ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND MATTER

All materials are obtained from matters. Matters are solid, liquid or gas. Matters are made up of

atom in which John Dalton referred to as the smallest indivisible particles. Some of the important

properties of solid materials depend on geometrical atomic arrangements and also the

interactions that exist among constituent atoms or molecules.

Atomic structure simply refers to the structure of atom. Each atom consists of a very small

nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which is encircled by moving electrons. Both

electrons and protons are electrically charged.

Electrons are negatively charged with its magnitude being 1.6 × 10 −19 C and protons are

positively charge and its value is also 1.6 × 10−19 C.

Neutrons are electrically neutral. Masses for these subatomic particles are infinitesimally small.

Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, 1.67× 10 −27kg. The mass of the

electron is 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Table 1: Electrical Properties of Atomic Particles

Particle Charge Mass

Electrons -1.602 × 10−19C, negatively 9.11 × 10−31kg

charged

Protons +1.602 × 10−19C, negatively 1.672× 10−27kg.

charged

Neutrons No charge 1.672× 10−27kg.

Atomic number (z):

This can be defined as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is also called proton

number. It is also called proton number. For an electrically neutral atom, the number of protons

is equal to the number of electrons. Hence, the number of electrons is equal to atomic number.

This atomic number ranges in integral units from 1 for hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest

of the naturally occurring elements.

Mass number (A):

This is defined as sum of the number of protons and neutrons within the nucleus of an atom.

The number of protons is the same for all atoms of a given element, the number of neutron may

vary. A =Z +N

Isotopes:

These are elements with the same atomic numbers but different atomic masses (mass numbers).

Examples of isotopes are 11 H ,21 D , 31T ( for hydrogen), 35

17 Cl ,
37
17 Cl (for chlorine),
12
6
14
C , 6C (for
carbon), e.t.c. the phenomenon is called isotopy. The atomic weight of an element corresponds to

the weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s naturally occurring isotope.

Thomson’s atomic model:

J.J Thomson in 1911 proposed an atomic model known as plum-pudding model. This model

postulates that:

i. The electron is constituent of all matter

ii. This electron has a negative charge of 1.602 × 10−19c and a rest mass of 9.1085 × 10−31kg.

iii. Atoms are uniform spheres in which electrons were distributed along with positive charges

like plums in a pudding. The atom is electrically neutral.

Atomic Bonding in Solids

To understand the properties materials, there is need for sound knowledge of atomic bonding in

solids. In nature, one comes across several types of solids. Many solids are aggregate of atoms.

The arrangement of atoms in any solid material is determined by the character, strength, and

directionality of the chemical binding forces, cohesive forces or chemical bonds.

We refer these bonding forces as atomic interaction forces. The atoms, molecule or ions in a

solid state are more closely packed than in the gaseous and liquid state and are held together by

strong mutual forces of attraction and repulsion.

The type of bond that appears between atoms in crystal is determined by the electronic structure

of interacting atoms.

Atoms in a crystal approach one another to certain distances at which the crystal is in the state of

the highest thermodynamic stability. These distances depend on the interaction forces that appear

in the crystals. The attractive forces between atoms are basically electrostatic in origin. Its

magnitude is proportional to some power of the interatomic distance r. the type of bonding

within a material plays a major role in determining the electrical, chemical, and physical

properties of the material.

Seitz in 1940 classified solids into five types according to the bonding atoms. This classification

is shown in the table below.

solids Types of bond Formation Binding ,ener examples

gy (eV/atom)

Covalent Covalent, atomic Electron share between 2 -6 C (diamond),

or homopolar two atoms. Si, Sic. BN

bonds. etc.

Ionic Ionic or Electron transfer. 0 – 2 Alkali halides,

electrostatic Coulombs interaction chlorides.

bonds between cat ions and

anions.

Metals Metallic Freely moving electrons 1 – 5 All metals and

in an array of positive alloys

ions.

