Carbon Dioxide ................................................................................ 17

eqn 3: Oxidation of Coke .................................................................................................. 18

eqn 4: Oxidation of Manganese ........................................................................................ 18

eqn 5: Oxidation of silicon ................................................................................................ 18

eqn 6: Efficiency of the furnace ........................................................................................ 19

eqn 7: Reduction of Silicon Dioxide................................................................................. 29

eqn 8: Modulus of Rupture .............................................................................................. 30

eqn 9 : Melt Rate ............................................................................................................... 38

8
Ⅺ
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AISI American Iron and Steel Institute

ASTM American Society

CCS Cold Crushing Strength

Cfm Cubic flow per minute

CRI Coke Reactivity Index

FMEA Failure Mode Effects Analysis

RPN Risk Priority Number

MS Mild Steel

MOR Modulus of Rupture

9
Ⅻ
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

Ρ Density (lb/ft3)

σ Stress (MPa)

R Radius of Plate

X Any Arbitrary Radius

W Load Intensity

Mmax Max. Bending moment

ⅪⅡ
10
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 FURNACE

A furnace is a device used for heating. The name derives from Latin fornax, oven. The
earliest furnace was excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Valley Civilization, dating
back to its mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BC). The furnace was most likely used for the
manufacturing of ceramic objects. In British English, the term furnace is used exclusively
to mean industrial furnaces which are used for many things, such as the extraction of metal
from ore (smelting) or in oil refineries and other chemical plants, for example as the heat
source for fractional distillation columns. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied
directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through
Induction heating in induction furnaces. In metallurgy, several specialized furnaces are
used.[1]

Furnaces used in smelters, including:

• The blast furnace, used to reduce iron ore to pig iron [1]

Steelmaking furnaces, including:

• Cupola furnace
• Reverberatory furnace
• Open hearth furnace
• Electric arc furnace
• Electric induction furnace [1]

11
1.2 CUPOLA FURNACE

Cupola furnace, in steelmaking, a vertical cylindrical furnace used for melting iron either
for casting or for charging in other furnaces. René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur built the
first cupola furnace on record, in France, about 1720. Cupola melting is still recognized as
the most economical melting process; most gray iron is melted by this method.

Figure 1:Standard Cupola Furnace [2]

As can be observed from Figure 1, similar to the blast furnace, the cupola is a refractory-
lined steel stack, resting on a cast-iron base plate with four steel legs. The bottom of the
cupola furnace has two hinged doors supported in the closed position by a center prop.
Molding sand (Sand bed) is rammed over the closed bottom doors to support the coke bed,

12
molten metal, and succeeding charges. Forced air for combustion enters the cupola through
the openings (tuyeres) spaced around the rim of the lower portion of the cupola.

Iron, coke, and limestone flux are placed on a bed of coke high enough to hold the iron
above the tuyere openings, where the temperature is the highest. The melting is continuous,
and molten metal may be allowed to flow continuously through an open tapping spout at
the base of the cupola, or it may be tapped intermittently. Wastes flow out in the form of
slag when the slag spout is tapped. At the end of the operation, the prop is knocked from
under the bottom doors and the remaining contents discharged.[3]

1.2.1 Advantages

Widespread use of cupola for grey-iron melting rests upon its unique advantages, which
include:

• Continuous melting. Foundry production is facilitated since a ladle of molten Iron

may be tapped from the furnace at regular intervals. The flow of molten metal and
molds for pouring may be synchronized for quantity production as required by the
automotive, agricultural equipment and similar industries.
• Low cost of melting. Raw materials and operating costs are lower than on any
other type of melting furnace producing equivalent tonnage.
• Chemical composition control is possible by proper furnace operation with
continuous- melting.
• Adequate temperature control for fluidity in pouring castings can be obtained. [4]

1.2.2 Limitations

• Low carbon percentages in the iron below about 2.80% C are difficult to attain
because of direct contact of molten iron and the carbonaceous fuel.
• Temperature control is difficult to maintain.[4]

13
1.3 Project Objectives

• The main purpose is to build a Lab-scale Cupola Furnace.

• To maintain the inside temperature of the furnace.
• To melt Pig or Scrap Iron successfully.

• To carry out thermal and stress analysis on the furnace.

• Cost effective operation.

• To understand refractory analysis.
• Comprehend foundry operation and mechanisms.

14
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CUPOLA THEORY AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

2.1.1 Cupola Structure and Components

A cupola is a cylindrical shell constructed (welded or riveted) from boiler plate (6 to 10

mm thick), is open at both its top and bottom and is lined with firebrick and clay. At bottom
the cupola is supported on cast iron legs; the bottom opening of cupola is closed by cast
iron which can be made to open or close and are supported (when closed) by an iron prop
(or upright). The bottom opening doors swing out of the way after the melting operation is
over and thus the contents left in the cupola drop down through the opening (Thus formed).
Air from the blower comes through the blast pipe and enters wind box which surrounds the
cupola and supply’s air evenly to all the tuyeres. [5]

Tuyeres extend through the steel shell and refractory wall to the combustion zone and
supply air necessary for combustion. The combined cross-sectional area of all the tuyeres
is about one fifth to one- sixth of the cross-sectional area of the cupola. Cupola up to 75
cm diameter may have three to four whereas larger ones are fitted with eight, ten or even
more number of tuyeres. Tuyeres may be fitted in one or more number of rows. Auxiliary
tuyeres are sometimes provided to raise melting efficiency. The volume of air passing to
the combustion zone can be measured with the help of a volume meter. A cupola using 1
to 1 ratio of iron to coke consumes about 800-900 cubic meters of air to melt one ton of
Iron. [5]

There is a tap hole in the cupola from where the molten metal is taken out pour into the
molds. The fire in the cupola is also lit through the tap hole. Opposite the tap hole and a
little higher (but about 25 cm below tuyere Centre) is the slag hole. Slag being lighter than
metal, floats over the molten metal and is removed through the slag hole. [5]

15
Cupola remains either open or has a metal shield or a spark arrester at its top. In addition,
a cupola is provided with a charging platform and a charging door at suitable heights to
feed the charge in cupola. Cupola capacities (size) vary from 1 to 15 tons (or even more)
of melted iron per heat. Certain small cupolas having a capacity of 1⁄2 to 1 ton are better
called Cupolettes. Cupolettes have a height which varies from 2.5 to 4 meters. They may
be tilted to horizontal position as well. The height of cupola is commonly about 6 meters.
The inside diameters of common cupolas with much smaller and larger diameters have
been operated. Sometimes a cupola may be fitted with a collector, filter and precipitator to
minimize atmospheric pollution.[5]

2.1.2 Cupola Zones

There are six zones in a cupola furnace. These areas are the well, combustion, reduction,
melting, preheating and the stack areas.

