Material Science

Compiled by
Anu Shrestha
Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Engineering
Purwanchal Campus,Dharan
Advanced Material
 CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ARRANGEMENT
OF ATOMS

2.1 Structure of atom, Periodic Table, Binding Energy and

Bonds
All matter is considered to be composed of unit
substances known as chemical elements. These are the
smallest units that are distinguishable on the basis of
their chemical activity and physical properties. The
elements are composed of atoms which have distinct
structure characteristic of each element. The smallest
particle of an element which retains the distinct structure
characteristic of an element is called atom. Each atom
consists of a nucleus and electrons. Figure 2.1 shows the
structure of an atom.
Central nucleus is surrounded by orbital electrons which
move in concentric spherical shells. The weight of the atom
and its radioactive properties are associated with the
nucleus. The chemical properties and spectrum on the
other hand depend on the planetary electrons.
• Atomic Mass Number
• Atomic Mass Number (𝐴) = Number of electrons + Number
of neutrons
• Or, (𝐴) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
• If we let 𝐴 = Atomic Mass Number,
• then 𝐴 = 𝑒 + 𝑛, 𝐴 = 𝑝 + 𝑛 Where 𝑝 = Number of protons, 𝑛 =
Number of neutrons and 𝑒 = Number of electrons Atomic
Number
• Atomic Number (𝑍) = Number of electrons = Number of
protons, 𝑍 = 𝑒 = 𝑝
• If we look at Iron as an example, the atomic number of iron
is 26 (𝑍 = 26) and the atomic mass number is 56 (𝐴 = 56).
• Isotopes: Isotopes are the atoms of the same
element that have different atomic mass
numbers. Isotopes of an element have the
same atomic number but differ in their atomic
mass number because, even though they have
the same number of electrons and protons
(electrically neutral), they differ in the number
of neutrons. Example: Hydrogen.
 Periodic Table
• A periodic table is a tabular display of the
chemical elements, organized on the basis of
their atomic numbers, electron configurations,
and recurring chemical properties. Elements are
presented in order of increasing atomic number
(number of protons). The standard form of the
table comprises an 18-column-by-7-row main
grid of elements, with a double row of elements
below. The rows of the table are called periods;
the columns are called groups.
• Binding Energy
Binding energy is the mechanical energy required
to disassemble a whole into separate parts. A
bound system typically has a lower potential
energy than its constituent parts; this is what
keeps the system together—often this means
that energy is released upon the creation of a
bound state. The usual convention is that this
corresponds to a negative binding energy.
 Atomic Bonds:
Primary Bonds: Primary bonds are the strongest
bonds which hold atoms together. The three
types of primary bonds are: Metallic Bonds ,
Covalent Bonds and Ionic Bonds
• Secondary Bonds: Secondary bonds are much
weaker than primary bonds. They often provide a
"weak link" for deformation or fracture. The
examples for secondary bonds are: Hydrogen
Bond , Van der Waals Bond
• Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonding occurs between charged particles. These may be
atoms or groups of atoms, but this discuss will be conducted in
terms of single atoms. Ionic bonding occurs between metal
atoms and nonmetal atoms. Metals usually have 1, 2, or 3
electrons in their outermost shell. Nonmetals have 5, 6, or 7
electrons in their outer shell. Atoms with outer shells that are
only partially filled are unstable. To become stable, the metal
atom wants to get rid of one or more electrons in its outer shell.
Losing electrons will either result in an empty outer shell or get
it closer to having an empty outer shell. It would like to have an
empty outer shell because the next lower energy shell is a
stable shell with eight electrons.
Since electrons have a negative charge, the atom that gains
electrons becomes a negatively charged ions (aka anion)
because it now has more electrons than protons. Alternately,
an atom that loses electrons becomes a positively charged ion
(aka cations). The particles in an ionic compound are held
together because there are oppositely charged particles that
are attracted to one another.
• The images above schematically show the process that
takes place during the formation of an ionic bond between
sodium and chlorine atoms. Note that sodium has one
valence electron that it would like to give up so that it
would become stable with a full outer shell of eight. Also
note that chlorine has seven valence electrons and it would
like to gain an electron in order to have a full shell of eight.
The transfer of the electron causes the previously neutral
sodium atom to become a positively charged ion (cation),
and the previously neutral chlorine atom to become a
negatively charged ion (anion). The attraction for the cation
and the anion is called the ionic bond.
Generally, solid materials with ionic bonds:
• are hard because particles cannot easily slide past one
another.
• are good insulators because there are no free electrons
or ions (unless dissolved or melted).
• are transparent because their electrons are not moving
from atom to atom and less likely to interact with light
photons.
• are brittle and tend to cleave rather than deform
because bonds are strong.
• have high melting point because ionic bonds are
relatively strong.
Covalent Bonding
Where a compound only contains nonmetal atoms, a
covalent bond is formed by atoms sharing two or more
electrons. Nonmetals have 4 or more electrons in their
outer shells (except boron). With this many electrons in
the outer shell, it would require more energy to
remove the electrons than would be gained by making
new bonds. Therefore, both the atoms involved share a
pair of electrons. Each atom gives one of its outer
electrons to the electron pair, which then spends some
time with each atom. Consequently, both atoms are
held near each other since both atoms have a share in
the electrons.
More than one electron pair can be formed with half of the
electrons coming from one atom and the rest from the other
atom. An important feature of this bond is that the electrons
are tightly held and equally shared by the participating atoms.
The atoms can be of the same element or different elements.
In each molecule, the bonds between the atoms are strong
but the bonds between molecules are usually weak. This
makes many solid materials with covalent bonds brittle. Many
ceramic materials have covalent bonds.
• Compounds with covalent bonds may be solid,
liquid or gas at room temperature depending on
the number of atoms in the compound. The more
atoms in each molecule, the higher a compound’s
melting and boiling temperature will be. Since
most covalent compounds contain only a few
atoms and the forces between molecules are
weak, most covalent compounds have low
melting and boiling points. However, some, like
carbon compounds, can be very large. An
example is the diamond in which carbon atoms
each share four electrons to form giant lattices.
• Some Common Features of Materials with
Covalent Bonds:
• Hard
• Good insulators
• Transparent
• Brittle or cleave rather than deform
Metallic Bonding
A common characteristic of metallic elements is they contain
only one to three electrons in the outer shell. When an
element has only one, two or three valence electrons (i.e.
electrons in the outer shell), the bond between these
electrons and the nucleus is relatively weak. So, for example,
when aluminum atoms are grouped together in a block of
metal, the outer electrons leave individual atoms to become
part of common “electron cloud.” In this arrangement, the
valence electrons have considerable mobility and are able to
conduct heat and electricity easily. Also, the delocalized
nature of the bonds, make it possible for the atoms to slide
past each other when the metal is deformed instead of
fracturing like glass or other brittle material.
• Since the aluminum atoms lose two electrons, they
end up having a positive charge and are designated Al3+
ions (cations). These ions repel each other but are held
together in the block because the negative electrons
are attracted to the positively charged ions. A result of
the sharing of electrons is the cations arrange
themselves in a regular pattern. This regular pattern of
atoms is the crystalline structure of metals. In the
crystal lattice, atoms are packed closely together to
maximize the strength of the bonds. An actual piece of
metal consists of many tiny crystals called grains that
touch at grain boundaries.
• Some Common Features of Materials with
Metallic Bonds:
• Good electrical and thermal conductors due to their
free valence electrons
• Opaque
• Relatively ductile
 Van der Waals Bond

The van der Waal bonds occur to some extent in all

materials but are particularly important in plastics and
polymers. These materials are made up of a long string
molecules consisting of carbon atoms covalently
bonded with other atoms, such as hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine. The covalent bonds within the
molecules are very strong and rupture only under
extreme conditions. The bonds between the molecules
that allow sliding and rupture to occur are called van
der Waal forces.
When ionic and covalent bonds are present, there is some
imbalance in the electrical charge of the molecule. Take water
as an example. Research has determined the hydrogen atoms
are bonded to the oxygen atoms at an angle of 104.5°. This
angle produces a positive polarity at the hydrogen-rich end of
the molecule and a negative polarity at the other end. A
result of this charge imbalance is that water molecules are
attracted to each other. This is the force that holds the
molecules together in a drop of water.
• This same concept can be carried on to plastics,
except that as molecules become larger, the van
der Waal forces between molecules also
increases. For example, in polyethylene the
molecules are composed of hydrogen and carbon
atoms in the same ratio as ethylene gas. But
there are more of each type of atom in the
polyethylene molecules and as the number of
atoms in a molecule increases, the matter passes
from a gas to a liquid and finally to a solid.
 2.2 Atomic arrangements
2.2.1 Crystal and Amorphous Substances: All solid
substances are either amorphous solids or crystalline
solids. In amorphous solids, the atoms are arranged
chaotically i.e., the atoms are not arranged in a
systematic order. The common amorphous solids are
wood, plastics, glass, paper, rubber etc. In crystalline
solids, the atoms making up the crystals arrange
themselves in a definite and orderly manner & form.
All solid metals such as iron, copper, aluminum etc. are
crystalline solids. The definite and orderly manner &
forms of atoms producing a geometrical shape in the
aggregate is called space lattice or crystal lattice.
• 2.2.2 Crystal Geometry: Crystalline structure is the
normal form that metals assume when they are cooled
below their melting points. To describe basic crystal
structure seven different coordinate systems of
reference axes are required which are discussed below:
i) Cubic: All sides equal, all right angles. ii) Tetragonal:
Two sides equal, all right angles. iii) Orthorhombic: No
sides equal, all right angles. v) Monoclinic: No sides
equal, one right angle. vi) Triclinic: No sides equal, no
right angles angle. vii) Trigonal: All sides equal, two
right angles. iv) Hexagonal: Two sides equal, two right
angles, one 120 degree angle.
2.2.3 Unit cell: A crystal is composed of unit cells.
A unit cell contains the smaller number of atoms,
which when taken together have all the
properties of the crystals of the particular metal.
The unit cells are arranged like building blocks in
a crystal i.e. they have same orientation and their
similar faces are parallel. A unit cell may also be
defined as the smallest parallelepiped[prism]
which could be transposed in three coordinate
directions to build the space lattice. The space
lattices of various substances differ in size and
shape of their unit cells.
• 2.2.4 Lattices, points, directions, planes in a unit cell
Lattice: The three dimensional array formed by the unit
cells of a crystal is called lattice. If each atom in a lattice is
replaced by a point; then each point is called a lattice point
and the arrangement of the points is referred to as the
(three dimensional) lattice array. Thus a space lattice is
defined as an array of points in three dimensions in which
every point has surroundings identical to that every other
point in the array. The distance between the atom- points is
called interatomic or lattice spacing. A space lattice is a
conventional geometrical basis by which crystal structures
can be destroyed. Each point of a space lattice has identical
surroundings.
• The majority of metals have one of three well-
packed crystal structures:
Body-Centered Cubic (B.C.C.): In this type of unit
cell of crystal structure the atoms are located at
the corners of the cube and one atom at its
center. This type of unit cell is found in metals like
lithium, sodium, potassium, barium, vanadium,
molybdenum, alpha-iron, tungsten, chromium,
manganese, tantalum etc.
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure
The body-centered cubic unit cell has atoms at each of
the eight corners of a cube (like the cubic unit cell) plus
one atom in the center of the cube (left image below).
Each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube
so the corner atoms are shared among eight unit cells.
It is said to have a coordination number of 8. The bcc
unit cell consists of a net total of two atoms; one in the
center and eight eighths from corners atoms as shown
in the middle image below (middle image below). The
image below highlights a unit cell in a larger section of
the lattice.
• Face-Centered Cubic (F.C.C.):In this type of
unit cell of crystal structure the atoms are
located at the corners of the cube and one
atom at the center of each face. This type of
unit cell is found in metals like gamma-iron,
aluminum, copper, lead, silver, nickel, gold,
platinum, calcium etc.
• Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure
• The face centered cubic structure has atoms
located at each of the corners and the centers of all the
cubic faces (left image below). Each of the corner
atoms is the corner of another cube so the corner
atoms are shared among eight unit cells. Additionally,
each of its six face centered atoms is shared with an
adjacent atom. Since 12 of its atoms are shared, it is
said to have a coordination number of 12. The fcc unit
cell consists of a net total of four atoms; eight eighths
from corners atoms and six halves of the face atoms as
shown in the middle image above. The image below
highlights a unit cell in a larger section of the lattice.
• Hexagonal Close Packed (H.C.P): In this type of
crystal structure, the unit cell has an atom at
each of the twelve corners of the hexagonal
prism, one atom at the center of each of the
two hexagonal faces and three atoms in the
body of the cell. This type of unit cell is found
in metals like zinc, magnesium, cobalt,
cadmium, antimony, bismuth, beryllium,
titanium, zirconium etc
• Hexagonal Close Packed (HPC) Structure
• Another common close packed structure is the
hexagonal close pack. The hexagonal structure of
alternating layers is shifted so its atoms are aligned to
the gaps of the preceding layer. The atoms from one
layer nest themselves in the empty space between the
atoms of the adjacent layer just like in the fcc structure.
However, instead of being a cubic structure, the
pattern is hexagonal. (See image below.) The difference
between the HPC and FCC structure is discussed later
in this section.
• In each the top and bottom layer, there are
six atoms that arrange themselves in the shape of
a hexagon and a seventh atom The hcp structure
has three layers of atoms that sits in the middle
of the hexagon. The middle layer has three atoms
nestle in the triangular "grooves" of the top and
bottom plane. Note that there are six of these
"grooves" surrounding each atom in the
hexagonal plane, but only three of them can be
filled by atoms.
• As shown in the middle image above, there are
six atoms in the hcp unit cell. Each of the 12
atoms in the corners of the top and bottom layers
contribute 1/6 atom to the unit cell, the two
atoms in the center of the hexagon of both the
top and bottom layers each contribute ½ atom
and each of the three atom in the middle layer
contribute 1 atom. The image on the right above
attempts to show several hcp unit cells in a larger
lattice.
• The coordination number of the atoms in this
structure is 12. There are six nearest
neighbors in the same close packed layer,
three in the layer above and three in the layer
below. The packing factor is 0.74, which is the
same as the fcc unit cell. The hcp structure is
very common for elemental metals and some
examples include beryllium, cadmium,
magnesium, titanium, zinc and zirconium.
Atomic Radius
Atomic radius is defined as half the distance
between nearest neighbors in a crystal of a pure
element. It is possible to calculate the atomic
radius by assuming that atoms are spheres in
contact in a crystal if the structure and the lattice
parameters are known.
• (i) Simple Cubic (S.C.): Structure In this structure,
atoms touch each other along the lattice.
Therefore, 𝑎 = 2𝑟 ∴ 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑟 = 𝑎 /2
• Number of atoms per unit cell
• The number of atoms possessed in a unit cell can
be calculated if the arrangement of atoms inside
the unit cell is known. For three types of cube
crystal, the number of atoms can be calculated as
follows: (i) Simple Cubic (S.C.) Structure In this
case, there are 8 atoms, one at each corner of the
cube and all of them are shared by adjoining or
surrounding cubes. Hence, the share of cube =
1/8th of each corner atom.
• ∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 1/ 8 × 8 = 1
• (ii)Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C.) Structure In
this case, there are 8 atoms, one at each
corner and are shared by 8 surrounding cubes,
plus one center atom at the center of the
cube. ∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 1 /8 × 8 + 1 = 2
• (iii) Face Centered Cubic (F.C.C.) Structure In
this case, there are 8 atoms, one at each
corner of the cube plus 6 face centered atoms
at 6 planes of the cube. Each corner atom is
shared by 8 surrounding cubes, and each face
centered atom is shared by two surrounding
cubes. ∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 1/ 8 × 8 + 1 /2
×6=1+3=4
• Atomic Packing Factor (APF):Atomic packing
factor (also known as density of facing) is
defined as the ratio of the volume of atoms
per unit cell to the total volume occupied by
unit cell. 𝐴. 𝑃.𝐹. = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 /𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑣 /V
• (i) Simple Cubic (S.C.) Structure Atoms per unit
cell = 1 Volume of one atom,𝑣 = 4𝜋𝑟 3 /3
where 𝑟 is atomic radius. Putting 𝑟 = 𝑎/2, we
get: 𝑣 = 𝜋𝑎 3/ 6 ∴ Atomic packing factor= 𝑣/ 𝑉
= 𝜋𝑎 3/ 6 /𝑎 3 = 0.5238 ≈ 0.52
• (ii)Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C.) Structure
Atoms per unit cell = 2 Volume of 2 atoms,𝑣 =
2 × 4𝜋𝑟 3/ 3 where 𝑟 is atomic radius.
• Putting 𝑟 = 𝑎√3/4, we get: 𝑣 = 𝜋𝑎 3√3 /8 ∴
Atomic packing factor= 𝑣 /𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎 3√3 /8 𝑎 3 =
0.6
• (iv) Face Centered Cubic (F.C.C.) Structure
Atoms per unit cell = 4 Volume of 4 atoms,𝑣 =
4 × 4𝜋𝑟 3 /3 where 𝑟 is atomic radius.
Putting 𝑟 = 𝑎√2/4, we get: 𝑣 = 𝜋𝑎 3√2 /6
∴ Atomic packing factor= 𝑣/ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎 3√2/ 6/ 𝑎 3 =
0.7
• (v)Hexagonal Close Packed (H.C.P .) Structure
The unit cell contains one atom at each
corner, one atom each at the center of the
two hexagonal faces and three atoms within
the body of the cell. The atoms touch each
other along the edge of the hexagon. Thus, 𝑎
=2
• The top layer contains seven atoms. Each corner atom
is shared by six surrounding hexagon cells and the
center atom is shared by two surrounding cells. The
three atoms within the body of the cell are fully
contributing to the cell. ∴ Total no. of atoms in a unit
cell = 3/2 + 3/2 + 3 = 6
• Calculation of c/a ratio for an ideal hexagonal close
packed structure Let c be the height of the unit cell and
a be the edge of the unit cell. In ∆𝐿𝑀𝑃, 𝐿𝑃 = 𝐿𝑀 cos
30° = 𝑎 cos 30° = 𝑎√3 /2
• In ∆𝐿𝑄𝑆, 𝐿𝑆2 = 𝐿𝑄2 + 𝑄𝑆2 ….. (i) Here, 𝐿𝑄 = 2 /3 𝐿𝑃 = 2/
3 × 𝑎√3/ 2 = 𝑎 /√3
• Substituting the appropriate values in
equation (i), we get: 𝑎 2 = ( 𝑎 √3 ) /2 + ( 𝑐 2 ) /2
= 𝑎 2 3 + 𝑐 2 /4 𝑜𝑟, 𝑐 2 / 4 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑎 2 /3 = 2𝑎/ 2 3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑐 2 /𝑎 2 = 8 /3 ∴ 𝑐 𝑎 = √ 8
• Magnesium, Zinc and Cadmium crystallize in
this structure. The atomic packing facto of
F.C.C and H.C.P is 74% and hence they are
known as closest packing structures
Chapter 3:Mechanical Properties and their
Test
There are two types of tests which are destructive and non-destructive
tests.