Vander molecules Weak attractive forces 0.002 – 0.1 Noble gasses

Waals due to dipole. dipole

interaction

Hydrogen Hydrogen Electrostatic bond of H- 0 – 5 Ice,

atom

There are basically two groups which classify common bonds on the basis of strength,

directionality of bonding forces, cohesive forces (chemical bonds) and the character of any solid

material.
They are:

(a.) Primary bonds

(b.) Secondary bonds

(a) Primary bonds: These are inter-atomic bonds in which electrostatic force holds the atoms

together. the following three primary bonds are found in different materials;

i. Ionic or electrostatic bonds (electrovalent bond)

ii. Covalent bonds (atomic or homopolar bonds)

iii. Metallic bonds

(i) Ionic bonding:

Ionic or hetropolar bonding which is formed by the actual transfer of electrons from

one atom to the other so that each atom acquires a stable configuration similar to the

nearest inert gas atoms. Ionic bonding occurs between electropositive element

(metals) and electronegative elements (Non-metals). These bonds are formed mainly

in inorganic compounds e.g. Sodium, chloride (NaCl), MgO, CuO, Kcl, CuO, CrO 2,

MoF2. The schematic representation of the formation of an ionic molecule of NaCl is

below:
23 37
11 Na=2 , 8 ,1 17 Cl=2 ,8 ,7
 Characteristics of Ionic Solids

1. Ionic solids are generally rigid and crystalline in nature

2. They have highly melting and boiling points high modulus of elasticity

3. They have low coefficient of compressibility and linear expansion

4. Ionic solids are generally nonconductors of electricity

5. They are highly soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.

(ii) Covalent Bond:

This type of bonding is formed by an equal sharing of electrons between two neighboring atoms

each having incomplete outermost shells. The atoms do so in order to acquire a stable electronic

configuration in accordance with the octet rule. Unlike ionic bonding, the atoms participating in
the covalent bond have such electronic configurations that they cannot complete their octets by

the actual transfer of electrons from one atom to the other.

A covalent bond is formed between similar or dissimilar atoms each having a deficiency of an

equal number of electrons.

When two atoms, each having a deficiency of one electron, come so close that their electronic

shells start overlapping, the original atomic charged distributions of atoms are distorted and each

atom transfers its unpaired electron to the common space between the atoms. Obviously, the

common space contains a pair of electrons which belongs equal to both the atoms and serves to

complete the outermost shell of each atom. This is called sharing of electrons. Covalent bonds

are formed by elements of group IV, V, and VI. Example of covalent bonds is O 2, N2, Cl2, CO2,

NO2, H2O etc. Covalent bond between two atoms of chloride is illustrated below

The chloride molecule (covalent bond) Cl2

Characteristics of covalent compound

(1) Covalent compounds are mostly gases and liquid

(2) They are usually electric insulators

(3) They are directional in nature

(4) They are insoluble in polar solvents like water but soluble in non-polar solvents e.g.

benzene, chloroform, alcohol, paraffin.

(5) Covalent compounds are homopolar i.e. the valence electrons are bound to individual or

pairs of atoms are electrons cannot move freely through the material as in the case of metallic

bonds.

(6) They have low melting points

(7) With the exception of diamond, covalent compounds are soft, rubbery elastomers and form a

variety of structural materials usually termed as plastics.

(iii) Metallic Bond:

This is formed by the partial sharing of valence electrons by the neighboring atoms. They are

formed by the elements of groups I to III of periodic table. Unlike the case of covalent bond, the

sharing in metallic bond is not localized. Hence, metallic bond may also be considered as

delocalized or unsaturated covalent bond. Metallic bonds are electropositive.

When interacting with elements of other groups, atoms in a metallic crystal can easily give off

their valence electrons and change into positive ions. When interacting with one another, the

valence energy zones of atoms overlap and form a common zone with unoccupied sublevels. The

valence electrons thus acquire the possibility to move freely with the zone. Obviously, valence

electron is shared in the volume of a whole crystal. Thus, the valence electrons in a metal cannot

be considered lost or acquired by atoms. They are shared by atoms in the volume of a crystal,

unlike covalent crystals where sharing of electron is limited to a single pair of atoms.
 Metallic bonding Characteristics of metallic crystals

(1) Metallic compounds are crystalline in nature due to the symmetrical arrangements of the

positive ions in a space lattice

(2) Metallic compounds are good conductors of heat and electricity. They have high electrical

conductivity and higher thermal conductivity.

(3) Metallic bonds being weak, metals have a melting point moderate to high i.e. the melting

points of metallic crystals are lower than those of electrovalent crystals.

(4) Metals are opaque to light because the free electrons in a metal absorb light energy

(5) Metallic crystals have good lustre and high reflectivity.