2.1.2.1 Stack Zone

Stack zone is situated at the top most part of the cupola. It starts from the charging door
and ends at the top layer of pre-heating zone. The main function is to allow hot gases from
cupola to pass through the stack zone and escape to atmosphere. Stack gases will normally
contain about equal amounts of CO2 and CO which is 12% each and the rest is 76% is
nitrogen. [6]

2.1.2.2 Preheating Zone

Preheating zone is situated between the melting zone and stack zone. Charge is entered
through the charging door and stored here in alternate layers of metal, flux and coke. Rising
hot gases like CO2, CO and N2 from combustion zone preheat the charge and increases its
temperature from ambient to melting temperature that is around 1100 °C. The pre-heated
charge is then moved down in to the melting zone. [6]

16
2.1.2.3 Melting Zone

Melting zone starts from the first layer of metal charge above the coke beds and extends
up to a height of 90 cm. or less. Iron (metal charge) melts in this zone and trickles down
through the coke bed in to the well. The temperature in the melting zone is around 600 °C.
In this zone, carbon contents are picked up by molten metal as shown in Reaction 1.

3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2

eqn 1: Formation of Iron Carbide

2.1.2.4 Reducing Zone or Protective Zone

It is also known as the protective zone which is located between the upper level of the
combustion zone and the upper level of the coke bed. The temperature in this zone varies
from 800 to 1250oC. In this zone, dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3) decays and CO2 gas is
released. Carbon dioxide is reduced into carbon mono oxide through an endothermic
reaction as a result decreasing the temperature from oxidation zone temperature to around
1200°C. Chemical reaction takes place in this zone as in Reaction 2,

CO2 + C (coke) → 2CO — Heat

eqn 2: Reduction of Carbon Dioxide

Along with CO2, N2 moves upward the combustion zone to the reducing zone but it does
not take part in the reaction. [6]

2.1.2.5 Combustion or Oxidizing Zone

It is situated normally 15 cm to 30 cm above the tuyeres. All the oxygen in the air blast is
consumed here owing to the combustion taking place in this zone. Thus, a lot of heat is
liberated and supplied from here to other zones. Oxidation of manganese and silicon evolve
still more heat. The chemical (i.e. exothermic) reactions which occur in this zone are:

17
 C + O2 (from air) → CO2 + heat

eqn 3: Oxidation of Coke

2Mn + O2 (from air) → MnO2 + heat

eqn 4: Oxidation of Manganese

Si + O2 (from air) → SiO2 + heat

eqn 5: Oxidation of silicon

The temperature of the combustion zone varies from 1550°C to 1850°C. [6]

2.1.2.6 Well

It is situated at the bottom of cupola between tapered sand bed and the bottom of tuyeres.
The purpose of the well is to collect molten metal and store it until slag is removed. It also
stores metal until enough metal is accumulated for a smooth flow through the top hole.[6]

The various temperatures are exhibited in Figure 2. The temperature distribution varies
significantly form the top (Stack Zone) to the bottom (well), peaking at or near the region
of tuyeres where the combustion reactions take place.

18
 Figure 2: Various zones of a Cupola Furnace[6]

2.1.3 EFFICIENCY OF CUPOLA

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 =
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑒

eqn 6: Efficiency of the furnace

The efficiency of a cupola varies from 30 to 50%. The cupola efficiency can be increased
by the use of preheated air. The temperature to which the air is to be heated may be off the
order of 176.67 to 260 OC or even higher. The use of preheated air improves combustion,
increase the calorific value of coke and metal charge input. [8]

Some alloying elements such as chromium are in part loss by oxidation of cupola. Higher
temperatures are obtained with air-furnace and arc-furnace melting. [4]

19
2.2 COKE

Metallurgical coke is a macroporous carbonaceous material of significant strength

manufactured by carbonization of coals of a certain grade or of coal blends at temperatures
up to 1127 oC. Around 90% of the coke obtained from blends of coking coals is used to
sustain the process of iron production in furnaces where it has three key roles:

• It is used as an energy reservoir to provide heat for the endothermic prerequisites

of chemical reactions and the melting of slag and metal.
• As a chemical reducing agent, it generates gases for the reduction of oxides of Iron.
• As a permeable support, it acts as the only solid material in the furnace that
withstands the Iron burden and provides a permeable matrix necessary for slag and
metal to pass down into the hearth and for hot gases to pass upwards into the stack.
[9]

Properties, providing guidelines for coke use, relate to

• Lump size
• Shape and size uniformity
• Chemical composition
• Mechanical strength
• Thermal and chemical stabilities

Coke should be moderately large, with a narrow size range, and have a high mechanical
strength in order to withstand the weakening reactions with carbon dioxide and alkali,
abrasion, and thermal shock in the furnace. Performance is severely affected by impurities
in coke by decreasing its role as a fuel in terms of amounts of carbon available for direct
and indirect reduction roles and also its role as a permeable support. [9]

20
Such impurities are

• Moisture
• Volatile matter
• Ash
• Sulphur
• Phosphorous
• Alkali contents

Their levels are kept as low as possible. The coke ash is an ineffectual component of coke
which affects the slag volume and its composition. A 1 wt.% increase of ash in the coke
reduces metal production by 2 or 3 wt.%. Values higher than 10 wt.% can be satisfactory
but only if the ash chemistry is acceptable. Coke ash contains 45-55% Silica, 2.5-3.7%
Aluminum Oxide and 5-10% Iron Oxide with traces of Magnesium, Oxides of Manganese
and Alkalis and other content as mentioned in Table 1.[9].

Table 1: Ideal compositions of coke constituents[9]

Coke Constituents Percentage Composition (by weight%)

Moisture 3 % Maximum
Volatile Material 2.2% Maximum
Fixed Carbon 86.5%
Ash <12%
Sulphur 0.6%
Phosphorus 0.02– 0.06%
Alkali contents < 0.3%

The significance of coke physical properties is connected to the need to support the ferrous
weight and to give a penetrable grid through which exhaustive gases can stream and liquid
material can permeate in the lower regions of the furnace. These physical properties are
identified with its size (mean and distribution) and its protection from breakage and
scuffing. Coke measure is for the most part controlled by screening. An expansive mean
21
size with a limited size circulation keeps up satisfactory penetrability. Most administrators
view a mean ideal size as in the scope of 50– 55 mm. For a decent quality coke, the CRI
(Coke reactivity index) ought to be low and the CSR (Coke strength after reaction with
Carbon Dioxide) file high. On the off chance that the coke responds exorbitantly with the
oxidizing gases of the impact heater which contain expanding extents of carbon dioxide,
coke will debilitate and will be corrupted into littler particles. Exorbitant coke debasement
prompts porousness decrease, hindered productivity of heater execution, and blockage of
the tuyeres with coke buildups.[10]

2.3 SLAG FORMATION AND CHEMISTRY

The cupola slag typically consists of coke ash, oxide products, fluxed refractory lining and
some dirt. The slag that is naturally formed is very viscous due to its high concentrations
of acid constituents like silicon oxide. Without some adjustment to the slag, it will clog up
the interstitial spaces in the coke and build up a bridge in the zones cooled by the air from
the tuyeres. Basic flux materials such as limestone or dolomite are needed to liquefy the
slag in order to assist its removal from the cupola. There are four main sources of slag in a
typical cupola operation. [11]

The first source of slag is the coke ash. The higher the coke consumption, the higher the
amount of flux requirements. Also, higher ash content in the coke requires an increase in
the flux additions.