Destructive tests include:

1. Tensile test
2. Compression test
3. Torsion test
4. Impact test
5. Hardness test
6. Fatigue test
7. Creep test

Non- destructive tests are:

1. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
2. Radiographic test
3. Atomic Force Microscope
4. Liquid penetrate testing
5. Ultrasonic test
Destructive tests:

1. Tensile tests
Tensile stress (or tension) is the stress state
leading to expansion; that is, the length of a
material tends to increase in
the tensile direction. The volume of the material
stays constant. When equal and opposite forces
are applied on a body, then the stress due to

this force is called tensile stress.  = F / Ao

>>>>>>>>>> equation 1
Stress unit is MPa = N/mm2
Figure (1) Specimen under
tension force
Engineering strain is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the
initial dimension of the material body in which the forces are being applied
Strain is unit less

Engineering strain (  ) = L - L / L

>>>>>>equation 2

Figure (2) Elongation of specimen under

tension force
The tension test is used to determine several mechanical properties of
materials which are very important in materials design. The specimen is
mounted by its end into the holding grips of the testing instrument (fig 1).
The tensile instrument is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate
around (2.5 to 3 mm/second), and spontaneously measure the load using
transducer and the elongations using extensometer. A stress-strain curve will
be initiated takes several minutes and the specimen is permanently deformed
and usually fractured.

Figure (3) Instrument of

Tensile Test
 Specimen geometries specified by American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM):
- Round specimens are preferred for extruded bars and castings (Fig2-a)
- Flat specimens are preferred when end-products are thin plates or sheets
(Fig2-b)

Figure (4) Standard specimen of tensile

test
Stress-strain curve
The stress-strain curve relates the applied
stress to the resulting strain and each
material has its own unique stress-strain The initial straight line (0P)of the
curve. curve characterizes proportional
relationship between the stress and
the deformation (strain). the
relationship between the stress and
the strain of the specimen exhibits
is linear.
The stress value at the point P is
called the limit of proportionality:
σp= FP / A0

Fig ( 5 ) Stress-strain diagram for mild steel

This behavior conforms to the Hook’s Law:

σ = E*
Where E is a constant, known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of
Elasticity.
The value of Young’s Modulus is determined mainly by the nature of the
material and is nearly insensitive to the heat treatment and composition.
Modulus of elasticity determines stiffness K - resistance of a body to elastic
deformation caused by an applied force. K = F / change of length (L - L )
The line 0E in the Stress-Strain curve indicates the range of elastic
deformation – removal of the load at any point of this part of the curve
results in return of the specimen length to its original value.
The elastic behavior is characterized by the elasticity limit (stress
value at the point E):
For the most materials the points P and E coincide and
therefore σel=σp.
A point where the stress causes sudden deformation without any
increase in the force is called yield limit (yield stress, yield
strength):
σy= FY / A0
The highest stress (point YU) , occurring before the sudden
deformation is called upper yield limit .
The lower stress value, causing the sudden deformation (point YL) is
called lower yield limit.
The commonly used parameter of yield limit is actually lower yield
limit.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum stress that can be sustained by the specimen
undergoes tension force- the point S in the diagram.
Tensile strengths may vary anywhere from 50 MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa
for the high-strength steels. Ordinarily, when the strength of a metal is cited for design
purposes, the yield strength is used. This is because by the time a stress corresponding to the
tensile strength has been applied, often a structure has experienced so much plastic
deformation that it is useless. Furthermore, fracture strengths are not normally specified for
engineering design purposes.
- Continuation of the deformation results in breaking the specimen - the point B in the
diagram.

Fig (6) Specimen behavior during tensil

Offset yield point (proof stress)
When a yield point is not easily defined based on the shape of the stress-strain curve an offset
yield point is arbitrarily defined. High strength steel and non-ferrous alloys do not exhibit a
yield point, so this offset yield point is used on these materials. Further, this offset strain of
0.2% for yield stress is by ASTM, whereas in England, 0.1% and 0.5 % is commonly used.
Essentially 0.2% offset method of yield stress gives reproducible values though it is an
approximate measure (and accepted in engineering sense) of the transition from elastic to onset
of plastic deformation.

Figure (7) offset yield method

Ductility
Ductility defines as the ability of materials to deform easily under tensile force or as the
ability of materials to withstand the plastic deformation without fracture. The materials that
exhibit little or no ductility termed as brittle materials. Stress-strain behavior for both
ductile and brittle materials is shown in fig (8)

Ductility may be expressed quantitatively

as either percent elongation or percent
reduction in area. The percent elongation
%EL is the percentage of plastic strain
at fracture

% EL = (Lf - Lo / Lo) x 100 , where the Lo

is the original gauge length

% RA= (Ao-Af / A0 ) x 100 , where Af is

the fracture area
Figure (8) Stress-strain behavior of Ductile and
Resilience and Toughness

Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The modulus of resilience Ur is
defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without creating a
permanent distortion (joule/m3)

Ur = y2 / 2E, where y is yield strength

Toughness it is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture.
The units for toughness are the same as for resilience (i.e., energy per unit volume of

material (joule/m3) )
. For a material to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility; often, ductile
materials are tougher than brittle ones

9
True stress and True strain
From fig 4 , the decline in the stress necessary to continue deformation past the maximum, point
M, seems to indicate that the metal is becoming weaker. However, the cross-sectional area is
decreasing rapidly within the neck region, where deformation is occurring. The stress, as
computed from Equation 1, is on the basis of the original cross sectional area before any
deformation, and does not take into account this reduction in area at the neck. Sometimes it is
more meaningful to use a true stress–true strain scheme. True stress is defined as the load F
𝐿𝑖−𝐿𝑜
divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area over which deformation is occurring (i.e., the
Engineering strain = where Li is actual length, Lo is gauge length
𝐿𝑜
neck, past the tensile point)
𝐿𝑖
True strain = ln
𝐿𝑜

𝐿𝑖−𝐿𝑜 Li Li
E = = – 1, so = E + 1
𝐿𝑜 Lo Lo

T= ln (E +1)

Engineering stress E = F / Ao where Ao is original area
True stress (T) = F/ Ai , where Ai is the area where the fracture occurring at the necking
region Li
Since the volume is constant Ao L0 = Ai Li >>>>>Ai = [ ] / Ao
Lo

F Li
T = F/ Ai = [ ]
Ao Lo

T = E (E +1)
For some metals and alloys, the region of the true stress/ strain curve up to M’ is approx

T = K n T

Where K and n are constants depend on whether the material has been cold worked, heat treate
Figure (10) True stress-strain curve
 Ductile and Brittle materials fracture
Fracture: separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the
melting point. Steps in fracture:
1-ductile
In crack formation
fracture, the 2- crack
crack propagation
grows at a slow pace and is accompanied with a great deal of
plastic deformation due to the motion of dislocation. In this, the crack does not expand except
when high levels of stress are present.
Under the view of a microscope, the surfaces of materials with ductile fracture appear
irregular and rough, and exhibit some dimpling

Figure (12) Dislocations

Figure (11) Steps of fracture for ductile motion in ductile materials
materials
Brittle Fracture

Very little or no plastic deformation, Crack propagation is very fast , Crack propagates nearly
perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress, Crack often propagates by cleavage -
breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).

Figure (12) difference in cracks for Figure (13) Crack propagation in Brittle
ductile and brittle materials materials
Examples:
1. For a bronze alloy, the stress at which plastic deformation begins is 280 MPa, and the modulu

(a) What is the maximum load that may be applied to a specimen with a cross-sectional
plastic deformation?
(b) If the original specimen length is 120 mm, what is the maximum length to which it m
causing plastic deformation?
Solution:
(a) This portion of the problem calls for a determination of the maximum load that can
deformation (Fy). Taking the yield strength to be 280 MPa

Fy = σyAo= (280 N/mm2 )(325 mm2 ) = 91000 N

𝑏 ∆𝑙 =  Lo
= σ/E = 280x106 / 115x109 = 0.00243
Ly-120mm = 0.00243 x 120mm
Ly = 120.292 mm
 Example #2:
From the tensile stress–strain behavior for the brass specimen
shown in
Figure below determine the following:
(a) The modulus of elasticity
(b) The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002
(c) The maximum load that can be sustained by a cylindrical
specimen having
an original diameter of 12.8 mm
(d) The change in length of a specimen originally 250 mm long
that
is subjected to a tensile stress of 345 MPa
  2− 1
a. E = slope = = Δ =
Δ 2−1
Its easier if we take 1 and 1 as zero.

For 2 = 150 MPa and 2 = 0.0016 , so

150−0 MPa
E= = 93.8 GPa
0.0016−0
(b) The 0.002 strain offset line is constructed as shown in the inset; its intersection with the stress
approximately 250 MPa which is the yield strength of the brass.

( c ) From the fig, the maximum tensile strength is 450 MPa

Fmax = max(ult) Ao= max(ult) x ( r2)

Fmax= ( 450 N/mm2 ) x ( (6.4 mm)2)

F max = 57900 N

(d) first necessary to determine the strain that is produced by a stress of 34

accomplished by locating the stress point on the stress–strain curve, poin
corresponding strain from the strain axis, which is approximately 0.06. In
mm, we have
∆l =  Lo = 0.06 x 250 mm = 15mm.
 Example 3:
A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8 mm is tensile tested to fracture
engineering fracture strength of 460 MPa. If its cross-sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm, de
(a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
(b) The true stress at fracture
(a) % RA= (Ao-Af / A0 ) x 100

{ 12.8
2
2−
10.7
2
2}
%RA= x 100 = 30%
(10.7/2)2
(b)True stress is defined the area is taken as the fracture area Af However, the load at fra
computed from the fracture strength as
F = f Ai = 460 MPa x [ (12.8/2 mm)2] = 59200 N
f represents engineering stress E which is determined using the initial area
T = F / A f
T = 59200/  (10.7/2)2
T = 660 MPa
Example 4: A cylindrical specimen of aluminum having a diameter of 12.8 mm and a gauge
length of 50.800 mm is pulled in tension. Use the load–elongation characteristics shown in
the following table to complete parts (a) through (e).

Load Length
N mm
0 50.800 (a) Plot the data as engineering
7,330 50.851
15,100 50.902
stress versus engineering strain.
23,100 50.952 (b) Compute the modulus of
30,400 51.003
34,400 51.054
elasticity.
38,400 51.308 (c) Determine the yield strength at
41,300 51.816
44,800 52.832
a strain offset of 0.002.
46,200 53.848 (d) Determine the tensile strength
47,300 54.864
47,500 55.880
of this alloy.
46,100 56.896 (e) What is the approximate
44,800 57.658
42,600 58.420
ductility, in percent elongation?
36,400 59.1
(a) The data are plotted below on two plots: the first corresponds to the entire stress–st
second, the curve extends to just beyond the elastic region of deformation.
 = F/A
When the load is 7330 N , so = F/  r2

 = 7330 /  (12.8/2)2 = 57 MPa

At F= 15100 N ,  = 15100 /  (12.8/2)2 = 117.4 MPa

Then, we can do the same calculations for the resting loads to find their stresses
∆𝐿
= , when F=0, so no change in length will be occurred ∆𝐿=0 and =
𝐿𝑖

50.851−50.8
F= 7330, = = 0.001
50.8

50.902−50.8
F= 15100, = = 0.002
50.8
Then, we can do the same calculations for the resting loads to find their strain
(b) The elastic modulus is the slope in the linear elastic region
 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎−0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
E=∆ = = 62.5 x103 MPa = 62.5 GPa
∆ 0.0032−0

(c) For the yield strength, the 0.002 strain offset line is drawn
intersects the stress–strain curve at approximately 285 MPa.

(d) The tensile strength is approximately 370 MPa, correspond

maximum stress on the complete stress-strain plot.

𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑖 59.1−50.8
(e) % EL= x 100 = x100 = 16.33 %
𝐿𝑖 50.8
Example 5 :

For some metal alloy, a true stress of 345 MPa produces a plastic true strain of 0.02. How
much will a specimen of this material elongate when a true stress of 415 MPa is applied if the
original length is 500 mm? Assume a value of 0.22 for the strain-hardening exponent, n.

σT = K (εT) n
Next we must solve for the true strain produce when a true stress of 415
MPa is applied
 Impact test
• The energy used in rupture the specimen in both Charpy and Izod tests is
calculated as follows:

• Initial energy = WH = W(R-R cos α) = WR (1- cos α )

• Energy after rupture = WH1 = W(R-R cos β) = WR(1- cos β)
• Energy used to rupture specimen = WH- WH1
= WR (1-cos α) - WR (1-cos β)
= WR [(1-cos α) - (1-cos β) ]
= WR [cos β - cos α ]
 Imact test

• Effect of important variables on impact strength:

• Angle of notch. There is no appreciable effect of notch angle until its value
exceeds 60°
• Shape of the notch. As the sharpness of the notch increases the energy
required to rupture the specimen deceases.
• Dimensions of the specimen. By decreasing the dimensions of the
specimen the energy of rupture decreases.
• Velocity of Impact. The important resistance decreases above certain
critical velocity, this varies from metal to metal.
• Specimen Temperature. The temperature of specimen for a particular
metal, determines whether the failure will be brittle, ductile or mixed
character.
•
• Fatigue tests measure the resistance of materials to
damage, strength loss and failure under the repeated
application of load. Aerospace materials must
withstand repeated loading for long periods of time,
which is in the order of 15 000–20 000 flight hours for
modern jet engine materials and anywhere from 80
000 to 120 000 h for airframe materials. Materials can
be damaged by repeated loading, which causes a loss
in strength and eventually leads to complete failure.
Fatigue tests are performed to measure the reduction
in stiffness and strength of materials under repeated
loading and to determine the total number of load
cycles to failure.
• Fatigue tests are performed by repeated tension–
tension, compression– compression, tension-
compression or other combinations of cyclic loading.
`
 CHAPTER 5 SOLIDIFICATION, PHASE RELATIONS AND
STRENGTHENING MECHANISM

• 5.1 Solidification Solidification is a phase change in

which a liquid turns into a solid when its temp is
lowered below its freezing point. Almost all metals and
alloys, at one point in their processing are a liquid,
when then solidifies as it cools below the freezing
temperature the material can be used in the as-
solidified condition or may be further processed by
mechanical working or heat treatment. The structures
produced during solidification affect the mechanical
properties and influence the type of further processing
needed to achieve final properties. In pure metals, the
grain size and shape may be controlled by
solidification.
• 5.1.1 Nucleation and Grain
Growth Solidification requires
two steps- nucleation and
growth. Nucleation occurs when
a small piece of solid forms from
the liquid. Growth of solid occurs
as atoms from the liquid are
attached to the tiny solid until no
liquid remains. We expect a
material to solidify when the
liquid cools below the freezing
temperature. As the temperature
falls below the freezing
temperature, the energy
associated with the crystalline
structure of solid is increasingly
less than the energy of the liquid,
making the solid more and more
stable
However when the solid
forms, an interface is
created, separating the solid
from the liquid; an increase
in energy is associated with
this interface.
• The total change in the free energy depends on the size of the solid.
The growth of a very small solid particle, called an embryo, requires
an increase in free energy. Instead of growing, the embryo re-melts;
causing the free energy to decrease, and the metal remains liquid.
Since the liquid is present below the equilibrium freezing
temperature, it is under-cooled. The under-cooling is the
equilibrium freezing temperature minus the actual temp of the
liquid. Nucleation has not occurred and growth cannot begin, even
though the temperature is below the equilibrium freezing
temperature. When a large solid particle grows, the free energy
decreases. The solid is now stable, nucleation has occurred, and
growth of solid particle, which is now called a nucleus, begins.
Nucleation only occurs when enough atoms spontaneously cluster
together to produce a solid with a radius greater than the critical
radius 𝑟 ∗ , corresponding to a maximum on the total free energy
curve.
• Homogenous Nucleation As the liquid cools further below
the equilibrium freezing temp, there is a greater probability
that atoms will cluster together to form an embryo larger
than the critical radius. In addition, there is a large volume
free energy difference between the liquid and the solid,
which reduces the critical size of the nucleus. Homogenous
nucleation occurs when the under-cooling becomes large
enough to permit the embryo to exceed the critical size. As
the under-cooling increases, the critical radius required for
the nucleation decreases. As an approximation,
homogenous nucleation occurs when 𝜕𝑇 = 0.2𝑇𝑚 where,
𝑇𝑚 = Equilibrium freezing temperature in K. 𝜕𝑇 = 𝑇𝑚 – 𝑇 is
the under-cooling when the liquid temp is T.
• 5.1.2 Crystal Growth/ Dendrite
Formation Once solid nuclei have
formed, growth occurs as atoms
are attached to the solid surface.
In pure metals, growth depends
on how heat is removed from the
solidliquid system. Two types of
heat must be removed – the
specific heat of the liquid and the
latent heat of fusion. The specific
heat must be removed first,
usually by conduction into the
surrounding mold, until the liquid
cools to the freezing temp. The
latent heat of fusion, which
represents the energy that is
evolved as the disordered liquid
structure
• transforms to a more stable crystal structure, must be removed
from the solid-liquid interface before solidification is completed.
The manner in which we remove the latent heat of fusion
determines the growth mechanism and final structure. When a
well-inoculated liquid cools slowly under equilibrium conditions,
the temp of the liquid metal is greater than the freezing temp. The
latent heat of fusion can only be removed by conduction from the
solid-liquid interface through the solid to the surroundings. Any
small protuberance (refer fig. 5.2), that begins to grow on the
interface is surrounded by liquid metal above the freezing
temperature. This means that the formation of protuberance
begins when the liquid temperature is above the freezing
temperature. The mechanism, known as planar growth, occurs by
the movement of a smooth solid-liquid interface into the liquid.
• However, when nucleation is poor, the liquid
may under-cool to a temp below the freezing
temp. Under these conditions, a small solid
protuberance called a dendrite, which forms
at the interface, is encouraged to grow. As
the solid dendrite grows, the latent heat of
fusion is conducted into the under-cooled
liquid, raising the temp of the liquid towards
the freezing temp. Secondary and tertiary
dendrite arms can also form on the primary
stalks to speed the evolution of the latent
heat. Dendritic growth continues until the
under-cooled liquid warms to the freezing
temp. Any remaining liquid then solidifies by
planar growth. In pure metals, dendritic
growth normally represents only a small
fraction of the total growth.
• 5.1.3 Cooling curve A cooling curve is a line graph that
represents the change of phase of matter, typically from a
gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid. The independent
variable (X-axis) is time and the dependent variable (Y-axis)
is temperature. Below is an example of a cooling curve used
in castings. The initial point of the graph is the starting
temperature of the matter, here noted as the pouring
temperature. When the phase change occurs there is a
thermal arrest, i.e. the temperature stays constant. This is
because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or
gas than in the state that it is cooling to. The amount of
energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat.
The cooling rate is the slope of the cooling curve at any
point.
• In the part of the curve where the
temperature decreases, the kinetic energy
also decreases while the potential energy
stays the same. However, at the phase
transition, where the curve is flat, the kinetic
energy stays the same while the potential
energy decreases.
• 5.1.4 Cast Metal Structure Figure below summaries four of the
dozens of casting processes. The processes are divided into several
groups – sand molds, ceramics molds and metal molds. The process
using metal molds tend to give the highest strength castings due to
rapid solidification. Ceramics molds, because they are good
insulators, give the slowest cooling and lowest strength changes. a)
Green Sand molding in which clay-bonded sand is packed around a
pattern. Sand cores can produce internal cavities in the casting. b)
The permanent mold process in which metal is poured into an iron
or steel mold. c) Die casting in which metal is injected at high
pressures into a steel die d) Investment casting, in which a wax
pattern is surrounded by a ceramic; after the wax is melted and
drained, metal is poured into the mold.
• 5.1.5 Solidification Defects A properly designed casting, a
properly prepared mold and correctly melted metal should
result in a defect free casting. However, if proper control is
not exercised in the foundrysometimes it is too expensive -
a variety of defects may result in a casting. These defects
may be the result of: Improper pattern design , Improper
mold and core pattern , Improper melting
practice,Improper pouring practice, Molding and core
making materials , Improper gating system ,Improper metal
composition, Inadequate melting temperature. It creates a
deficiency or imperfection. Exceeding quality limits
imposed by design and service casting defects are mainly
three categories. They are: Surface Defects ,Internal
Defects and Visible Defects
• 5.1.5.1 Surface Defects Due to design and quality of sand
molds and general cause is poor ramming.
• 1. Blow :Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases
which displace molten metal form.
• 2. Scar: Due to improper permeability or venting. A scar is
a shallow blow. It generally occurs on flat surf; whereas a
blow occurs on a convex casting surface. A blister is a
shallow blow like a scar with thin layer of metal covering it.
3. Scab :This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a
mold lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled
by metal. When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may
be disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand
which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled
with metal. The reasons can fine sand texture, low
permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand and
uneven mold ramming
• 4. Drop Drop or crush in a mold is an irregularly shaped projection on the
cope surface of a casting. This defect is caused by the break-away of a part
of mold sand as a result of weak packing of the mold, low strength of the
molding sand, malfunctioning of molding equipment, strong jolts and
strikes at the flask when assembling the mold. The loose sand that falls
into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting surface, either on the top or
bottom surface of the casting, depending upon the relative densities of
the sand and the liquid.
• 5. Penetration It is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting
which results from insufficient refractoriness of molding materials, a large
content of impurities, inadequate mold packing and poor quality of mold
washes. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity, at those
places when the sand packing is inadequate, some metal will flow
between the sand particles for a distance into the mold wall and get
solidified. When the casting is removed, this lump of metal remains
attached to the casting. Of course, it can be removed afterwards by
chipping or grinding.
• 6. Buckle A buckle is a long, fairly shallow, broad,
vee depression that occurs in the surface of flat
castings. It extends in a fairly straight line across
the entire flat surface. It results due to the sand
expansion caused by the heat of the metal, when
the sand has insufficient hot deformation. It also
results from poor casting design providing too
large a flat surface in the mold cavity. Buckling is
prevented by mixing cereal or wood flour to sand
• 3. Hot Tear Hot tears are hot cracks which appear in
the form of irregular crevices with a dark oxidized
fracture surface. They arise when the solidifying met
does not have sufficient strength to resist tensile forces
produced during solidification. This defect can be
avoided by improving the design of the casting and by
having a mold of low hot strength and large hot
deformation.
• 4. Shrinkage A shrinkage cavity is a depression or an
internal void in a casting that results from the volume
contraction that occurs during solidification.
• 5. Swell A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found
on vertical faces of castings, resulting from liquid metal
pressure. It may be due to low strength of mold
because of too high a water content or when the mold
is not rammed sufficiently.
• 6. Shift Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a
sidewise displacement of the mold cope relative to the
drag, the result of which is a step in the cast product at
the parting line. Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it
is the core that is displaced, and (the displacement is
usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift are caused by
buoyancy of the molten metal
• 5.1.6 Solid Solution and Solid Solution Strengthening The mixture of two
or more liquid material i.e. solute and solvent is called solution. The
solution after solidification e.g. Steel (alloy of iron and carbon) is called
solid solutions. The solute atoms are introduced into the matrix (solvent
atoms). Solid solution is compositionally homogenous; the solute
(impurity) atoms are randomly distributed throughout the matrix. There
are two types of solid solutions. 1. Substitutional Solid Solution: The solute
and solvent atoms are similar in size, rendering the solute atoms to occupy
lattice point of the solvent atoms. 2. Interstitial Solid Solution: The solute
atoms are of similar size than the solvent atom, rendering the solute
atoms to occupy the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice. Solid solution
strengthening is a technique to strengthen and harden metals by alloying
with impurity atoms that go into either substitutional or interstitial solid
solution. Solid solution strengthening distorts the lattice, offers resistance
to dislocation movement which is greater with interstitial elements which
cause asymmetric lattice distortion, e.g., carbon in steel.
• 1. Substitutional Solid Solution: The solute and solvent
atoms are similar in size, rendering the solute atoms to
occupy lattice point of the solvent atoms. 2. Interstitial
Solid Solution: The solute atoms are of similar size than
the solvent atom, rendering the solute atoms to
occupy the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice. Solid
solution strengthening is a technique to strengthen and
harden metals by alloying with impurity atoms that go
into either substitutional or interstitial solid solution.
Solid solution strengthening distorts the lattice, offers
resistance to dislocation movement which is greater
with interstitial elements which cause asymmetric
lattice distortion, e.g., carbon in steel.
• Factors affecting solubility of Solute Atoms The solubility of
the solute atoms in the host matrix (solvent) can be
determined by several factors:
• 1. Atomic size factor: Solid solution is appreciable when the
difference in atomic radii between the two atoms is ≤ 15%,
otherwise it creates substantial lattice distortion.
• 2. Crystal structure: Similar crystal structure of metals of
both atom types are preferred.
• 3. Electro negativity : The more electropositive one
element and the more electronegative the other, the more
tendency to form an inter-metallic compound than solid
solution.
• 4. Valency: A metal will have more of a tendency to dissolve
another metal of higher valency than one of a lower
valency.
• Effects of Solid Solution Strengthening on
properties
• 1. The yield strength, tensile strength and
hardness of the alloy are greater than those of
pure metals.
• 2. Almost always, the ductility of the alloy is less
than the pure metal.
• 3. Electrical conductivity of the alloy is much
lower than that of pure metal.
• 4. The resistance to creep or loss of strength at
elevated temperature is improved by solid
solution strengthening.
• 5.2.1 Phase and Phase Rule Phase: A phase
has the following characteristics a) A phase
has the same structure or atomic arrangement
throughout b) A phase has roughly the same
composition & properties throughout c) There
is a definite interface between the phase and
any surrounding or adjoining phases. E.g. solid
state, liquid state, gaseous state Solution: It is
the mixture of two or more liquid material i.e.
(solute + solvent
• 5.2.2 Phase Diagram: The properties of a material
depend on the type, number, amount, and form
of the phases present, and can be changed by
altering these quantities. In order to make these
changes, it is essential to know the conditions
under which these quantitiesexist and the
conditions under which a change in phase will
occur. A phase diagram shows the state or phase
of the solution at various conditions of temp.,
pressure and composition. It shows the phases
and their compositions at any combination of
temperature and alloy composition
• The best method to record the data related to phase
changes in many alloy systems is in the form of phase
diagrams, also known as equilibrium diagrams or
constitutional diagrams. In order to specify completely the
state of a system in equilibrium, it is necessary to specify
three independent variables. These variables, which are
externally controllable, are temperature, pressure and
composition. With pressure assumed to be constant at
atmospheric value, the equilibrium diagram indicates the
structural changes due to variation of temperature and
composition. Phase diagrams show the phase relationships
under equilibrium conditions, that is, under conditions in
which there will be no change with time. Equilibrium
conditions may be approached by extremely slow heating
and cooling, so that if a phase change is to occur, sufficient
time is allowed.
• Phase diagrams are usually
plotted with temperature as
the ordinate, and the alloy
composition as the abscissa
as shown in figure
alongside. The data for the
construction of equilibrium
diagrams are determined
experimentally by a variety
of methods, the most
common methods are
metallographic method, X-
ray diffraction technique,
thermal analysis, etc.
• Cooling Curve of a Pure
Metal Under
equilibrium conditions,
all metals exhibit a
definite melting or
freezing point. If a
cooling curve is plotted
for a pure metal. It will
show a horizontal line
at the melting or
freezing temperature.
• Cooling Curve of a Solid Solution A
solid solution is a solution in the solid
state and consists of two kinds of
atoms combined in one type of space
lattice. A solution is composed of two
parts: a solute and a solvent. The
solute is the minor part of the
solution or the material which is
dissolved, while the solvent
constitutes the major portion of the
solution. When solidification of the
solution starts, the temperature may
be higher or lower than the freezing
point of the pure solvent. Most solid
solutions solidify over a range in
temperature. Figure below shows the
cooling curve for the solidification of
a solid solution.
 CHAPTER 5 SOLIDIFICATION, PHASE RELATIONS AND
STRENGTHENING MECHANISM

• 5.1 Solidification Solidification is a phase change in

which a liquid turns into a solid when its temp is
lowered below its freezing point. Almost all metals and
alloys, at one point in their processing are a liquid,
when then solidifies as it cools below the freezing
temperature the material can be used in the as-
solidified condition or may be further processed by
mechanical working or heat treatment. The structures
produced during solidification affect the mechanical
properties and influence the type of further processing
needed to achieve final properties. In pure metals, the
grain size and shape may be controlled by
solidification.
• 5.1.1 Nucleation and Grain
Growth Solidification requires
two steps- nucleation and
growth. Nucleation occurs when
a small piece of solid forms from
the liquid. Growth of solid occurs
as atoms from the liquid are
attached to the tiny solid until no
liquid remains. We expect a
material to solidify when the
liquid cools below the freezing
temperature. As the temperature
falls below the freezing
temperature, the energy
associated with the crystalline
structure of solid is increasingly
less than the energy of the liquid,
making the solid more and more
stable
However when the solid
forms, an interface is
created, separating the solid
from the liquid; an increase
in energy is associated with
this interface.
• Free energy, often referred to as Gibbs free energy in
thermodynamics, is a thermodynamic potential that measures the
maximum reversible work that a thermodynamic system can
perform at constant temperature and pressure. It is a critical
concept in understanding the spontaneity of processes and phase
transitions. Here's a more detailed explanation:
• Gibbs Free Energy (G)
• Definition: Gibbs free energy (G) is defined as:
• G=H−TS
• where:
– H is the enthalpy (total heat content) of the system.