The second main source of slag is the oxidation elements of the metal. Silicon and
manganese are the main elements oxidized in the metal. Iron is also occasionally oxidized
but in much smaller amounts. When a cupola has higher silicon irons and/or more oxidizing
conditions, higher flux additions are needed.

The third source of slag comes from refractory wear. Cupolas operating with water cooled
or neutral linings have relatively low refractory wear. Also, larger cupolas operated for
long periods have a lower refractory wear per ton of metal melted compared to smaller
cupolas. When the refractory wear is high, higher flux additions are needed. Moreover,

22
poor refractory quality or inconsistent lining practice can cause irregularities in the slag
condition. [11]

The fourth source of slag is dirt/sand which may be included with purchased cast scrap or
attached to return scrap. This extra dirt/sand is mainly sand which requires additional flux
to condition it. Changes in the amount of sand/dirt that enters together with the scrap
without some flux adjustment often causes irregularities in the slag and slag performance
problems. It is worthwhile to prevent such extra sand from entering the cupola in order to
maintain conditions promising consistent slag.

Cupola slags consist of various oxides which are combined into solutions of silicates, and
possibly aluminates of calcium, magnesium, manganese and iron. The main compositions
of acidic slag are silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide, manganese oxide,
iron oxide and sodium oxide. [11]

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is acidic in nature and is the largest constituent in acidic slags. It
typically ranges between 40 to 50% in acid slags. The sources of silicon dioxide include
coke, coke ash, refractory lining, oxidation of silicon from the metal and some dirt/sand.

Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is classed as neutral in nature because of its amphoteric ability to
act as a basic constituent in acidic slags. Alumina comes mainly from the coke ash and clay
refractories. It generally ranges from 10 to 20 % in acidic slags.

Calcium oxide (CaO) is added as limestone and is the main basic constituent in cupola
slags. It generally ranges from 25 to 35% in acidic slags. [11]

2.4 REFRACTORIES

2.4.1 Properties of refractories

2.4.1.1 Introduction

Refractories are mostly used in basic metal industries. Refractory materials are used to
resist heat and are subjected to various types of stresses and strains including mechanical

23
and thermal. Refractories also experience corrosion/erosion and mechanical abrasion from
solids, liquids and gases at different operating temperatures. [12]

Properties of refractories vary according to the application and high temperature

differences. Refractories are classified according to their following properties:

• Physical
• Thermal
• Chemical

2.4.1.2 Physical Properties

The basic physical properties that are used to select the refractory for specific applications
are as follows:

• Density and porosity

• Strengths (cold and hot)
• Abrasion

2.4.1.2.1 Density and Porosity: The refractories used for specific applications depend upon
the values of density and porosity determined by the standard methods. In general, the
higher the density, the lower is the porosity

2.4.1.2.2 Strengths (Cold and Hot): The cold strengths of the refractories indicate the
handling and installation, whereas hot strengths indicate the performance at elevated
temperatures. The strengths of refractories are measured as cold compressive strength, cold
modulus of rupture, or hot modulus of rupture

• Cold Compressive Strength: The cold compressive strength represents the strength
of the grains and the bonding system.
• Cold Modulus of Rupture: The cold modulus of rupture indicates the flexural
strength of the refractory material during construction.

24
 • Hot Modulus of Rupture: The hot modulus of rupture indicates the flexural
strength of the refractory at elevated temperature. The hot modulus of rupture is
prescribed as the most important criterion in the selection as refractories are mainly
used at high temperatures.

2.4.1.2.3 Abrasion Resistance: The abrasion resistance is the measure of strength of the
bonds and the particles of a refractory. It is the measure of resistance when high velocity
particles abrade the surface of the refractory. The cold crushing strength can provide a
direct relation regarding the resistance to abrasion. [12]

2.4.1.3 Thermal Properties

2.4.1.3.1 Thermal Expansion: It is defined as the permanent linear change and is measured
by the changes in the longest linear dimensions. Refractories expand and tighten up when
exposed to high temperature, hence refractory systems are designed in such a way that the
maximum temperature attainable is lower than the melting temperature of the refractory.

2.4.1.3.2 Thermal Shock: Thermal shock resistance is the property of a refractory to with
stand alternate heating and cooling. It depends on the matrix bonding the grains. Hence
refractories having built-in microcracks as defects show better thermal shock resistance as
they provide room for the expansion of the grains. “Ribbon Thermal Shock Testing” is the
standard method for determining thermal shock resistance of a refractory brick.

2.4.1.3.3 Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of a refractory is the property

regarding its ability to conduct heat from a hot surface to a cold one at elevated
temperatures. ASTM C-202 is the standard test to determine thermal conductivity of a
refractory brick. The thermal gradients from the hot surface to the cold surface determine
the use of the refractory for specific applications.

2.4.1.3.4 Thermal Diffusivity: Thermal diffusivity is an important property useful for

carbon-containing materials. ASTM C-714 is the standard test to measure thermal
diffusivity of carbon and graphite. [12]

25
2.4.1.4 Chemical Properties

The chemical properties of a refractory define its chemical composition and the bonding
system. The bonding system plays a vital role when a refractory is exposed to a corrosive
liquid at high temperature. Corrosion resistance is one of the most important properties of
a refractory. Corrosion in a refractory mainly occurs due to the dissolution mechanism
when contacted with liquid or vapors, which penetrate the minute pores in a refractory
brick resulting in an alternate zone. [12]

A concentration gradient occurs in the refractory composition at the boundary region when
the slag makes contact with the refractory surface. The refractory components diffuse and
dissolve in the molten slag. The greater the concentration gradient, the larger is the
dissolution rate.

The composition of refractory grains and the bonding system is of great importance during
manufacturing of a refractory since the metal and slag differ from case to case. Refractories
used for iron melting constitute of alumina and silica since the slag is neutral or acidic in
nature. However, in case of steel the slag is basic in nature and therefore magnesia based
refractories are used. [12]

2.4.2 Corrosion of Refractories

2.4.2.1 Introduction

Consumption of refractories is characterized as the loss of thickness and mass because of

chemical attack on the uncovered surface. Refractories are utilized at high temperatures
and are likewise presented to a destructive environment. The liquid metal at high
temperature responds with the unmanageable surface and makes it wear. [12]

2.4.2.2 Refractory and Slag compatibility

Acidic refractory contains a high amount of silica (SiO2) over basic materials (usually
CaO). An acidic substance contributes SiO2 in a corrosion reaction, while a basic material
contributes CaO or MgO. Thusly, acidic refractories are more perfect with acidic slags and
26
essential refractories are more good with fundamental slags. This implies the
unmanageable and slag won't respond with each other at high temperatures rather exist
together at harmony without shaping new substances.