– T is the temperature.
– S is the entropy (degree of disorder) of the system.
• Physical Meaning:
– It represents the amount of work that can be extracted
from a system at constant temperature and pressure.
– It combines the concepts of enthalpy (energy content) and
entropy (disorder), providing a criterion for spontaneity of
processes.
• Spontaneity of Reactions:
– A negative change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG<0) indicates
that a process or chemical reaction can occur
spontaneously.
– A positive change (ΔG>0) means the process is non-
spontaneous and requires an input of energy to occur.
– If ΔG=0 the system is in equilibrium.
• Free Energy in the Context of Nucleation
• In the context of nucleation and phase transitions, such as the
solidification process discussed in your image, free energy plays a
crucial role in determining the stability and growth of new phases
(e.g., solid particles forming in a liquid).
• Volume Free Energy (Δg):
– This is the energy change associated with the formation of a new
phase in the bulk (volume) of the material.
– For a solid forming from a liquid, it typically decreases as the system
transitions to a lower energy state.
• Surface Free Energy (σ):
– This is the energy associated with creating a new surface/interface
between the new phase (solid) and the existing phase (liquid).
– It usually increases because creating a new surface requires energy.
• Total Change in Free Energy (ΔG):
– The total change in free energy when a new solid phase
forms is the sum of the decrease in volume free energy
and the increase in surface free energy.
– This is expressed as: ΔG=4/3xπr3Δg+4πr2σ
– The balance between these two terms determines the
critical radius (r∗) and the activation energy (ΔG) required
for nucleation to occur.
• In summary, free energy is a measure of the useful
work obtainable from a thermodynamic system and is
fundamental in predicting and understanding the
behavior of physical and chemical processes, including
nucleation and phase transitions.
• The provided image contains a description of
the change in free energy during the
solidification process, particularly focusing on
the formation of a solid-liquid interface. Let's
break down the key points and equations:
• Total Change in Free Energy: The total change
in free energy when a solid forms is the sum
of the decrease in volume free energy and the
increase in surface free energy.
• Change in Free Energy in Solid-Liquid
Interface:
3
• ΔG=4/3πr Δg+4πr2σ
• Here:
– ΔG is the change in free energy.
– r is the radius of the solid particle.
– Δg is the change in volume free energy per unit
volume.
– σ is the surface energy per unit area.
• Spontaneous Growth Radius (r∗): The critical
radius r∗ above which spontaneous growth
occurs is given by:
• r∗=2σ/ΔSfΔT
• Here:
– ΔSf is the entropy change per unit volume.
– ΔT is the undercooling (the difference between
the melting temperature and the actual
temperature).
• Activation Energy (ΔG): The activation energy
ΔG∗ required for nucleation is given by:
• ΔG∗=16πσ3 /3ΔSf2(ΔT)2​
• Graphical Representation:
– The graph on the right plots the change in free energy (ΔG)
against the radius (r)
– The interfacial energy (∝r2) and volume free energy
(∝r3ΔT) are shown.
– r3 and ΔG∗ are indicated on the graph, highlighting the
critical radius and the corresponding activation energy.
• This representation and the equations illustrate the
thermodynamics of nucleation, where the balance
between the surface energy and volume energy
determines the formation and growth of solid particles
in a liquid.
• The total change in the free energy depends on the size of the solid.
The growth of a very small solid particle, called an embryo, requires
an increase in free energy. Instead of growing, the embryo re-melts;
causing the free energy to decrease, and the metal remains liquid.
Since the liquid is present below the equilibrium freezing
temperature, it is under-cooled. The under-cooling is the
equilibrium freezing temperature minus the actual temp of the
liquid. Nucleation has not occurred and growth cannot begin, even
though the temperature is below the equilibrium freezing
temperature. When a large solid particle grows, the free energy
decreases. The solid is now stable, nucleation has occurred, and
growth of solid particle, which is now called a nucleus, begins.
Nucleation only occurs when enough atoms spontaneously cluster
together to produce a solid with a radius greater than the critical
radius 𝑟 ∗ , corresponding to a maximum on the total free energy
curve.
• Homogenous Nucleation As the liquid cools further below
the equilibrium freezing temp, there is a greater probability
that atoms will cluster together to form an embryo larger
than the critical radius. In addition, there is a large volume
free energy difference between the liquid and the solid,
which reduces the critical size of the nucleus. Homogenous
nucleation occurs when the under-cooling becomes large
enough to permit the embryo to exceed the critical size. As
the under-cooling increases, the critical radius required for
the nucleation decreases. As an approximation,
homogenous nucleation occurs when 𝜕𝑇 = 0.2𝑇𝑚 where,
𝑇𝑚 = Equilibrium freezing temperature in K. 𝜕𝑇 = 𝑇𝑚 – 𝑇 is
the under-cooling when the liquid temp is T.
• 5.1.2 Crystal Growth/ Dendrite
Formation Once solid nuclei have
formed, growth occurs as atoms
are attached to the solid surface.
In pure metals, growth depends
on how heat is removed from the
solidliquid system. Two types of
heat must be removed – the
specific heat of the liquid and the
latent heat of fusion. The specific
heat must be removed first,
usually by conduction into the
surrounding mold, until the liquid
cools to the freezing temp. The
latent heat of fusion, which
represents the energy that is
evolved as the disordered liquid
structure
• transforms to a more stable crystal structure, must be removed
from the solid-liquid interface before solidification is completed.
The manner in which we remove the latent heat of fusion
determines the growth mechanism and final structure. When a
well-inoculated liquid cools slowly under equilibrium conditions,
the temp of the liquid metal is greater than the freezing temp. The
latent heat of fusion can only be removed by conduction from the
solid-liquid interface through the solid to the surroundings. Any
small protuberance (refer fig. 5.2), that begins to grow on the
interface is surrounded by liquid metal above the freezing
temperature. This means that the formation of protuberance
begins when the liquid temperature is above the freezing
temperature. The mechanism, known as planar growth, occurs by
the movement of a smooth solid-liquid interface into the liquid.
• However, when nucleation is poor, the liquid
may under-cool to a temp below the freezing
temp. Under these conditions, a small solid
protuberance called a dendrite, which forms
at the interface, is encouraged to grow. As
the solid dendrite grows, the latent heat of
fusion is conducted into the under-cooled
liquid, raising the temp of the liquid towards
the freezing temp. Secondary and tertiary
dendrite arms can also form on the primary
stalks to speed the evolution of the latent
heat. Dendritic growth continues until the
under-cooled liquid warms to the freezing
temp. Any remaining liquid then solidifies by
planar growth. In pure metals, dendritic
growth normally represents only a small
fraction of the total growth.
• 5.1.3 Cooling curve A cooling curve is a line graph that
represents the change of phase of matter, typically from a
gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid. The independent
variable (X-axis) is time and the dependent variable (Y-axis)
is temperature. Below is an example of a cooling curve used
in castings. The initial point of the graph is the starting
temperature of the matter, here noted as the pouring
temperature. When the phase change occurs there is a
thermal arrest, i.e. the temperature stays constant. This is
because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or
gas than in the state that it is cooling to. The amount of
energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat.
The cooling rate is the slope of the cooling curve at any
point.
• In the part of the curve where the
temperature decreases, the kinetic energy
also decreases while the potential energy
stays the same. However, at the phase
transition, where the curve is flat, the kinetic
energy stays the same while the potential
energy decreases.
• 5.1.4 Cast Metal Structure Figure below summaries four of the
dozens of casting processes. The processes are divided into several
groups – sand molds, ceramics molds and metal molds. The process
using metal molds tend to give the highest strength castings due to
rapid solidification. Ceramics molds, because they are good
insulators, give the slowest cooling and lowest strength changes. a)
Green Sand molding in which clay-bonded sand is packed around a
pattern. Sand cores can produce internal cavities in the casting. b)
The permanent mold process in which metal is poured into an iron
or steel mold. c) Die casting in which metal is injected at high
pressures into a steel die d) Investment casting, in which a wax
pattern is surrounded by a ceramic; after the wax is melted and
drained, metal is poured into the mold.
• 5.1.5 Solidification Defects A properly designed casting, a
properly prepared mold and correctly melted metal should
result in a defect free casting. However, if proper control is
not exercised in the foundrysometimes it is too expensive -
a variety of defects may result in a casting. These defects
may be the result of: Improper pattern design.
Improper mold and core pattern. Improper melting
practice. Improper pouring practice. Molding and core
making materials. Improper gating system. Improper
metal composition. Inadequate melting temperature. It
creates a deficiency or imperfection. Exceeding quality
limits imposed by design and service casting defects are
mainly three categories. They are: Surface Defects
Internal Defects Visible Defects
• 5.1.5.1 Surface Defects Due to design and quality of sand
molds and general cause is poor ramming.
• 1. Blow Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases
which displace molten metal form.
• 2. Scar Due to improper permeability or venting. A scare is
a shallow blow. It generally occurs on flat surf; whereas a
blow occurs on a convex casting surface. A blister is a
shallow blow like a scar with thin layer of metal covering it.
3. Scab This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a
mold lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled
by metal. When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may
be disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand
which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled
with metal. The reasons can fine sand texture, low
permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand and
uneven mold ramming
• 4. Drop Drop or crush in a mold is an irregularly shaped projection on the
cope surface of a casting. This defect is caused by the break-away of a part
of mold sand as a result of weak packing of the mold, low strength of the
molding sand, malfunctioning of molding equipment, strong jolts and
strikes at the flask when assembling the mold. The loose sand that falls
into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting surface, either on the top or
bottom surface of the casting, depending upon the relative densities of
the sand and the liquid.
• 5. Penetration It is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting
which results from insufficient refractoriness of molding materials, a large
content of impurities, inadequate mold packing and poor quality of mold
washes. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity, at those
places when the sand packing is inadequate, some metal will flow
between the sand particles for a distance into the mold wall and get
solidified. When the casting is removed, this lump of metal remains
attached to the casting. Of course, it can be removed afterwards by
chipping or grinding.
• 6. Buckle A buckle is a long, fairly shallow, broad,
vee depression that occurs in the surface of flat
castings. It extends in a fairly straight line across
the entire flat surface. It results due to the sand
expansion caused by the heat of the metal, when
the sand has insufficient hot deformation. It also
results from poor casting design providing too
large a flat surface in the mold cavity. Buckling is
prevented by mixing cereal or wood flour to sand
• 3. Hot Tear Hot tears are hot cracks which appear in
the form of irregular crevices with a dark oxidized
fracture surface. They arise when the solidifying met
does not have sufficient strength to resist tensile forces
produced during solidification. This defect can be
avoided by improving the design of the casting and by
having a mold of low hot strength and large hot
deformation.
• 4. Shrinkage A shrinkage cavity is a depression or an
internal void in a casting that results from the volume
contraction that occurs during solidification.
• 5. Swell A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found
on vertical faces of castings, resulting from liquid metal
pressure. It may be due to low strength of mold
because of too high a water content or when the mold
is not rammed sufficiently.
• 6. Shift Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a
sidewise displacement of the mold cope relative to the
drag, the result of which is a step in the cast product at
the parting line. Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it
is the core that is displaced, and (the displacement is
usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift are caused by
buoyancy of the molten metal
• 5.1.6 Solid Solution and Solid Solution Strengthening The mixture of two
or more liquid material i.e. solute and solvent is called solution. The
solution after solidification e.g. Steel (alloy of iron and carbon) is called
solid solutions. The solute atoms are introduced into the matrix (solvent
atoms). Solid solution is compositionally homogenous; the solute
(impurity) atoms are randomly distributed throughout the matrix. There
are two types of solid solutions. 1. Substitutional Solid Solution: The solute
and solvent atoms are similar in size, rendering the solute atoms to occupy
lattice point of the solvent atoms. 2. Interstitial Solid Solution: The solute
atoms are of similar size than the solvent atom, rendering the solute
atoms to occupy the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice. Solid solution
strengthening is a technique to strengthen and harden metals by alloying
with impurity atoms that go into either substitutional or interstitial solid
solution. Solid solution strengthening distorts the lattice, offers resistance
to dislocation movement which is greater with interstitial elements which
cause asymmetric lattice distortion, e.g., carbon in steel.
• 1. Substitutional Solid Solution: The solute and solvent
atoms are similar in size, rendering the solute atoms to
occupy lattice point of the solvent atoms. 2. Interstitial
Solid Solution: The solute atoms are of similar size than
the solvent atom, rendering the solute atoms to
occupy the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice. Solid
solution strengthening is a technique to strengthen and
harden metals by alloying with impurity atoms that go
into either substitutional or interstitial solid solution.
Solid solution strengthening distorts the lattice, offers
resistance to dislocation movement which is greater
with interstitial elements which cause asymmetric
lattice distortion, e.g., carbon in steel.
• Factors affecting solubility of Solute Atoms The solubility of
the solute atoms in the host matrix (solvent) can be
determined by several factors:
• 1. Atomic size factor: Solid solution is appreciable when the
difference in atomic radii between the two atoms is ≤ 15%,
otherwise it creates substantial lattice distortion.
• 2. Crystal structure: Similar crystal structure of metals of
both atom types are preferred.
• 3. Electro negativity : The more electropositive one
element and the more electronegative the other, the more
tendency to form an inter-metallic compound than solid
solution.
• 4. Valency: A metal will have more of a tendency to dissolve
another metal of higher valency than one of a lower
valency.
• Effects of Solid Solution Strengthening on
properties
• 1. The yield strength, tensile strength and
hardness of the alloy are greater than those of
pure metals.
• 2. Almost always, the ductility of the alloy is less
than the pure metal.
• 3. Electrical conductivity of the alloy is much
lower than that of pure metal.
• 4. The resistance to creep or loss of strength at
elevated temperature is improved by solid
solution strengthening.
• 5.2.1 Phase and Phase Rule Phase: A phase
has the following characteristics a) A phase
has the same structure or atomic arrangement
throughout b) A phase has roughly the same
composition & properties throughout c) There
is a definite interface between the phase and
any surrounding or adjoining phases. E.g. solid
state, liquid state, gaseous state Solution: It is
the mixture of two or more liquid material i.e.
(solute + solvent
• 5.2.2 Phase Diagram: The properties of a material
depend on the type, number, amount, and form
of the phases present, and can be changed by
altering these quantities. In order to make these
changes, it is essential to know the conditions
under which these quantitiesexist and the
conditions under which a change in phase will
occur. A phase diagram shows the state or phase
of the solution at various conditions of temp.,
pressure and composition. It shows the phases
and their compositions at any combination of
temperature and alloy composition
• The best method to record the data related to phase
changes in many alloy systems is in the form of phase
diagrams, also known as equilibrium diagrams or
constitutional diagrams. In order to specify completely the
state of a system in equilibrium, it is necessary to specify
three independent variables. These variables, which are
externally controllable, are temperature, pressure and
composition. With pressure assumed to be constant at
atmospheric value, the equilibrium diagram indicates the
structural changes due to variation of temperature and
composition. Phase diagrams show the phase relationships
under equilibrium conditions, that is, under conditions in
which there will be no change with time. Equilibrium
conditions may be approached by extremely slow heating
and cooling, so that if a phase change is to occur, sufficient
time is allowed.
• Phase diagrams are usually
plotted with temperature as
the ordinate, and the alloy
composition as the abscissa
as shown in figure
alongside. The data for the
construction of equilibrium
diagrams are determined
experimentally by a variety
of methods, the most
common methods are
metallographic method, X-
ray diffraction technique,
thermal analysis, etc.
• Cooling Curve of a Pure
Metal Under
equilibrium conditions,
all metals exhibit a
definite melting or
freezing point. If a
cooling curve is plotted
for a pure metal. It will
show a horizontal line
at the melting or
freezing temperature.
 Cooling Curve of a Solid Solution

• A solid solution is a solution in the solid state and

consists of two kinds of atoms combined in one type of
space lattice. A solution is composed of two parts: a
solute and a solvent. The solute is the minor part of the
solution or the material which is dissolved, while the
solvent constitutes the major portion of the solution.
When solidification of the solution starts, the
temperature may be higher or lower than the freezing
point of the pure solvent. Most solid solutions solidify
over a range in temperature. Figure below shows the
cooling curve for the solidification of a solid solution
Cooling Curve of a Solid Solution
 5.2.3 Inverse Lever Rule
• Inverse lever rule is used to determine the
percentage of each phase that is present at
various temperatures. The length of line XY
represents the sum of the two phases as 100
percent. The inverse lever rule states that liquid
phase can be calculated by taking the length of
the line XZ and dividing this by XY. The solid phase
can be calculated by taking the length of the line
ZY and dividing it by XY. To get the percentages,
the values are multiplied by 100.
Inverse Lever Rule
 Inverse Lever Rule
• Sample Calculation:
• Alloy with 40 % A and 60 %B at room temperature is heated to a
temperature T1. Calculate the liquid and solid phase and indicate
the composition of each phase. Liquid Phase = (XZ / XY) x 100 =
[(40-10) / (70-10)] x100 = 50%
• Solid Phase = (ZY / XY) x 100 = [(70-40) / (70-10)] x100 = 50%
• At temperature T1, the solid composition is found by the
intersection (point X) of isothermal line T1 and the solidus curve.
• Solid composition: 10 % A and 90 % B
• The liquid composition at temperature T1 is found by the
intersection (point Y) of isothermal line T1 and the liquidus curve.
• Liquid composition: 70% A and 30 % B
 Phase Transformation
1.Eutectic System
Eutectic system is a phase transformation that
takes place when a single-phase liquid
transforms directly to a two-phase solid.
𝐿 →𝑆1 + 𝑆2 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 →𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 1 + 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2
This is a reversible phase transformation.
Phase Transformation
 Phase Transformation
2.Eutectoid System
• The eutectoid phase transformation occurs
when a single-phase solid transforms directly
to two-phase solid.
• 𝑆1 →𝑆2 + 𝑆3
• 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 1 →𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2 + 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 3
• This is a reversible phase transformation.
Phase Transformation
 Phase Transformation

3.Peritectic System
• The peritectic phase transformation occurs
when a liquid and solid phase of fixed
proportions reacts at fixed temperature to
yield a single solid phase. 𝑆1 + 𝐿 =𝑆2 𝑖.𝑒.,𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
1 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2
• This transformation exists in the Iron-Iron
Carbide System.
 Phase Transformation

4.Monotectic System
• The Monotectic phase transformation occur
when a liquid transforms directly to a second
liquid and a solid. 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 1 = 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 2 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
• This transformation is reversible phase
transformation and occurs during cooling.
 5.3 Strengthening Mechanism

Since no two elements have the same atomic diameter,

solute atoms will be either smaller or longer than the
solvent atoms. Due to the difference in atomic size,
lattice distortion is produced when one element is
added to the other. Smaller atoms will produce a local
tensile stress field and larger solute atoms will produce
a local compressive field in the crystal. In both cases,
the stress field of a moving dislocation interacts with
the stress field of the solute atom. This increases the
stress required to move the dislocation through the
crystal, and hence strengthens the solution.
 Strengthening Mechanism

5.3.1 Alloys strengthening by exceeding solubility limit

• When impurities (i.e. the solute atoms) are added into the
solution of a metal or an alloy, the solute atoms go into
interstitial or substitutional positions and increase the
strength of the solution. The impurity atoms cause lattice
strain which can anchor dislocations. This occurs when the
strain caused by the alloying element compensates that of
the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential
energy. It costs strain energy for the dislocation to move
away from this state (which is like a potential well). The
scarcity of energy at low temperatures is why slip is
hindered and solution is strengthened. Pure metals are
almost always softer than their alloys.
 Strengthening Mechanism

5.3.2 Age Hardening or Precipitation Hardening

• Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is
a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield
strength of malleable materials, including most
structural alloys of aluminum, magnesium, nickel,
titanium, and some stainless steels. In super-alloys, it
is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing
excellent high temperature strength. Precipitation
hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with
temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity
phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or
defects in a crystal's lattice. Since dislocations are
often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to
harden the material.
 Strengthening Mechanism

• The impurities play the same role as the particle

substances in particle-reinforced composite
materials. Just as the formation of ice in air can
produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon
the thermal history of a given portion of the
atmosphere, precipitation in solids can produce
many different sizes of particles, which have
radically different properties. Unlike ordinary
tempering, alloys must be kept at elevated
temperature for hours to allow precipitation to
take place. This time delay is called aging.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and heating

Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a

solid material after the original cause of the
stresses has been removed. Residual stress
may be desirable or undesirable. For example,
laser peening imparts deep beneficial
compressive residual stresses into metal
components such as turbine engine fan
blades.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
It is used in toughened glass to allow for large, thin,
crack- and scratch-resistant glass displays on smart
phones. However, unintended residual stress in a
designed structure may cause it to fail prematurely.
When undesired residual stress is present from prior
metalworking operations, the amount of residual stress
may be reduced using several methods. These methods
may be classified into thermal and mechanical (or non-
thermal) methods. All the methods involve processing
the part to be stress relieved as a whole.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
• Thermal method
The thermal method involves changing the
temperature of the entire part uniformly,
either through heating or cooling. When parts
are heated for stress relief, the process may
also be known as stress relief bake. Cooling
parts for stress relief is known as cryogenic
stress relief and is relatively uncommon.
 5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
i) Stress relief bake: Most metals, when heated, experience a
reduction in yield strength. If the material's yield strength is
sufficiently lowered by heating, locations within the material that
experienced residual stresses greater than the yield strength (in the
heated state) would yield or deform. This leaves the material with
residual stresses that are at most as high as the yield strength of the
material in its heated state.
• Stress relief bake should not be confused with annealing or
tempering, which are heat treatments to increase ductility of a
metal. Although those processes also involve heating the material
to high temperatures and reduce residual stresses, they also involve
a change in metallurgical properties, which may be undesired.
• For certain materials such as low alloy steel, care must be taken
during stress relief bake so as not to exceed the temperature at
which the material achieves maximum hardness (See Tempering in
alloy steels).
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
ii) Cryogenic stress relief: Cryogenic stress relief
involves placing the material (usually steel)
into a cryogenic environment such as liquid
nitrogen. In this process, the material to be
stress relieved will be cooled to a cryogenic
temperature for a long period, then slowly
brought back to room temperature.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
• Non-thermal methods
• Mechanical methods to relieve undesirable
surface tensile stresses and replace them with
beneficial compressive residual stresses include
shot peening and laser peening. Each works the
surface of the material with a media: shot
peening typically uses a metal or glass material;
laser peening uses high intensity beams of light
to induce a shock wave that propagates deep into
the material.
 Chapter 6.Iron-Iron Carbide and Heat treatment of
steels
Constituents of Iron and steel
1.Ferrite (𝜶 iron):
It is also known as (𝛼 ) alpha -iron, which is an
interstitial solid solution of a small amount of
carbon dissolved in iron with a body-centered
cubic (B.C.C.) crystal structure. It is the softest
structure on the iron-iron carbide diagram.
Average properties are:
Tensile Strength: 40,000 psi
Elongation: 40 % in 2 in gage length
Hardness: Less than Rockwell B 90.
Toughness: Low
 Constituents of Iron and steel
2.Cementite (Fe3C):
• Cementite is also known as iron carbide which
has a chemical formula, Fe3C. It contains 6.67
% Carbon by weight. It is a typical hard and
brittle interstitial compound of low tensile
strength (approximately 5,000 psi) but high
compressive strength. Its crystal structure is
orthorhombic.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

3.Pearlite (𝜶 + Fe3C)
• It is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.83 % carbon and is
formed at 727oC on very slow cooling. It is very fine plate
like or lamellar mixture of ferrite 87.5% and
cementite12.5%. The structure of pearlite includes a white
matrix (ferritic background) which includes thin plates of
cementite. Average properties are:
• Tensile Strength: 120,000 psi
• Elongation: 20 % in 2 in gage length
• Hardness: Rockwell C 20 or BHN 250-300
• A fixed amount of carbon and a fixed amount of iron are
needed to form Cementite (Fe3C). Also, pearlite needs fixed
amounts of cementite and ferrite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

4.Austenite (𝜸 iron):
• It is also known as (𝛾) gamma-iron, which is an interstitial
solid solution of carbon dissolved in iron with a face-
centered cubic crystal (F.C.C) structure. Average properties
of austenite are:
• Tensile strength: 150,000 psi.
• Elongation: 10 % in 2 in gage length.
• Hardness Rockwell: C 40
• Toughness: High
• Austenite is normally unstable at room temperature. Under
certain conditions it is possible to obtain austenite at room
temperature.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

• If there is not enough carbon, that is less than 0.83 %,

the carbon and the iron will combine to form Fe3C
until all the carbon is consumed. This cementite will
combine with the required amount of ferrite to form
pearlite. The remaining amount of ferrite will stay in
the structure as free ferrite. Free ferrite is also known
as pro-eutectoid ferrite. The steel that contains pro-
eutectoid ferrite is referred to as hypo-eutectoid steel.
• If, however, there is an excess of carbon above 0.83 %
in the austenite, pearlite will form, and the excess
carbon above 0.83 % will form Cementite. The excess
Cementite deposits in the grain boundaries. This excess
cementite is also known as pro-eutectoid cementite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

5.Martensite: This is a body centered tetragonal

iron phase produced by entrapping carbon on
decomposing of austenite when cooled
rapidly. It is the main constituent of hardened
steel .It is magnetic and made up of needle
like fibrous mass . It has carbon content upto
2%.It is extremely hard and brittle . The
decomposition of austenite below 3200c starts
that formation of martensite.Martensite is the
product of quenching.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

6.Ledeburite (𝜶 + Fe3C)
• It is the eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite. It contains 4.3 % Carbon and
represents the eutectic form of cast iron.
Ledeburite exists when the carbon content is
greater than 2 %, which represents the
dividing line on the equilibrium diagram
between steel and cast iron.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

7. Delta Iron
• Delta iron exists between 1539 and 1493oC. It
may exist in combination with the melt to
about 0.50 % Carbon, in combination with
austenite to about 0.18 % Carbon and in a
single phase state out to about 0.10 % carbon.
Delta iron has the body centered cubic (B.C.C)
crystal structure and is magnetic
 Constituents of Iron and steel

8.Troosite: It is mixture of radial lamellae of ferrite and

cementite and therefore differ from pearlite only in
the degree of fineness and carbon content.It is
composed of the cementite phase in the ferrite
matrix that can be resolved by a light microscope. It
is produced either by tempering a martensitic steel
between 250 to 4500c or by quenching a steel slowly
until transformation begins and then rapidly to
prevent its completion.It is less hard and brittle than
martensite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel
9. Sorbite: This is produced by the
transformation of tempered martensite
between 550 to 650oc. A sorbite structure is
characterized by strength and a high degree
of toughness.Its properties lie intermediate
between those of pearlite and troostite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

10. Bainite: It is produced in steel when austenite

transforms at a temp. below that at which
pearlite is produced and above that at which
martensite is formed . Binite is produced by
austempering . Thus , binite is a decomposition
product of austenite , consisting of an aggegate
of ferrite and carbide.Binite is isothermal
transformation product and can not be produced
by continuous cooling.
 The iron – carbon system, phase
transformations
• A study of iron-carbon system is useful and important in many
respects. This is because (1) steels constitute greatest amount of
metallic materials used by man (2) solid state transformations that
occur in steels are varied and interesting. These are similar to those
occur in many other systems and helps explain the properties.
• Iron-carbon phase diagram shown in figure-16 is not a complete
diagram. Part of the diagram after 6.67 wt% C is ignored as it has
little commercial significance. The 6.67%C represents the
composition where an inter-metallic compound, cementite (Fe3C),
with solubility limits forms. In addition, phase diagram is not true
equilibrium diagram because cementite is not an equilibrium phase.
However, in ordinary steels decomposition of cementite into
graphite never observed because nucleation of cementite is much
easier than that of graphite. Thus cementite can be treated as an
equilibrium phase for practical purposes
Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• The Fe-Fe3C is characterized by five individual phases and

four invariant reactions. Five phases that exist in the
diagram are: α–ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, γ-
austenite (FCC) Fe-C solid solution, δ-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C
solid solution, Fe3C (iron carbide) or cementite - an inter-
metallic compound and liquid Fe-C solution. Four invariant
reactions that cause transformations in the system are
namely eutectoid, eutectic, monotectic and peritectic.
• As depicted by left axes, pure iron upon heating exhibits
two allotropic changes. One involves α–ferrite of BCC
crystal structure transforming to FCC austenite, γ-iron, at
910ْ C. At 1400ْC, austenite changes to BCC phase known
as δ-ferrite, which finally melts at 1536ْ C.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
• Carbon present in solid iron as interstitial impurity, and forms solid
solution with ferrites / austenite as depicted by three single fields
represented by α, γ and δ. Carbon dissolves least in α–ferrite in
which maximum amount of carbon soluble is 0.02% at 723ْ C. This
limited solubility is attributed to shape and size of interstitial
position in BCC α–ferrite. However, carbon present greatly
influences the mechanical properties of α–ferrite. α–ferrite can be
used as magnetic material below 768ْ C. Solubility of carbon in γ-
iron reaches its maximum, 2.11%, at a temperature of 1147ْ C.
Higher solubility of carbon in austenite is attributed to FCC
structure and corresponding interstitial sites. Phase
transformations involving austenite plays very significant role in
heat treatment of different steels. Austenite itself is non-
magnetic. Carbon solubility in δ-ferrite is maximum (0.1%) at
1495ْ C.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
• As this ferrite exists only at elevated
temperatures, it is of no commercial importance.
Cementite , Fe3C an inter-metallic compound
forms when amount of carbon present exceeds
its solubility limit at respective temperatures. Out
of these four solid phases, cementite is hardest
and brittle that is used in different forms to
increase the strength of steels. α–ferrite, on the
other hand, is softest and act as matrix of a
composite material. By combining these two
phases in a solution, a material’s properties can
be varied over a large range.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• For technological convenience, based on %C dissolved in it,

a Fe-C solution is classified as: commercial pure irons with
less than 0.008%C; steels having %C between 0.008-2.11;
while cast irons have carbon in the range of 2.11%-6.67%.
Thus commercial pure iron is composed of exclusively α–
ferrite at room temperature. Most of the steels and cast
irons contain both α–ferrite and cementite. However,
commercial cast irons are not simple alloys of iron and
carbon as they contain large quantities of other elements
such as silicon, thus better consider them as ternary alloys.
The presence of Si promotes the formation of graphite
instead of cementite. Thus cast irons may contain carbon
in form of both graphite and cementite, while steels will
have carbon only in combined from as cementite.
As shown in figure-16, and mentioned earlier, Fe-C
system constitutes four invariant reactions:
• peritectic reaction at 1495ْC and 0.16%C, δ-
ferrite + L γ-iron (austenite)
• monotectic reaction 1495ْC and 0.51%C, L L
+ γ-iron (austenite)
• eutectic reaction at 1147ْC and 4.3 %C, L γ-
iron + Fe3C (cementite) [ledeburite]
• eutectoid reaction at 723ْC and 0.8%C, γ-iron
α–ferrite + Fe3C (cementite) [pearlite]
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• Product phase of eutectic reaction is called ledeburite, while