2.4.2.3 Porosity and corrosion rates

The porosity in the refractories aid in the process of corrosion. The corrosive fluid can
penetrate the refractory and cause internal corrosion which can be very destructive. If the
refractory contains no porosity or has a high density which does not enable the fluid
particles to penetrate, then the corrosion reaction is only limited to the outer surface which
is directly in contact with the fluid. [12]

2.4.3 Temperature and slag penetration

The refractory has a temperature gradient from the hot surface to the cold surface. The
temperature is highest at the hot surface and declines across the refractory thickness. The
slag penetrates the refractory until it reaches a ‘freeze plane’. The freeze plane is the
location where the temperature is low enough and causes the slag to solidify.

2.4.3.1 Thin Wall (Steep Temperature Gradient): In thin wall refractories where there is a
very steep temperature gradient, very little slag penetration is observed and the corrosion
reactions are limited to the outer surface of the refractory.

The hot surface temperature primarily affects the rate of corrosion. If the hot surface
temperature is kept no more than 200C above the melting temperature of the products of
corrosion, the corrosion will be reasonable. [12]

27
 Figure 3:Stage I of slag attack (showing surface corrosion).[12]

Thick Wall (Broad Temperature Gradient): In conventional refractories along with the
lining, the total thickness in about 450mm. The freeze plane is located approximately 40-
75mm behind the hot surface. In some special cases the slag may penetrate up to 150mm
behind the hot surface. Penetration of slag is aided by capillary suction as the smallest pores
draw the slag behind the hot outer surface. After some time, extensive corrosion takes place
and the refractory is at ‘Stage II’ of corrosion. In Stage II, the slag penetration can result in
densification spalling. This type of spalling occurs due to the difference in thermal
expansion coefficient between the slag penetrated region and the unpenetrated cold face
region as denoted in Figure 3. [12]

28
Figure 4:Stage II of corrosion process (showing penetration due to broad temperature gradient).[12]

2.4.3.1 Gas-Phase Reactions

The gas phase in a furnace also contributes to the corrosion reactions in refractories. Some
corrosion processes which involve the gas phase are given below:

• Alkali transport to refractory surfaces causing reactions and surface penetration.

• Reduction of refractory and gas-phase corrosion.
• Alternating oxidation and reduction causing dimensional changes which enhances
spalling.

Gas-phase corrosion occurs in refractories containing SiO2. Products which contain SiO2
can be reduced by hydrogen. The reaction is as follows:

SiO2(s) + H2(g) → SiO(g) + H2O(g)

eqn 7: Reduction of Silicon Dioxide

Where, (s) represents solid while (g) represents gas.

29
Refractories exposed to hydrogen or carbon monoxide may experience gas phase removal
of SiO2 in the process of producing silicon monoxide. At 10000C, a CO/CO2 ratio of about
10-5 is sufficient enough to reduce SiO2 to SiO. [12]

2.4.4 Fracture of Refractories

2.4.4.1 Introduction

Apart from corrosion fracture is the second most common mode of failure in a refractory.
The composite nature of refractories associates its fracture with the fracture of engineering
composite materials. These fractures may cause complete loss of the lining, face spalling
and significant reduction in the refractory lifetime. [12]

2.4.4.2 Strength of Refractories

Strength of refractories is usually represented as the flexural strength or the modulus of

rupture (MOR). The simple formula used to measure refractory strength is as follows:

3𝑃𝐿
𝜎𝑓 (𝑀𝑂𝑅) =
2𝑏ℎ2

eqn 8: Modulus of Rupture [12]

Where, ′𝜎𝑓 ′ is the bending strength, ‘L’ is the length of the sample, ‘b’ is the width and ‘h’

is the height. ‘P’ is the fracture load. It specifies the tensile strength at the bottom of the
beam.

Figure 5: Three-point bend test of a sample refractory beam.[12]

30
Although the test in Figure 5 does not give complete information about the fracture, 80%
to 90% of the refractory strengths are obtained on the basis of this test. This is because,
refractories are not subjected to severe loads and do not have a structural role, their primary
function is containment. Therefore, refractories do not need to be very strong, just strong
enough to bear their own weight.

2.4.4.3 Thermal-shock resistance: A crack in the refractory will still be driven by the stored
strain energy of the system regardless of the thermal shock damage being kinetic or quasi-
static. According to various analysis the thermal stress resistance of a refractory decreases
as the strength increases. High-strength refractories are much more vulnerable to thermal
shock damage. Therefore, where thermal shock damage resistance is concerned, a stronger
refractory is not necessarily a better one. [12]

2.4.5 Alumina-Silica Brick

2.4.5.1 Introduction

Alumina-silica bricks are commonly preferred over most basic bricks as they are relatively
inexpensive. In addition, the phase relations and properties of alumina-silica bricks are
relatively uncomplicated and therefore can be easily manufactured. In some types of
furnaces these refractory bricks are also used to avoid mechanical or thermal shock
damage. [12]

2.4.5.2 Phase relationship of Alumina-Silica

The alumina-silica bricks are manufactured on a tonnage scale, this means that the products
have different properties according to the scale of manufacturing. This contributes to the
observation that one product in the same class can be better than a competitive product of
the same class. The difference between the good and not-as-good can be understood by the
examination of the alumina-silica phase diagram.

The technology of alumina-silica refractories is traditionally explained using the alumina

– silica phase equilibrium diagram (Figure 6). A phase diagram is basically a ‘map’ of

31
temperature versus composition showing ‘phases’ of similar composition within a material
at equilibrium and at a given temperature. The idea is that certain compositions will
produce certain qualities of refractories. The diagram in Figure 6 shows composition in
mole percent and the temperature in degree Celsius. [12]

Figure 6: The alumina-silica phase equilibrium diagram.[12]

The component ‘Mullite’(3Al3O3.2SiO2) is formed as a product of heating mixtures of

alumina and silica. The theoretical composition of mullite is 71.6% alumina and 28.4%
silica on a weight basis. Near this composition a mullite solid solution is formed (denoted
by mullite ss). The refractoriness of a material usually increases due to the presence of
mullite.

The solidus line at 15950C represents that just below this temperature the mixture of SiO2
(approximately 100%) and Mullite exists as a solid phase. Above this temperature a
refractory of this composition would be useless as it would be in a partial liquid state or
completely melted.

32
The solidus line at 18400C represents a composition range of just above 72% Al2O3 to just
below 100%. Here no melting starts until the temperature exceeds 18400C. the greater the
alumina content, the greater is the refractoriness of a material. Pure alumina (corundum)
has a melting point of about 20500C.[12]

33
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN CALCULATIONS, SELECTION AND RISK ASSESSMENT

3.1 DESIGN CALCULATION

3.1.1 Tuyere Area and number of tuyeres

The tuyere area is based on the inside diameter of the cupola at the tuyere level. Standard
ratios for smaller cupolas range from 1/4 to 1/6 the cross sectional area of the cupola at the
tuyeres.[6]

D1 = 10 inches (Internal Diameter of Cupola)

D2 = 15 inches (External Diameter of Cupola)

Sand Bed = 2 inches

Tap Hole diameter = Slag Hole diameter = 1 inch

Drop Down Diameter = 16 inches

𝜋𝐷2 10 2
𝐴= = 𝜋 ∗ ( ) = 78.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2
4 2

1 1
𝑇𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∗ 𝐴 = ∗ 78.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2 = 13.1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2
6 6

3
Area of 3-inch diameter pipe = 𝐴 = 𝜋( )2 = 7.07 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠^2
2

13.1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (7.07 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠2 ) = 1.85~2 𝑡𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

34
3.1.2 Cupola Height

Cupola height (before legs) is determined in two steps. The stack height above tuyeres and
the well depth + constant make up the two calculations. For small cupolas a constant of 5-
inches will be used. Larger cupolas use 10 inches.