product from eutectoid reaction is called pearlite. During cooling to
room temperature, ledeburite transforms into pearlite and
cementite. At room temperature, thus after equilibrium cooling, Fe-
C diagram consists of either α–ferrite, pearlite and/or cementite.
Pearlite is actually not a single phase, but a micro-constituent
having alternate thin layers of α–ferrite (~88%) and Fe3C,
cementite (~12%). Steels with less than 0.8%C (mild steels up to
0.3%C, medium carbon steels with C between 0.3%-0.8% i.e. hypo-
eutectoid Fe-C alloys) i.e. consists pro-eutectoid α–ferrite in
addition to pearlite, while steels with carbon higher than 0.8%
(high-carbon steels i.e. hyper-eutectoid Fe-C alloys) consists of
pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite. Phase transformations
involving austenite i.e. processes those involve eutectoid reaction
are of great importance in heat treatment of steels.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• In practice, steels are almost always cooled from the

austenitic region to room temperature. During the
cooling upon crossing the boundary of the single phase
γ-iron, first pro-eutectoid phase (either α–ferrite or
cementite) forms up to eutectoid temperature. With
further cooling below the eutectoid temperature,
remaining austenite decomposes to eutectoid product
called pearlite, mixture of thin layers of α–ferrite and
cementite. Though pearlite is not a phase,
nevertheless, a constituent because it has a definite
appearance under the microscope and can be clearly
identified in a structure composed of several
constituents.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
• The decomposition of austenite to form pearlite occurs by nucleation
and growth. Nucleation, usually, occurs heterogeneously and rarely
homogeneously at grain boundaries. When it is not homogeneous,
nucleation of pearlite occurs both at grain boundaries and in the
grains of austenite. When austenite forms pearlite at a constant
temperature, the spacing between adjacent lamellae of cementite is
very nearly constant. For a given colony of pearlite, all cementite
plates have a common orientation in space, and it is also true for the
ferrite plates. Growth of pearlite colonies occurs not only by the
nucleation of additional lamellae but also through an advance at the
ends of the lamellae. Pearlite growth also involves the nucleation of
new colonies at the interfaces between established colonies and the
parent austenite. The thickness ratio of the ferrite and cementite
layers in pearlite is approximately 8 to 1. However, the absolute
layer thickness depends on the temperature at which the isothermal
transformation is allowed to occur.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• The temperature at which austenite is transformed has a

strong effect on the inter-lamellar spacing of pearlite. The
lower the reaction temperature, the smaller will be inter-
lamellar spacing. For example, pearlite spacing is in order of
10-3 mm when it formed at 700ْC, while spacing is in order
of 10-4 mm when formed at 600ْC. The spacing of the
pearlite lamellae has a practical significance because the
hardness of the resulting structure depends upon it; the
smaller the spacing, the harder the metal. The growth rate
of pearlite is also a strong function of temperature. At
temperatures just below the eutectoid, the growth rate
increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, reaching a
maximum at 600ْC, and then decreases again at lower
temperatures.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• Additions of alloying elements to Fe-C system

bring changes (alternations to positions of phase
boundaries and shapes of fields) depends on that
particular element and its concentration. Almost
all alloying elements causes the eutectoid
concentration to decrease, and most of the
alloying elements (e.g.: Ti, Mo, Si, W, Cr) causes
the eutectoid temperature to increase while
some other (e.g.: Ni, Mn) reduces the eutectoid
temperature. Thus alloying additions alters the
relative amount of pearlite and pro-eutectoid
phase that form.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• Fe-C alloys with more than 2.11% C are called cast

irons. Phase transformations in cast irons involve
formation of pro-eutectic phase on crossing the
liquidus. During the further cooling, liquid of eutectic
composition decomposes in to mixture of austenite
and cementite, known as ledeburite. On further
cooling through eutectoid temperature, austenite
decomposes to pearlite. The room temperature
microstructure of cast irons thus consists of pearlite
and cementite. Because of presence of cementite,
which is hard, brittle and white in color, product is
called white cast iron.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

However, depending on cooling rate and other alloying

elements, carbon in cast iron may be present as
graphite or cementite. Gray cast iron contains graphite
in form of flakes. These flakes are sharp and act as
stress risers. Brittleness arising because of flake shape
can be avoided by producing graphite in spherical
nodules, as in malleable cast iron and SG (spheroidal
graphite) cast iron. Malleable cast iron is produced by
heat treating white cast iron (Si < 1%) for prolonged
periods at about 900ْC and then cooling it very slowly.
The cementite decomposes and temper carbon appears
approximately as spherical particles
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• SG iron is produced by adding inoculants to

molten iron. In these Si content must be about
2.5%, and no subsequent heat treatment is
required.
6.1.1 Applications and limitations of Iron-Iron
Carbide Diagram
Applications
With the core knowledge gained from the iron-carbon phase, one can
investigate different types of structures derived from heat treatment of
steel. The iron-carbon diagram provides a valuable foundation on which
knowledge of both plain carbon and alloy steels in their immense variety
is gained. The iron-iron carbide diagram is useful in finding out what will
be the crystal structure and the physical and chemical properties of iron at
known carbon percentage and temperature.
Limitations
1. Information about transformation of austenite at varying cooling rates is
missing.
2. Design of heat treatment for desired properties is not possible.
3. It does not give the answer to the question “How much time is required
to start the transformation or how long does the transformation take to
complete?".
 Transformation rate effects and TTT diagrams,
Microstructure and Property Changes in Fe-C Alloys
• Solid state transformations, which are very important in
steels, are known to be dependent on time at a particular
temperature, as shown in figure-14(b). Isothermal
transformation diagram, also known as TTT diagram,
measures the rate of transformation at a constant
temperature i.e. it shows time relationships for the phases
during isothermal transformation. Information regarding
the time to start the transformation and the time required
to complete the transformation can be obtained from set of
TTT diagrams. One such set of diagram for reaction of
austenite to pearlite in steel is shown in figure-17. The
diagram is not complete in the sense that the
transformations of austenite that occur at temperatures
below about 550ْC are not shown.
 TTT diagram

Figure-17: Partial TTT diagram for a eutectoid Fe-C alloy.

 TTT diagram
• As mentioned in previous section, thickness of
layers in pearlite depends on the temperature at
which the transformation occurred. If the
transformation took place at a temperature that
is just below the eutectoid temperature,
relatively thick layers of α–ferrite and cementite
are produced in what is called coarse pearlite.
This is because of high diffusion rates of carbon
atoms. Thus with decreasing transformation
temperature, sluggish movement of carbon
results in thinner layers α–ferrite and cementite
i.e. fine pearlite is produced.
 TTT diagram
• At transformation temperatures below 550ْC,
austenite results in different product known as
bainite. Bainite also consists of α–ferrite and
cementite phases i.e. transformation is again
diffusion controlled but morphologically it
consists of very small particles of cementite
within or between fine ferrite plates. Bainite
forms needles or plates, depending on the
temperature of the transformation; the
microstructural details of bainite are so fine that
their resolution is only possible using electron
microscope.
 TTT diagram
• It differs from pearlite in the sense that different
mechanism is involved in formation ob bainite which does
not have alternating layers of α–ferrite and cementite. In
addition, because of equal growth rates in all directions
pearlite tends to form spherical colonies, whereas bainite
grows as plates and has a characteristic acicular
(needlelike) appearance. Upper bainite, formed at the
upper end of the temperature range (550ْ C-350ْ C), is
characterized by relatively coarse, irregular shaped
cementite particles in α–ferrite plates. If the
transformation is taking place at lower temperatures
(350ْ C-250ْ C), the α–ferrite plates assume a more regular
needlelike shape, and the transformation product is called
lower bainite.
 TTT diagram
• Basically, bainite is a transformation product that is not
as close to equilibrium as pearlite. The most puzzling
feature of the bainite reaction is its dual nature. In a
number of respects, it reveals properties that are
typical of a nucleation and growth type of
transformation such as occurs in the formation pearlite
and also a mixture of α–ferrite and cementite though
of quite different morphology (no alternate layers),
but at the same time it differs from the Martensite as
bainite formation is athermal and diffusion controlled
though its microstructure is characterized by acicular
(needlelike) appearance.
 TTT diagram
• The time-temperature dependence of the bainite
transformation can also be presented using TTT diagram. It
occurs at temperatures below those at which pearlite forms
i.e. it does not form until the transformation temperature
falls below a definite temperature, designated as Bs. Above
this temperature austenite does not form bainite except
under external stresses. Below Bs, austenite does not
transform completely to bainite. The amount of bainite
formed increases as the isothermal reaction temperature is
lowered. By reaching a lower limiting temperature, Bf, it is
possible to transform austenite completely to bainite. The
Bs and Bf temperatures are equivalent to the Ms and Mf
temperatures for Martensite.
• In simple eutectoid steels, pearlite and bainite transformations
overlap, thus transition from the pearlite to bainite is smooth and
continuous i.e. knees of individual pearlite and bainite curves are
merged together. However each of the transformations has a
characteristic C-curve, which can be distinguishable in presence of
alloying elements. As shown in complete TTT diagram for eutectoid
steel in figure-18, above approximately 550ْ C-600ْC, austenite
transforms completely to pearlite. Below this range up to 450
• ْ C, both pearlite and bainite are formed. Finally, between 450ْC
and 210 the reaction product is bainite only. Thus bainite
transformation is favored at a high degree of supercooling, and the
pearlite transformation at a low degree of supercooling. In middle
region, pearlitic and bainitic transformations are competitive with
each other.
Figure-18: Complete TTT (isothermal transformation) diagram for eutectoid steel.
• As explained in earlier section, martensitic transformation
can dominate the proceedings if steel is cooled rapid
enough so that diffusion of carbon can be arrested.
Transformation of austenite to Martensite is diffusion-less,
time independent and the extent of transformation
depends on the transformation temperature. Martensite is
a meta-stable phase and decomposes into ferrite and
pearlite but this is extremely slow (and not noticeable) at
room temperature. Alloying additions retard the formation
rate of pearlite and bainite, thus rendering the martensitic
transformation more competitive. Start of the
transformation is designated by Ms, while the completion is
designated by Mf in a transformation diagram.
 TTT diagram
• Martensite forms in steels possesses a body centered
tetragonal crystal structure with carbon atoms occupying
one of the three interstitial sites available. This is the
reason for characteristic structure of steel Martensite
instead of general BCC. Tetragonal distortion caused by
carbon atoms increases with increasing carbon content and
so is the hardness of Martensite. Austenite is slightly
denser than Martensite, and therefore, during the phase
transformation upon quenching, there is a net volume
increase. If relatively large pieces are rapidly quenched,
they may crack as a result of internal stresses, especially
when carbon content is more than about 0.5%.
 TTT diagram
• Mechanically, Martensite is extremely hard, thus its
applicability is limited by brittleness associated with it.
Characteristics of steel Martensite render it unusable
for structural applications in the as-quenched form.
However, structure and thus the properties can be
altered by tempering, heat treatment observed below
eutectoid temperature to permit diffusion of carbon
atoms for a reasonable period of time. During
tempering, carbide particles attain spherical shape and
are distributed in ferrite phase – structure called
spheroidite. Spheroidite is the softest yet toughest
structure that steel may have.
 TTT diagram
• At lower tempering temperature, a structure
called tempered Martensite forms with similar
microstructure as that of spheroidite except
that cementite particles are much, much
smaller. The tempering heat treatment is also
applicable to pearlitic and bainitic structures.
 TTT diagram
• Tempering of some steels may result in a reduction of
toughness what is known as temper embrittlement. This
may be avoided by (1) compositional control, and/or (2)
tempering above 575 or below 375, followed by quenching
to room temperature. The effect is greatest in Martensite
structures, less severe in bainitic structures and least severe
in pearlite structures. It appears to be associated with the
segregation of solute atoms to the grain boundaries
lowering the boundary strength. Impurities responsible for
temper brittleness are: P, Sn, Sb and As. Si reduces the risk
of embrittlement by carbide formation. Mo has a stabilizing
effect on carbides and is also used to minimize the risk of
temper brittleness in low alloy steels.
6.2 Simple Heat Treatments
 6.2.1 Annealing
• Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a
specific temp/color and then allowed to cool slowly. This
softens the metal which means it can be cut and shaped more
easily. Mild steel, is heated to a red hot state and allowed to
cool slowly. However, metals such as aluminum will melt if
heated for too long. Annealed metals are relatively soft and
can be cut and shaped more easily. They bend easily when
pressure is applied. As a rule, they are heated and allowed to
cool slowly. The different types of annealing are:
• Full Annealing
• Process Annealing
• Stress-Relief Annealing
• Spheroidisation
 Full Annealing
• Full Annealing is the process of slowly raising the temp about
50oC (90oF) above the Austenite temp line A3 or line ACM in
the case of hypo-eutectoid steels (steels with less than
0.77%).
• It is held at this temp for sufficient time for all the materials to
transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case
may be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20oC/hr.
(36oF/hr.) in a furnace to about 50oC (90oF) into the Ferrite-
Cementite.
• The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with Ferrite or
Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper-eutectoid).
The steel becomes soft and ductile.
 Process Annealing
• Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made
out of low carbon steels (less than 0.25%). This allows the
parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working
without fracturing. Process Annealing is done by raising the
temp to just below the Ferrite- Austenite region, line A1 on
the diagram. This temp is about 727oC (1341oF) so heating it
to about 700oC (1292oF) should suffice. This is held long
enough to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase, and
then cooled in still air. Since the material stays in the same
phase throughout the process, the only change that occurs in
the size, shape and distribution of the grain structure. This
process is cheaper than either full annealing or normalizing
since the material is not heated to a very high temp or cooled
in a furnace
 Stress-Relief Annealing

• Stress-Relief Annealing is used to reduce

residual stresses in large castings, welded
parts and cold-formed parts. Such parts tend
to have stresses due to thermal cycling or
work hardening. Parts are heated to temp of
up to 600-650oC and held for an extended
time about 1 hour and more and then slowly
cooled in still air.
 Spheroidisation
• Spheroidisation is an annealing process used for high carbon
steels (carbon more than 0.6%) that will be machined or cold
formed subsequently. This is done by one of the following
ways:
• 1. Heat the part to a temperature just below the Ferrite-
Austenite line, line A1 or below the Austenite - Cementite
line, especially below the 727oC (1340oF) line. Hold the
temperature for a prolonged time and follow by fairly slow
cooling.
• 2. Cycle multiple times between temperature slightly above
and slightly below the 727oC (1340oF) line, say for example
between 700 and 750oC and cool slowly.
• 3. For tool and alloy steels, heat to 750 to 800oC (1382 -
1472oF) and hold for several hours followed by slow cooling.
improved machining in continuous cutting operations such as lathes and
screw machines. Spheroidisation also improves resistance to abrasion.
 Applications of Annealing