The well depth will be considered first. Deep wells increase the difficulty of maintaining
hot iron; therefore, a conservative (shallow) well will be used for our experimental cupola.
The theoretical capacity of the cupola is 1 pound per square inch of sectional area at the
tuyeres. For a 10-inch cupola this tap would be approximately 78.5 pounds. A tap of 35
pounds should certainly be attainable, therefore we will calculate for a 35-pound tap.[6]

Table 2: Cupola Dimensions in inches[6]

Cupola
7 10 14
Diameter (in)
Well Area sq. In 36.5 78.5 154
Well Depth ratio 0.5 to 0.6 0.5 to 1 0.6 to 1.2
Constant (in) 4 4 5 to 6
Tuyere
1.5 3 3.5
Diameter (in)
Number of
2 2 4
Tuyeres
Stack
31.5 45 63
Height min.(in)
Optimal
44.45 63.5 90
Stack (in)

Iron : Coke 4:1 6:1 8:1

10 2
𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝜋( ) = 78.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2
2

𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑂𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 35 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 ∗ 16 = 560 𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

35
 560 𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 127 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3
44
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ3

𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 0.46 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

127 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = = 277 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3
. 46

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 78.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3

277 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 3
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙) = = 3.52 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
78.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚) + ( ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 +

(4 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)) = 2 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 + 3.52 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 + 4 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 9.52 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (4.5 ∗ 𝐷) = 4.5 ∗ 10 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 45 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑠

= ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 + ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

+ 𝑡𝑢𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

∑ = 9.52 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 + 45 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 + 3 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 57.52 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑠 = 57.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑔 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

= 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 + 6 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
+ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 16 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 + 6 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 + 2 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 24 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
36
3.1.3 Cupola Melt Capacity

A ratio of 6:1 (Iron: Coke) is used for the 10-inch diameter cupola furnace as outlined in
the table below. Using the following parameters, we shall calculate the melt capacity of the
cupola furnace.

Figure 7: Air required to burn unit quantity of Coke in Cupola (typical values)[13]

Table 3: Fan Capacity for Cupola Furnaces[6]

37
Q = Blast rate, m3/min

M = Quantity of Coke Burnt, Kg/min

L = Quantity of air consumed, m3/Kg of Coke burnt

C = Quantity of coke burnt/ 100 Kg of Iron melted

S = melting rate, t/h

𝑄
S=6∗
𝐿∗𝐶

eqn 9 : Melt Rate[13]

Using 196~200 CFM from Table 3 which is equivalent to 5.66 m3/min as the
Blast Rate (Q)
100 𝐾𝑔
Also, from the ratio of 6:1 the amount of Coke burnt (C) will be =
6

16.67 𝑘𝑔
The quantity of air consumed (L) can now be obtained from Figure 7 which is
6.5 m3.
5.66 𝑡 𝑙𝑏
Hence, the melt rate S = 6 ∗ = 0.313 = 690
6∗20 ℎ ℎ

3.1.4 Mass Calculation

The weight of the coke charge is given as 𝑊 = 0.0618 ∗ 𝐷2 where D = The diameter
between tuyeres which in our case is 10 inches. Therefore, the weight of the Coke charge
will be: 0.0618*102 = 6.18 lbs.

Using the 6:1 ratio the weight of Iron will be: 6*6.18 = 37 pounds

38
3.1.5 Thermal Analysis

Firstly, we shall determine the heat lost through conduction. There are three surfaces upon
which this takes place:

• Outer Shell (Mild Steel)

• Insulating Refractory Brick
• Sand Bed

Figure 8 : Radial Heat Conduction Surfaces

Data
Thermal Conductivity:
𝑊
Mild Steel = 49.8 𝑚∗𝐾
𝑊
Insulating Refractory Brick = 0.31 𝑚∗𝐾
𝑊
Fireclay = 1.035 𝑚∗𝐾

rRef = 0.2032 m
rinner = 0.127 m
rshell inner = 0.2159 m
r shell outer = 0.2286 m

39
L = 1.4478 m
Vair = 12.02 m/s
𝑊
h∞1 = 10.45 – Vair + 10√ Vair = 33.099 𝑚2 ∗𝐾 T∞1 = 1600 oC
𝑊
h∞2 = 18 𝑚2 ∗𝐾 of air at room temperature 25 oC T∞2 = 38 oC

Figure 9 : Thermal Resistance Circuit Diagram

The analysis is done using the assumption:

• Steady-State heat transfer
• Thermal conductivities are constant
• Heat transfer is one dimensional since there is thermal symmetry
• Heat transfer coefficient incorporates radiation effects

Using Fourier’s Law of heat conduction to model a cylindrical shell the

following thermal resistances are calculated:

A1 = 2π rinner *(L) = 1.155 m2

A2 = 2π shell outer *(L) = 2.08 m2

1
R∞1 = h∞1 A1 = 0.026 oC/W

𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓
RRef = (ln(𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟))/(2𝜋𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ (𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟)) = 3.166 oC/W

𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
Rshell inner = (ln( 𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓
))/(2𝜋𝐾 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 ∗ (𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓))
40
= 0.0736 oC/W

𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟
R shell outer = (ln(𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟))/(2𝜋𝐾𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 ∗ (𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟))

= 0.014 oC/W

1
R∞2 = h∞2 A2 = 0.027 oC/W

Rtotal = 0.027 oC/W + 0.0736 oC/W + 3.166 oC/W + 0.026 oC/W = 3.97 oC/W

1600−38
Q= = 390.5 W
3.97

3.1.6 COMSOL Thermal Analysis

Figure 10 : Heat Distribution of Cupola Furnace

41
As can be observed from Figure 10, that the temperature profile along the furnace wall and
across the bottom plate shows significant insulation of heat within the core 10-inch
diameter of the furnace. Furthermore, the maximum temperature depicted by the white
region is precisely where the combustion zone, melting zone and well exists owing to
accurate model data illustrated in Table 4 below.

The stack zone temperatures show appropriate exhaustion of refractory gases transferring
the heat from the combustion and melting zones and thereby cooling the remaining furnace
in the process.

3.1.6.1 Dataset

Table 4 : Variation of material properties with respect to temperature [6] [14] [15]

Temperature Mild Steel (AISI 1010) Insulating Height of

(oC) Refractory furnace
Brick
(inches)[6]
Thermal Poisson Young’s Thermal Thermal
Conductivity Ratio Modulus Expansion Conductivity
GPa
W/(m.K) (1/oC) W/(m.K)
x10-3
200 45.7 0.320 1.96 0.04 0.17 N/A
400 38.36 0.324 1.67 2.3 0.18 38.47-57
600 35.2 0.331 1.20 5.03 0.19 32.47-38.47
800 33.06 0.338 0.54 8.46 0.22 26.47-32.47
1000 28.8 0.345 0.25 11.08 0.25 20.47-26.47
1200 24.5 - - - 0.28 14.47-20.47
1400 21.21 - - - 0.31 8.47-14.47
1600 20.13 - - - 0.33 2.47-8.47

42
3.1.6.2 Mesh Independence Study

Temperature Distribution along shell surface with respect to

Height
600

500
Temperature (oC)

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Height (inches)
Normal Fine Finer Extra Fine

Figure 11: Multiplot of Mesh types on the temperature profile of outer shell

Table 5 : Number of elements in different Mesh types

Mesh Types Number of elements

Normal 675
Fine 712
Finer 798
Extra Fine 2164

Mesh Independence study is carried out to determine an optimum point at which an

accurate solution is achieved at the expense of least computational resources and minimum
time consumption. A mesh is derived from a set of discrete values to approximate a
continuous solution from number of elements as in Table 5. In the case of approximating
the temperature distribution profile along the shell surface, we can observe that the
percentage difference is miniscule, so much so that in the multiplot in Figure 11 the
difference seems indistinguishable. Hence, we can safely establish that the mesh type fine
was more than fitting for our analysis and also improves reliability in the process.
43
 Figure 12 : Orthogonal Projection of Cupola Furnace

The CAD drawing in Figure is a third angle projection of the cupola furnace outlining the
dimensions of various components.

44
3.2 DESIGN SELECTION

3.2.1 Selected designs

3.2.1.1 Design 1

Figure 13: Heat Recuperating Cupola Furnace[16]

As can be observed from the above Figure 13, the system is aptly named heat recuperating
cupola furnace i.e. a hot blast cupola furnace which essentially uses the hot waste gases
from the stack zone and directs the heat from those gases towards the tuyeres through water
channels in the heat exchangers. From Figure 14 the following advantages can be observed:

• High melt rates

• Reduced Coke consumption
• Reduced Sulphur Pickup
• Increased Carbon Pickup
• Increased Silicon Pickup[16]

45
 Figure 14: Effect of hot blast vs. cold blast on the chemical composition of the molten Iron[16]

Limitations

• High Initial Setup Cost

• Maintenance Costs are High
• Complex structure

46
3.2.1.2 Design 2

Figure 15: Cupola Furnace [8]

Figure 15 illustrates the general form of the cupola furnace and forms the basis of our
chosen design. The differences being the inclusion of a charging door and a spark arrester
which gives the following advantages:

• Better Safety provision as flammable gases are properly diffused.

• Thermal Losses reduced due to partially enclosed cupola top.

47
Limitations

• The complexity is still great as the application of refractory requires removal of

spark arrester
• The inclusion of charging door might increase thermal losses if not properly
designed[8]

3.2.1.3 Design 3

Figure 16: Lab Scale Cupola Furnace

The open top of Design 3 in Figure 16 greatly reduces the complexity in the application of
refractory however, it comes as a cost, as safety is sufficiently reduced. The advantages are
as follows

• Least construction cost as compared to Design 1 and 2

• Least Complexity as compared to Design 1 and 2

48
Limitations

• Operator Safety is hampered

• Flammable and corrosive gases escape to the atmosphere

However, given the low melt capacity and hence non-continuous operation due it being a
Lab scale cupola furnace as opposed to a foundry scale furnace the damage to the
environment will be negligible

3.2.2 Weighted Design Matrix

Table 6 : Weighted Design Matrix

From Table 6, it can be observed that for the chosen design which is the design 3 the
emphasis has been put on cost followed by complexity. The melting capacity of design 2
and design 3 are equivalent as previously discussed in the shortlisted design section. The
scores were accordingly assigned to respective designs based on their attributes and the
total weighted score highlighted the design 3 for selection.

49
3.3 RISK ASSESSMENT

3.3.1 FMEA

Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a step-by-step approach for identifying all
possible failures in a design, a manufacturing or assembly process, or a product or service.

For our project we will be using the FMEA technique in order to quantify the risks and
hence highlight the most prominent risk which has most impact and hence mitigate its
affects.

The Risk Priority Number (RPN) is a value which reaches a maximum of 1000 by the
product of three quantities

• Severity: This measures the impact of how damaging the potential failure mode is
on the project with its maximum value being 10 for causing most damage.
• Detectability: This measure the ease with which the potential failure mode can be
detected whose maximum value of 10 represents an undetectable failure mode
• Likelihood: This measure the probability of the failure event occurring or how
likely is the potential failure mode to occur with its maximum value of 10 indicating
the potential failure to be almost inevitable to occur.

Table 7 breaks down the individual components of the furnace and analyses the potential
risks associated with these components. Furthermore, the table show the existing control
used in current foundries and what additional controls should be added in order to rectify
the failure event.

50
Component/ Failure Failure Existing Additional
Failure cause S O D RPN
process mode effect Control control
Injury/ Improper
Shell Line Periodic
Spilling of refractory 10 1 1 10
Cracking inspection maintenance
molten metal lining.
Shell
Carefully
Burns due to High Wear
Injury 9 3 1 27 follow user
hot shell temperature. gloves
manual
Jamming Suspension Choking of Close Periodic
Tuyeres 5 5 3 75
Of tuyeres Of air supply tuyeres mouth monitoring maintenance
More slag Due to acidic
Inspection of
Corrosion of produced/ or basic Use of
lining after
Refractory Refractory impurities refractory acidic 3 8 3 72
each
lining increases in reactions with refractory
operation.
molten metal slag
No air
Check
Blower supply/No Electrical Reliable
Blower 5 2 1 10 Defects
Failure control on issues. supplier
before use
temperature
Safe
Collapsing Injury,
Foundation working Interlocks
of Loss of Overloading 10 1 2 20
of cupola loads are with alarms
foundation charge.
marked
Emission of Reactions Longer
Open cupola
hazardous Air pollution. occurring stack 2 7 3 42 Spark arrestor
stack
gasses inside cupola height.
Jamming of Improper Close
Leakage in Periodic
Sand bed drop down laying of sand inspection 3 4 7 84
sand bed maintenance
door. bed. after lining.
Freezing of Periodic
Extraction of
Clogging of metal at poking of Periodic
Tap/Slag hole metal is 6 7 3 126
tap/slag hole mouth of tap/slag maintenance
reduced
tap/slag holes hole.
Temperature Metal getting
Periodic Check defects
Thermocouple Malfunction cannot be stuck on 4 3 4 48
cleaning. before use.
monitored probes.