• Annealed metals are relatively soft and can be

cut and shaped more easily. They bend easily
when pressure is applied. As a rule they are
heated and allowed to cool slowly. Thus
applications include decorative items, Low-
friction applications (locks, gears, and
doorknobs), plumbing/electronics, musical
instruments for acoustic properties & in bells
and cymbals.
Comparison between Annealing and Normalizing
• In general, the main purpose of annealing heat treatment is to
soften the steel, regenerate overheated steel structures or
just remove internal tensions. It basically consists of heating
to austentising temperature (800ºC and 950ºC depending on
the type of steel), followed by slow cooling. Normalization is
an annealing process. The objective of normalization is to
intend to leave the material in a normal state, in other words
with the absence of internal tensions and even distribution of
carbon. For the process the high temperatures are maintained
until the complete transformation of austenite with air
cooling. It is usually used as a post-treatment to forging, and
pre-treatment to quenching and tempering. Induction is used
in most applications of annealing and normalizing in
compared to conventional ovens.
 Applications of Normalizing
• By completing the normalization of metal (e.g. steel), the
strength of the piece of steel can be improved, compared
to steel that is not normalized or treated with another
heating process. The ductile performance of the steel
can also be improved through normalization; this is
possible without reducing the hardness or strength as
can happen with other heat treatments. By using the
normalization process, modifications can be made to the
grain structure of the steel to make it usable for specific
purposes. Steels with low levels of carbon do not have
their rate of ductility altered by using the normalization
process. It is usually done for steel parts that require
maximum amount of impact strength.
• 5.2.3 Inverse Lever Rule Inverse
lever rule is used to determine
the percentage of each phase
that is present at various
temperatures. The length of line
XY represents the sum of the two
phases as 100 percent. The
inverse lever rule states that
liquid phase can be calculated by
taking the length of the line XZ
and dividing this by XY. The solid
phase can be calculated by taking
the length of the line ZY and
dividing it by XY. To get the
percentages, the values are
multiplied by 100.
• Sample Calculation: Alloy with 40 % A and 60 %B at
room temperature is heated to a temperature T1.
Calculate the liquid and solid phase and indicate the
composition of each phaseLiquid Phase = (XZ / XY) x
100 = [(40-10) / (70-10)] x100 = 50% Solid Phase = (ZY /
XY) x 100 = [(70-40) / (70-10)] x100 = 50% At
temperature T1, the solid composition is found by the
intersection (point X) of isothermal line T1 and the
solidus curve. Solid composition: 10 % A and 90 % B
The liquid composition at temperature T1 is found by
the intersection (point Y) of isothermal line T1 and the
liquidus curve. Liquid composition: 70% A and 30 % B
• 5.2.3 Inverse Lever Rule Inverse
lever rule is used to determine
the percentage of each phase
that is present at various
temperatures. The length of line
XY represents the sum of the two
phases as 100 percent. The
inverse lever rule states that
liquid phase can be calculated by
taking the length of the line XZ
and dividing this by XY. The solid
phase can be calculated by taking
the length of the line ZY and
dividing it by XY. To get the
percentages, the values are
multiplied by 100.
• Sample Calculation: Alloy with 40 % A and 60 %B at
room temperature is heated to a temperature T1.
Calculate the liquid and solid phase and indicate the
composition of each phaseLiquid Phase = (XZ / XY) x
100 = [(40-10) / (70-10)] x100 = 50% Solid Phase = (ZY /
XY) x 100 = [(70-40) / (70-10)] x100 = 50% At
temperature T1, the solid composition is found by the
intersection (point X) of isothermal line T1 and the
solidus curve. Solid composition: 10 % A and 90 % B
The liquid composition at temperature T1 is found by
the intersection (point Y) of isothermal line T1 and the
liquidus curve. Liquid composition: 70% A and 30 % B
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Stress to be faced by the materials

• Tensile Load
– Stretch the material
(elongation and positive
linear strain)
• Compressive Load
– Squeeze the material
(contraction and a
negative linear strain)
• Shear stress (applied
Torque)
– Slide of adjacent portions
of the material (torsional
deformation)
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Tensile Test /Tension Test

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a

fundamental materials science test in which a sample is
subjected to uniaxial tension until failure. The results
from the test are commonly used to select a material
for an application, for quality control, and to predict
how a material will react under other types of forces.
Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test
are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and
reduction in area. From these measurements the
following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-
hardening characteristics.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Tensile Test /Tension Test
Tensile Test /Tension Test

1 – Ultimate Strength
2 – Yield strength
3 – Rupture
4 – Strain hardening region
5 – Necking region
𝐴 – Apparent stress (𝐹/𝐴𝑜)
𝐵 – Actual stress (𝐹/𝐴 )
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Tensile Test /Tension Test

Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram for Ductile and Brittle Materials

 Tensile Test /Tension Test
1: True elastic limit 2: Proportionality limit
3: Elastic limit 4: Offset yield strength, usually defined at e=0.2%
𝜎: Engineering stress 𝜀: Engineering strain
𝐿: Un-deformed length 𝑙: Elongation
𝐴: Un-deformed cross-sectional area 𝐹: Uniaxial load
1. Modulus of Elasticity: Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus is the
measure of material stiffness (given by the slope of stress strain curve).
Modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms
(structure intensive property). It is slightly affected by alloying addition, heat
treatment or cold work. Young’s modulus decreases when there is increase
in temperature.
2. True Elastic Limit: The lowest stress at which dislocations move. This
definition is rarely used, since dislocations move at very low stresses, and
detecting such movement is very difficult.
3. Proportionality Limit: It is the maximum stress at which stress remains
directly proportional to strain. The proportional limit is determined from the
stress strain curve by drawing straight line tangent at the origin and noting
the first deviation of the plot from the line.
 Tensile Test /Tension Test
4. Elastic Limit: The elastic limit is the maximum stress which the
material can withstand without causing permanent deformation
which remains after removal of stress.
5. Yield Strength: The yield strength is the stress at which a material
exhibits a specified limiting permanent set. The tensile yield strength
indicates resistance to permanent deformation by tensile loads.
Because of this and the ease of its measurement the tensile yield
strength is used widely as a factor of design.
6. Yield Point: The yield point is the stress at which there first occurs a
marked increase in strain without an increase in stress.
7. Offset Yield Strength: The offset yield strength can be determined by
the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress strain curve
and a line parallel to elastic line offset by a strain of 0.2 or 0.1% (e =
0.002 or 0.001). In Great Britain, the offset stress is referred to proof
stress either at 0.1 or 0.5% strain. It is used for design and
specification purposes to avoid the practical difficulties of measuring
the elastic or proportional limit.
 Tensile Test /Tension Test
8. Tensile Strength (Ultimate or Maximum Strength): It is calculated by
dividing the maximum load carried by the specimen during a tension test by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Tensile strength is widely
used design factor, although there is more justification for yield strength.
9. Rupture Strength: It is determined by dividing the load at the time of
fracture by the original cross-sectional area. If the rupture load is divided by
the actual cross-section at the time of fracture, the time rupture strength is
obtained.
10. Resilience: Resilience is an ability of a material to absorb energy when
elastically deformed and to return it when unloaded. It is usually measured
by modulus of resilience (strain energy per unit volume required to stress
the material from zero to yield stress. Coil springs are examples of resilient
materials.
11. Toughness: The toughness of a material refers to that material’s ability to
absorb large amounts of stress, deforming plastically before breaking.
Polythene and steel are examples of tough materials. On the other hand,
brittle material, such as glass is elastic over a very limited range of stresses
and undergoes fracture without plastic deformation.
 Tensile Test /Tension Test

12. Ductility: It measures the amount of deformation that a material

can withstand without breaking. There are two ways of expressing
ductility. First, we could measure the distance the gage marks on
our specimen before and after the test. The % elongation describes
the amount that the specimen stretches before fracture.
% Elongation = (𝐿𝑓 – 𝐿𝑜)/𝐿𝑜 ∗100
• Where, 𝐿𝑓 is the distance between the gage marks after the
specimen breaks. %
Reduction in area = (𝐴𝑜– 𝐴𝑓)/𝐴𝑜 ∗100
Where, 𝐴𝑓 is the first cross-sectional area at the fracture surface.
 Tensile Test /Tension Test

We can represent stress –strain curve by equation,

Where,k - strength coefficient, n-strain hardening(work hardening)

exponent. The value of k and n is given in the table.
The higher the slop greater the strain hardening capacity of the material
i.e. stronger and harder
it becomes as hardened.

True strain L=change in length

linear relationship is known as Hooke’s law

• Modulus of elasticity, E or Young’s modulus
Tensile Test /Tension Test
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Compression Properties

Many operations in manufacturing particularly processes such as

forging rolling and extrusion ,are performed with the work-pieces are
subjected to compressive forces.

Height is reduced and its cross – sectional area is increased

σe = F/ Ao
Ao = Original area of the specimen
e = (h – ho)/ ho
h = height of the specimen at a particular moment into the test, mm
ho= starting height, mm
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Compression Properties
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Compression Properties
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Bending Properties
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Bending Properties

Preparing specimen from brittle materials such as ceramics and

carbide ,is difficult because of problems involved in shaping and
machining to them to proper dimensions. A commonly used test
method for brittle materials is bend or flexure test.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Bending Properties

• Bending test (Flexure test) can test the strength of

these materials
• Three – point bending test
• Four – point bending test
• Brittle materials do not flex instead they deform
elastically until immediately before fracture
• Failure usually occurs because the Ultimate Tensile
Strength of the outer fibers of the specimen has
been exceeded
• Cleavage
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties

It involves application of stresses in opposite

directions on either side of a thin element to
deflect it,τ = F/A
τ = shear stress, Mpa
F = applied force, N
A = area over which the force is applied, mm2
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties

γ = δ/b
γ = shear strain, mm/mm
δ = the deflection of the element, mm
b = the original distance over which deflection
occurs,mm
• Torsion test
• As torque is increased, the tube deflects by
twisting , which is a shear strain for this geometry
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties

τ = T/ 2 π R2 t
τ = shear stress
T = applied torque, N – mm
R = radius of the tube measured to the neutral axis of the wall,mm
t = wall thickness, mm
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties

The shear strain can be determined by

measuring the amount of angular deflection
of the tube, converting this into a distance
deflected, and dividing by the gauge length,L
γ = (R α)/ L
α = the angular deflection (radians)
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Shear Properties

In elastic region
τ=Gγ
G = shear modulus, shear modulus of elasticity, Mpa
For most materials, G = 0.4 E
• In the plastic region, strain hardens – similar to flowcurve
• Shear stress at fracture is Shear Strength of the
material - S = 0.7 (TS)
• As the cross sectional area does not change, similar stress strain curve
• Blanking, Punching and other cutting operations• Resistance to permanent
indentation
• Good hardness means resistance to scratching and wear
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Hardness Test
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic
deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may
also refer to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
Main Hardness Testing Methods :
1. Scratch Hardness
2. Indentation Hardness
3. Rebound or Dynamic Hardness
 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Brinell Hardness Test

Where, 𝑃 is applied load (kg), 𝐷

is diameter of ball (mm),
𝑑 is diameter of indentation
(mm) and 𝑡 is depth of
impression (mm).
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Rockwell Hardness Test
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Vickers Hardness Test

Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid as the indenter

with the included angle between opposite faces of the pyramid of 136°. The
Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as the load divided by the surface
area of the indentation.

Where,
𝑃 is applied load, kg
𝐿 is the average length of
diagonals, mm
𝜃 is the angle between the
opposite faces of diamond =
136
 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Knoop Test
The Knoop indenter (diamond-shape) is used for measuring in a small
area, such as at the cross section of the heat-treated metal surface.
The Knoop Hardness Number (KHN) is the applied load divided by
the uncovered projected area of the indentation.

Where 𝑃 = applied load, kg

𝐴𝑃 = uncovered projected area of the
indentation, mm2
𝐿 = length of long diagonal, mm
𝐶 = a constant for each indenter
supplied by manufacturer
 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Micro Hardness Test: Micro Hardness Testing of metals, composites

and ceramics are employed where a 'macro' hardness test is not
usable. Micro hardness tests can be used to provide necessary data
when measuring individual microstructures within a larger matrix, or
testing very thin foil like materials, or when determining the hardness
gradient of a specimen along a cross section.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Fatigue

Fatigue Test
Fatigue Failure
In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and localized structural
damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
The nominal maximum stress values are less than the ultimate
tensile stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the
material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Fatigue

• Tools, dies, gears, cams, shafts etc are subjected to

rapidly fluctuating loads
• Cyclic stresses
• Part fails at a stress level below that at which failure
would occur under static loading
• Fatigue failure
• Testing specimen in tension and compression
• Various stress amplitudes (S) and the number of
cycles (N) it takes to cause total failure
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Fatigue

• Stress amplitude – Maximum stress in tension and

compression
• S – N curves
• Maximum tension then maximum compression then
maximum tension
• Fatigue limit – Maximum stress to which the material
can be subjected without fatigue failure, regardless
of the number of cycles
• For carbon steels, Endurance limit = (0.4 – 0.5) * TS
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Fatigue
 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Creep Test
Creep is the slow plastic deformation of metals under constant stresses
or under prolonged loading usually at high temperature. It can take
place and lead to fracture at static stresses much smaller than those
which will break the specimen by loading it quickly. Creep is
especially taken care of while designing I.C. engines, boilers and
turbines.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
creep

• Permanent elongation of a component under a static load maintained

for a period of time
• Can occur at any temperature
• Lead at room temperature – Aluminum alloys at200ºC – Refractory
alloys at 1500ºC
• Important in high temperature applications – Forging and Extrusion
• Subjecting a specimen to a constant tensile load at a certain
temperature and measuring the changes in length at various time
increments
• Primary, Secondary and Tertiary stages
• Creep Rupture
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Impact Test

Toughness
• The toughness of a material refers to that material’s ability to absorb
large amounts of stress, deforming plastically before breaking or the
ability to withstand occasional stresses above the yield stress
without fracture. It can be simply defined by the area under the
stress-strain curve (amount of work per unit volume that the material
can withstand without failure). Polythene and steel are examples of
tough materials. The structural steel although has a lower yield point
but more ductile than high carbon spring steel. So, structural steel is
therefore tougher. Toughness = Strength + Ductility
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Impact Test
The pendulum type impact testing machine is generally used for
conducting notched bar impact tests. The following type of impact
tests are performed on this machine.
1. Izod Test
The test uses a cantilever test piece of 10mm x 10mm section
specimen having standard 45° notch 2 mm deep. This is broken by
means of a swinging pendulum which is allowed to fall from a
certain height to cause an impact load on the specimen. This angle
rise of the pendulum after rupture of the specimen or energy to
rupture the specimen is indicated on the graduated scale by a
pointer. The energy required to rupture the specimen is the function
of the angle of rise.
2. Charpy Test
This test is more common than Izod test and it uses simply supported
test piece of 10mm x 10mm section. The specimen is placed on
supports or anvil so that the blow of striker is opposite to the notch.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Impact Test

The energy used in rupturing the specimen in both Charpy and Izod
tests is calculated as follows:
Initial energy = 𝑊ℎ = 𝑊(𝑅 – 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) = 𝑊𝑅 (1 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
Energy after rupture = 𝑊ℎ’ = 𝑊 (𝑅 – 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽) = 𝑊𝑅 (1 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)
Energy used to rupture specimen = 𝑊ℎ – 𝑊ℎ’ = 𝑊𝑅 [(1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) – (1 –
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)] = 𝑊𝑅 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
Where, ℎ = Height of fall of center of gravity of pendulum/striker
𝛼 = Angle of fall
ℎ’ = Height of rise of center of gravity of pendulum/striker
𝛽 = Angle of rise
𝑅 = Distance from C.G. of pendulum/striker to axis of rotation O.
𝑊 = Weight of pendulum/striker.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Impact Test
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Effect of Temperature on Properties
• Significant Effect
• Important to know the material properties at the
operating temperature of the product when in service
• How temperature affects mechanical properties in manufacturing
• Lower in strength and higher in ductility
• Most metals can be formed more easily at elevated temperature than
when they are cold
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Effect of Temperature on Properties
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Effect of Temperature on Properties

Hot Hardness
– Property used to characterize strength and
hardness at elevated temperatures
– Ability of a material to retain hardness at elevated
temperatures - Listing or plot
– Steel
– Ceramics
– Good Hot Hardness – Desirable Properties
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Effect of Temperature on Properties

Recrystalization Temperature
– At room temperature according to flow curve
– Strain Hardening
– If the metal is heated to a sufficiently elevated
temperature and then deformed, strain hardening
does not occur
– New grains are formed that are free from strain
and the metal behaves as a perfectly plastic
material – n = 0 – Recrystallization – 0.5 Tm –
Recrystallization Temperature
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Effect of Temperature on Properties

– By heating the metal to the recrystalization

temperature prior to deformation, the amount of straining
that the metal can endure is substantially increased and
the forces and power required tocarry out the process
are significantly reduced
– Hot working
 CHAPTER 4 DEFORMING PROCESS OF MATERIALS