Table 7: FMEA Table

S= Severity
O=Occurrence
D=Detectability
RPN= Risk Priority Number

51
 3.3.2 Risk assessment distribution

Shell Cracking
Burns due to hot
2%
Thermocouple shell
Malfunction 5%
9%
Jamming of
tuyeres
15%

Corrosion of
Clogging of
Refractory lining
tap/slag hole
14%
25%

Blower Failure
2%

Leakage in sand Collapsing of

bed Emission of foundation
16% hazardous gasses 4%
8%

Figure 17 : Risk assessment pie chart distribution

The Pie chart in Figure 17 illustrates the fraction that each failure mode of the various
components contributes to the entirety of the mechanisms of failure. This in turn allows us
to easily identify that clogging of the tap and/or slag hole is a major source of concern
whereas cracking of the shell seems highly unlikely.

52
 CHAPTER 4

MANUFACTURING METHODOLOGY

4.1 COMPONENTS, DIMENSIONS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

4.1.1 Bottom plate

4.1.1.1 Description: It is a 24”x24” mild steel plate which is 3/8” (10 mm) thick. A hole
of 10” diameter is at the center of the plate. During operation this hole is closed using the
drop-down door. The purpose of this plate is to support the weight of shell, refractory, drop
down door and charge residing over it, under thermal load.

4.1.1.2 Materials: The material used here is 10 mm thick mild steel plate with the service
temperature of 750 °C

4.1.1.3 Procedure: 10 mm mild steel plate is easily available in the market of desired
dimensions. Now to cut a hole through it a plasma cutter is used.

4.1.2 Drop down door

4.1.2.1 Description: It is circular swinging mild steel door with 16” diameter. The purpose
is to close the bottom hole during operation to avoid charge from falling out of the cupola.

4.1.2.2 Materials: The material used here is 10mm thick mild steel plate.

4.1.2.3 Procedure: This plate is cut out of a square sheet using the plasma cutter and then
hinged to the bottom plate. A lever is installed at the bottom of the plate which is used to
hold the drop-down door rigidly while operating the furnace.

53
4.1.3 Legs

4.1.3.1 Description: The cupola stands vertically on four mild steel pipes as legs. The
height of each leg is 2-ft which allow sufficient space for the drop-down door to swing
open smoothly and function properly.

4.1.3.2 Materials: Mild steel pipes with 2-inch thickness.

4.1.3.3 Procedure: pipes of this dimension are easily available. A long pipe of 8ft can be
used which will later be divided in to 4 pcs of 2ft each. A simple hack saw can be used as
a tool to cut the pipe.

4.1.4 Shell

4.1.4.1 Description: The purpose of shell is to support the refractory and give cupola a rigid
and proper structure. In our case the shell is 57” in height. Inner diameter is 17 inch And
the thickness is 0.5 inches. To make our cupola more feasible to operate our shell has been
divided in to two parts upper stack and lower part. Diameter and thickness of both the parts
are same but the upper stack is 21” in height while the lower part is 36” in height.

4.1.4.2 Materials: Mild Steel pipe or sheet metal bended to desired diameter

4.1.4.3 Procedure: A single hollow cylinder of desired diameter and height is cut in to two
pieces. Flanges are welded on the edges to keep them intact using bolts. Holes are drilled
in the bottom part of the shell for tap hole, slag hole and tuyeres.

4.1.5 Installation of refractory

4.1.5.1 Description: The main purpose of refractory is to resist high temperature so that
shell remains intact and the temperature remains well below the service temperature of the
mild steel shell.

4.1.5.2 Materials: Insulating fire brick composed of alumina-silica compounds

54
4.1.5.3 Procedure: refractory is installed after the bottom part of the shell is welded on the
bottom plate. The bricks are aligned in a circular pattern to ensure complete insulation of
shell from heat. Fire clay is used as a bonding material for bricks and to fill the gaps left in
the pattern. Composition of fireclay and fire brick are kept same to ensure uniform
distribution of heat in refractory.

4.1.6 Installation of thermocouple

4.1.6.1 Description: K type thermocouple is used to measure the temperature inside cupola.

4.1.6.2 Materials: K type is made up of nickel-chromium.

4.1.6.3 Procedure: After the installation of refractory a hole is drilled through the shell of
cupola which passes through the refectory. Probe is inserted in the hole and is sealed using
fireclay to avoid leakage.

4.1.7 Assembly

After the installation of thermocouple sand bed is made to allow smooth flow of molten
metal through the tap hole and to protect the drop-down door from high temperature. After
all this is done upper part of shell is bolted with rest of the cupola. Refractory is then lined
in the upper part and finally, the cupola is ready for operation.

55
 CONCLUSION

To conclude, the Cupola furnace is a vertical cylindrical furnace used for melting iron
either for casting or for charging in other furnaces. Its advantages and disadvantages were
also studied. The fuel (Coke) (section 2.2) used in the furnace has a certain physical and
chemical characteristic which impacts the physical and chemical properties of the obtained
molten Iron. The resulting slag (section2.4) is also influenced from the properties of coke,
other impurities residing within the furnace and also the refractory lining.

The design calculations were based on 10-inch internal diameter of the furnace. Moreover,
CAD model of the resulting design was constructed and its dimensions were duly included
(section 3.1.2). The design was henceforth compared with two other designs (section 3.2.1)
which were selected beforehand. Finally, the pros and cons of the three shortlisted designs
were listed and then quantified (section 3.2.1). The weighted design matrix (Table 3)
highlighted the calculated design (design 3) as the design to be chosen according to our
requirements.

56
 REFERENCES

[1] FREDERIC P. MILLER, AGNES F. VANDOME, John McBrewster. Furnace.

B.m.: VDM Publishing, 2009. ISBN 9786130229580.

[2] DEBAPRIYA, M. Cupola Furnace: Structure, Operation and Zones [online].

[vid. 2017-11-15]. Dostupné
z: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/metallurgy/cupola-furnace-structure-
operation-and-zones-foundry/95696

[3] BRITANNICA, The Editors of Encyclopædia. Cupola furnace [online]. 1998

[vid. 2017-11-15]. Dostupné z: https://www.britannica.com/technology/cupola-
furnace

[4] RICHARD W. HEINE, CARL R. LOPER, Philip C. Rosenthal. Principles of Metal

Casting. B.m.: McGraw-Hill, 1955. ISBN 9780070993488.

[5] KIRK, Edward. The Cupola Furnace - A practical treatise on the construction and
management of foundry cupolas.Pdf. London: H. C. Baird & co, 1903.

[6] CHASTAIN, Stepehen D. Iron Melting Cupola Furnaces For the Small Foundry.
2000.

[7] IBRAHIM, Abdulrauf A, Adaokoma APASI a James B MOKWA. Evaluation of

Heat Losses from a 300 kg Capacity Cupola Furnace. 2016, (6).

[8] CEASE JUNIOR , FIJO GEORGE, FOUZIYA C M, HAREESH MOHANAN,

JESBIN JOSEPH, JIBIN JOSEPH. SELECTION OF THE CUPOLA FURNACE
AND FABRICATION OF THE MODEL. 2009.

[9] BAWA, H S. Cupola. In: Manufacturing Processes 2. Volume 2. Delhi: Tata

McGraw-Hill Education, 2004, s. 316.

57
[10] DÍEZ, M. A., R. ALVAREZ a C. BARRIOCANAL. Coal for metallurgical coke
production: Predictions of coke quality and future requirements for cokemaking.
International Journal of Coal Geology [online]. 2002, 50(1–4), 389–412.
ISSN 01665162. Dostupné z: doi:10.1016/S0166-5162(02)00123-4

[11] SOCIETY, American Foundrymen’s. The cupola and its operations. Volume 3.
1965.

[12] SCHACHT, Charles A., ed. Refractories Handbook. 178. vyd. New York: CRC
Press, 2004. ISBN 9780203026328.

[13] HETTIARACHCHI, Gamini. Cupola Design Operation and Control.pdf.

Birmingham: BCIRA, 1979.

[14] BAILEY, Professor Colin. Carbon Steel Thermal Properties. One Stop Shop in
Structural Fire Engineering [online]. Dostupné
z: http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/research/structures/strucfire/material
InFire/Steel/HotRolledCarbonSteel/thermalProperties.htm

[15] THERMAL CERAMICS. High Temperature Insulating Firebrick High

Temperature Insulating Firebrick. nedatováno.

[16] CAROLYN NORWOOD, THERESA O’FALLON, CREIGHTON TYNES,

STEPHEN WILLIAMS, ALEX NOBLE, DREW BRANDENBURG, Justin
Sansing. Iron Melting Cupola Furnace-Heat Recuperating System. 2010.

58
 APPENDIX

STATEMENT OF REQUIREMENTS

Title: Design And Fabrication Of A Lab

Issue: 01 Date: 28-09-2017
Scale Cupola Furnace
Demand/Wish
CHANGES REF REQUIREMENTS
D/W
1 Introduction
1.1 Preamble

A cupola or cupola furnace is a vertical shaft furnace typically

used in high production foundries. During operation, coke, the
solid product obtained from the carbonization of coal at high
temperatures and a commonly used industrial fuel, is used to
melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron and some bronzes. The cupola can
be made to any practical size.
Scope of the project

To design a lab scale cupola furnace which can be used to melt

ferrous alloys efficiently in order to help us understand
refractory analysis, strength analysis of the furnace, melting and
casting (foundry) mechanisms, mechanical designing
parameters.
1.2 Related Documents
1.2.1 Books
Richard W Heine, Carl R Loper and Philip C Rosenthal,
1.2.2 Principles of Metal Casting, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, 1976
Edward Kirk, The Cupola Furnace, Wentworth Press (August
1.2.3
25, 2016), 978-1361669273

59
 1.3 Symbols
D Demand (A mandatory requirement)
W Wish (A desirable attribute)
2.0 Technical Requirements
2.1.1 Softwares: Solidworks, COMSOL, Creo
2.1.2 Technical Skills: Welding, Drilling, Lathe, Milling
2.2 Functional Characteristics
Melting of Cast Iron, achieving required temperatures, cost
D 2.2.1
effective installation and operation.
Monitoring of Temperatures, extracting molten Iron at upright
D 2.2.2
position i.e. Standing position.
D 2.2.3 Stress Analysis on COMSOL
D 2.2.4 CAD Model
D 2.2.5 Fabrication of Cupola Furnace
W 2.2.6 Making Alloys,
W 2.2.7 Temperature should be 1600°C
W 2.2.8 Use of Pyrometer
W 2.2.9 100 % pure Cast Iron
2.3 Physical and other Characteristics/Requirements
W 2.3.1 Implementation of sensors other than temperature sensors
W 2.3.2 Shell/Outer casing will be made of Wrought Iron
D 2.3.3 Height will be 57 inches, Internal Diameter will be 10 inches
Refractory will be installed in accordance with the nature of the
D 2.3.4
slag.
D 2.3.5 Materials used will be locally sourced
2.4 Design & Construction
Main Components
2.4.1
Shell: It is the outer part of the cupola furnace
2.4.2 Charge: Mixture of Flux, coke and pig Iron.
2.4.3 Air blower: It supplies the air to the wind box.
2.4.4 Volume meter: The volume meter is installed in a cupola.
2.4.5 Tap Hole: To allow molten cast iron to be collected.

2.4.6 Slag Hole: Above the level of the tap hole because slag floats
on the surface of molten cast iron.

60
 2.4.7 Chimney: This facilitates a free escape of the waste gases and
deflects the sparks and the dust back into the furnace.
W 2.4.8 Import of improved materials and components
All processes/materials will be locally performed/procured
D 2.4.9
Keep costs under 100,000 Rs
W 2.4.10 Some manufacturing may be outsourced
2.5 Environmental Conditions
D 2.5.1 Well ventilated space
D 2.5.2 Operation will be conducted outdoors in clear weather
2.6 Reliability & Maintenance
W 2.6.1 Continuous maintenance of tap holes and tuyeres.
All sensors and electronics should be checked and recalibrated
W 2.6.2
after every operation.
Slag, coke and iron sticking to the side walls of the furnace
W 2.6.3 should be chipped off. Damaged firebricks should be replaced
by new ones.
The damaged furnace refractory lining must be patched and
W 2.6.4
repaired.
Eroded refractory lining at the combustion zone etc., must be
filled with a pneumatically operated gun which blows refractory
W 2.6.5
patching mixture at sufficient velocity so that it sticks properly
with the lining.
2.7 Safety
The Molten Metal should be tapped out well in time or else slag
D 2.7.1
flows into tuyeres causing jamming.
Wear high temperature resistant safety equipment to prevent
D 2.7.2
injuries.
While Closing Tap Hole, precaution must be taken to press plug
D 2.7.3 downwards in hole so that the splash of the molten metal, during
plugging does not fall on the operator.
3 Miscellaneous
The Project Content should be monitored by the project
3.1
advisors.
The project leader has to ensure that work proceeds according
3.2
to the project plan.

61
 3.3 Socioeconomic Factors

The students will benefit from the knowledge of the processes

3.3.1
that take place in the furnace.
The University can use the molten metal obtained for casting
3.3.2
and /or experimentation.
4 Costs
4.1 100,000 Rs
The above-mentioned cost is subjected to material cost,
4.2
assembly requirements, testing and calibration.
4.3 Self-Sponsored and University sponsored
In case of unavailability of funds, insufficient for fabrication
4.4
of the project , W would not be achieved.
5 Constraints
5.1 Close Temperature control is difficult to maintain
The construction of the cupola furnace using the materials
5.2
described may or may not be available within Pakistan.
(Advisor) (Co-Advisor)
Project Advisors/Co
Engr. Muhammad
Advisors Khurram
Ameen Uddin Ammar

62
B GANTT CHART

63
64
C DESIGNS

Design 1

Chosen Design

Design 2

65
 Design 3

66
D SIMILARITY INDEX SUMMARY

67