• 4.1 Cold Work

• 4.1.1 Cold Work and its types: A metal is said to be cold
worked, if it is mechanically processed below the
recrystallization temperature of the metal and its
grains are in a distorted condition after plastic
deformation is completed. Cold working produces an
improved surface finish and closer dimensional
tolerance and because of this characteristic cold
working process is generally used in making end-use
products. Since, recrystallization does not take place in
cold working, the grains are permanently distorted.
• During cold working residual stresses are set up.
As their presence is undesirable a suitable heat
treatment is generally necessary to neutralize
these stresses and restore the metal to its original
structure. All the properties of a metal that are
dependent on the lattice structure are affected by
plastic deformation or cold working. The
following properties are affected by cold work
significantly: Tensile Strength Hardness Yield
Strength Ductility Work Hardening
• The various cold working operations are:
• 1.Drawing: Drawing is an operation in which the cross-
section of a bar, rod or a wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening. Although the presence of
tensile stresses is obvious in drawing, compressive
stress also plays a significant role because the metal is
squeezed down as it passes through the die opening.
2.Bending: Bending is a sheet-metal operation which is
defined as the straining of the metal around a straight
axis. During bending, the metal on the inside of the
neutral plane is compressed, while the metal on the
outside of the neutral plane is stretched.
3. Shearing: Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting
operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges. Shearing is typically used to cut
large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent
press-working operations.
4. Hobbing: Hobbing is a deformation process in
which a hardened steel form is pressed into a soft
steel (or other soft metal) block. The process is
often is used to make mold cavities for plastic
molding and die casting. The hardened steel form
is called the hob.
5. Peening: Peening is the process of working a metal's
surface to improve its material properties, usually by
mechanical means such as hammer blows, by blasting
with shot (shot peening), or blasts of light beams with
laser peening.
6. Cold Extrusion: Extrusion is a compression forming
process in which the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross-
sectional shape. The process can be likened to
squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube. Cold
extrusion is done at room temperature or near room
temperature.
4.1.2 Strain Hardening and the Stress Strain Curve Work
(or strain) hardening is a phenomenon which results in
an increase in hardening and strength of a metal
(specimen) subjected to plastic deformation at
temperature lower than the recrystallization range
(cold working). When a material is subjected to plastic
deformation, a certain amount of work done on it is
stored internally as strain energy. This additional
energy in a crystal results in strengthening or work
hardening of solids. Thus work hardening may be
defined as increased hardness accompanying plastic
deformation. This increase in hardening is
accompanied by an increase in both tensile and yield
strength. Work hardening reduces ductility and
plasticity. It is used in many manufacturing processes
such as rolling of bars and drawing of tubes.
• Tensile strength, yield strength and hardness are increased,
while ductility is decreased. Although both strength and
hardness increase, the rate of change is not the same.
Hardness generally increases most rapidly in the first 10
percent reduction (cold work), whereas the tensile strength
increases more or less linearly. The yield strength increases
more rapidly than the tensile strength, so that, as the amount
of plastic deformation is increased, the gap between the yield
and tensile strengths decreases. This is important in certain
forming operations where appreciable deformation is
required. In drawing, for example, the load must be above
the yield point to obtain appreciable deformation but below
the tensile strength to avoid failure. If the gap is narrow, very
close control of the load is required.
• Ductility follows a path opposite to that of hardness. A large
decrease in the first 10 percent reduction and then a
decrease at a slower rate is observed. Distortion of the
lattice structure hinders the passage of electrons and
decreases electrical conductivity in alloys. The increase in
internal energy, particularly at the grain boundaries, makes
the material more susceptible to inter granular corrosion,
thereby reducing its corrosion resistance. Known as stress
corrosion, this is an acceleration of corrosion in certain
environments due to residual stresses resulting from cold
working. One of the ways to avoid stress corrosion cracking
is to relieve the internal stresses by suitable heat treatment
after cold working and before placing the material in
service
• 4.2 Treatment after Cold Work
4.2.1 Annealing :As a result of cold working, the
hardness, tensile strength, and electrical resistance
increase, while ductility decreases. There is also a large
increase in the number of dislocations, and certain
planes in the crystal structure are severely distorted.
Most of the energy used to cold work the metal is
dissipated in heat, and a finite amount of energy is
stored in the crystal structure as internal energy
associated with the lattice defects created by the
deformation.
• Recovery
• 1. Definition: Recovery is the first stage after plastic deformation where the
material's dislocations rearrange to lower the internal energy without changing
the grain structure significantly.
• 2. Processes Involved:
• · Annihilation of dislocations: Opposite dislocations come together and cancel
each other out.
• · Dislocation climb and glide: Dislocations move to lower energy positions.
•
• · Effects:
• · Reduction in residual stresses.
• · Slight changes in mechanical properties like a decrease in hardness and strength,
but not to the extent seen in recrystallization.
• · Partial restoration of electrical and thermal conductivity.
•
•
 Recrystallization
Definition: Recrystallization is the formation of new, strain-free grains within a
deformed material. This process significantly changes the microstructure and
properties of the material.
Processes Involved:
· Nucleation of new grains: New grains form at sites of high dislocation density or
impurities.
· Growth of new grains: These new grains grow and consume the deformed structure.
· Effects:
· Significant reduction in dislocation density.
· Restoration of ductility.
· Dramatic changes in mechanical properties, such as a reduction in hardness and
strength.
· Occurs at a specific temperature range known as the recrystallization temperature.
• 1 Grain Growth
• 1. Definition: Grain growth occurs when recrystallized grains continue to grow if
the material is kept at elevated temperatures after recrystallization.
• 2. Processes Involved:
• · Boundary migration: Grain boundaries move to reduce the total boundary area,
leading to larger grains.
• 1.
• · Effects:
• · Coarsening of the grain structure.
• · Reduction in the number of grain boundaries, which can affect properties like
strength and toughness.
• · Generally results in a decrease in mechanical strength but can improve some
properties like creep resistance.
•
•
Interrelationships and Applications
· These processes often occur sequentially during annealing, a
heat treatment process used to alter the physical and
mechanical properties of a material.
· Control over these processes is crucial in materials science
and engineering for tailoring material properties for specific
applications. For example, fine grain structures can
enhance strength and toughness, while larger grains can
improve high-temperature performance and reduce creep.
Understanding and controlling recovery, recrystallization, and
grain growth are essential for optimizing the properties of
materials in various industrial applications, including
aerospace, automotive, and electronics.
• Full annealing is the process by which the
distorted cold worked lattice structure is
changed back to one which is strain free
through the application of heat. This process
is carried out entirely in the solid state and is
usually followed by slow cooling in the furnace
from the desired temperature. The annealing
process may be divided into three stages:
Recovery , Recrystallization . Grain Growth
• Recovery This is primarily a low temperature
process, and the property changes produced
do not cause appreciable change in
microstructure or the properties, such as
tensile strength, yield strength, hardness and
ductility. The principal effect of recovery is the
relief of internal stresses due to cold working.
• When the load which causes plastic deformation
is released, all the elastic deformation does not
disappear. This is due to the different orientation
of crystals, which will not allow some of them to
move back when the load is released. As the
temperature is increased, there is some spring
back of these elastically displaced atoms which
relieve most of the internal stresses. Electrical
conductivity is also increased appreciably during
the recovery stage.
• Since the mechanical properties of the metal
are essentially unchanged, the main purpose
of heating in the recovery range is stress
relieving cold worked alloys to prevent stress
corrosion cracking or to minimize the
distortion produced by residual stresses.
Commercially, this low temperature treatment
in the recovery range is known as stress relief
annealing or process annealing.
• Recrystallization As the temperature of the recovery
range is reached, minute new crystals appear in the
microstructure. These new crystals have the same
composition and lattice structure as the original un-
deformed grains and are not elongated but are uniform
in dimensions. The new crystals generally appear at the
most drastically deformed portions of the grain, usually
the grain boundaries and slip planes. The cluster of
atoms from which the new grains are formed is called a
nucleus. Recrystallization takes place by a combination
of nucleation of strain free grains and the growth of
these nuclei to absorb the entire cold worked material.
• Pure metals have low recrystallization temperatures as
compared with alloys. Zinc, tin and lead have
recrystallization temperatures below room
temperature. This means that these metals cannot be
cold worked at room temperature since they crystallize
spontaneously, reforming a strain free structure. The
greater the prior deformation, the lower the
temperature for the start of recrystallization. Increasing
the annealing time decreases the recrystallization
temperature for the start of recrystallization. During
recrystallization stage, there is a significant drop in
tensile strength, hardness and a large increase in the
ductility of the material.
• Grain Growth In this stage the tensile strength
and hardness continue to decrease but at a
much less rate than the recrystallization stage.
The major change observed during this stage
is the growth of the grain boundaries and
reaching the original grain size.
 4.3 Hot Work
4.3.1 Hot-Work Process and its types
Hot working refers to processes where metals are
plastically deformed above their recrystallization
temperature. Being above the recrystallization temperature
allows the material to recrystallizes during deformation.
This is important because recrystallization keeps the
materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps the
yield strength and hardness low and ductility high. This
contrasts with cold working. Hot working process can be
considered as simultaneous combination of cold working
and annealing. Any work hardening effect caused by plastic
deformation is neutralized immediately by the effect of
high temperature.
• The various hot working operations are:
• Rolling: Rolling is a deformation process in which the
thickness of the work is reduced by compressive forces
exerted by two opposing rolls. The rolls rotate in
opposite directions to pull and simultaneously squeeze
the work between them.
• Forging: Forging is a deformation process in which the
work is compressed between two dies, using either
impact or gradual pressure to form the part. A forging
machine that applies impact an impact load is called a
forging hammer, while one that applies gradual
pressure is called a forging press.
 Pipe Welding: Pipe welding is the process of connecting
metal pipes by heating them and joining them together.
Rotary piercing: Rotary piercing is a hot working metal-
working process for forming thick-walled seamless tubing.
The process starts by feeding a blank in between the
opposing rolls. Then, the rolls push the blank over the
mandrel to form a uniform inner diameter of the tubing.
Hot Extruding: Hot extrusion is a hot working process,
which means it is done above the material's
recrystallization temperature to keep the material from
work hardening and to make it easier to push the material
through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on
horizontal hydraulic presses.
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• The advantages of hot-working operations are:
1. Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is easier to work
and uses less energy or force.
2. Increase in ductility.
3. Elevated temperatures increase diffusion which can remove
or reduce chemical in homogeneities.
4. Pores may reduce in size or close completely during
deformation.
5. In steel, the weak, ductile, face-centered cubic austenite
microstructure is deformed instead of the strong body-
centered cubic ferrite microstructure found at lower
temperatures
The disadvantages of hot-working operations are:
1. Undesirable reactions between the metal and the
surrounding atmosphere (scaling or rapid
oxidation of the work-piece).
2. Less precise tolerances due to thermal
contraction and warping from uneven cooling.
3. Grain structure may vary throughout the metal
for various reasons.
4. Requires a heating unit of some kind such as a
gas or diesel furnace or an induction heater,
which can be very expensive.
 5.Cooling Curve of a Solid Solution

• A solid solution is a solution in the solid state and

consists of two kinds of atoms combined in one type of
space lattice. A solution is composed of two parts: a
solute and a solvent. The solute is the minor part of the
solution or the material which is dissolved, while the
solvent constitutes the major portion of the solution.
When solidification of the solution starts, the
temperature may be higher or lower than the freezing
point of the pure solvent. Most solid solutions solidify
over a range in temperature. Figure below shows the
cooling curve for the solidification of a solid solution
Cooling Curve of a Solid Solution
 5.2.3 Inverse Lever Rule
• Inverse lever rule is used to determine the
percentage of each phase that is present at
various temperatures. The length of line XY
represents the sum of the two phases as 100
percent. The inverse lever rule states that liquid
phase can be calculated by taking the length of
the line XZ and dividing this by XY. The solid phase
can be calculated by taking the length of the line
ZY and dividing it by XY. To get the percentages,
the values are multiplied by 100.
Inverse Lever Rule
 Inverse Lever Rule
• Sample Calculation:
• Alloy with 40 % A and 60 %B at room temperature is heated to a
temperature T1. Calculate the liquid and solid phase and indicate
the composition of each phase. Liquid Phase = (XZ / XY) x 100 =
[(40-10) / (70-10)] x100 = 50%
• Solid Phase = (ZY / XY) x 100 = [(70-40) / (70-10)] x100 = 50%
• At temperature T1, the solid composition is found by the
intersection (point X) of isothermal line T1 and the solidus curve.
• Solid composition: 10 % A and 90 % B
• The liquid composition at temperature T1 is found by the
intersection (point Y) of isothermal line T1 and the liquidus curve.
• Liquid composition: 70% A and 30 % B
 Phase Transformation
1.Eutectic System
Eutectic system is a phase transformation that
takes place when a single-phase liquid
transforms directly to a two-phase solid.
𝐿 →𝑆1 + 𝑆2 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 →𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 1 + 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2
This is a reversible phase transformation.
Phase Transformation
 Phase Transformation
2.Eutectoid System
• The eutectoid phase transformation occurs
when a single-phase solid transforms directly
to two-phase solid.
• 𝑆1 →𝑆2 + 𝑆3
• 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 1 →𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2 + 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 3
• This is a reversible phase transformation.
Phase Transformation
 Phase Transformation

3.Peritectic System
• The peritectic phase transformation occurs
when a liquid and solid phase of fixed
proportions reacts at fixed temperature to
yield a single solid phase. 𝑆1 + 𝐿 =𝑆2 𝑖.𝑒.,𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
1 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2
• This transformation exists in the Iron-Iron
Carbide System.
 Phase Transformation

4.Monotectic System
• The Monotectic phase transformation occur
when a liquid transforms directly to a second
liquid and a solid. 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 1 = 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 2 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
• This transformation is reversible phase
transformation and occurs during cooling.
 5.3 Strengthening Mechanism

Since no two elements have the same atomic diameter,

solute atoms will be either smaller or longer than the
solvent atoms. Due to the difference in atomic size,
lattice distortion is produced when one element is
added to the other. Smaller atoms will produce a local
tensile stress field and larger solute atoms will produce
a local compressive field in the crystal. In both cases,
the stress field of a moving dislocation interacts with
the stress field of the solute atom. This increases the
stress required to move the dislocation through the
crystal, and hence strengthens the solution.
 Strengthening Mechanism

5.3.1 Alloys strengthening by exceeding solubility limit

• When impurities (i.e. the solute atoms) are added into the
solution of a metal or an alloy, the solute atoms go into
interstitial or substitutional positions and increase the
strength of the solution. The impurity atoms cause lattice
strain which can anchor dislocations. This occurs when the
strain caused by the alloying element compensates that of
the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential
energy. It costs strain energy for the dislocation to move
away from this state (which is like a potential well). The
scarcity of energy at low temperatures is why slip is
hindered and solution is strengthened. Pure metals are
almost always softer than their alloys.
 Strengthening Mechanism

5.3.2 Age Hardening or Precipitation Hardening

• Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is
a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield
strength of malleable materials, including most
structural alloys of aluminum, magnesium, nickel,
titanium, and some stainless steels. In super-alloys, it
is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing
excellent high temperature strength. Precipitation
hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with
temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity
phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or
defects in a crystal's lattice. Since dislocations are
often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to
harden the material.
 Strengthening Mechanism

• The impurities play the same role as the particle

substances in particle-reinforced composite
materials. Just as the formation of ice in air can
produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon
the thermal history of a given portion of the
atmosphere, precipitation in solids can produce
many different sizes of particles, which have
radically different properties. Unlike ordinary
tempering, alloys must be kept at elevated
temperature for hours to allow precipitation to
take place. This time delay is called aging.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and heating

Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a

solid material after the original cause of the
stresses has been removed. Residual stress
may be desirable or undesirable. For example,
laser peening imparts deep beneficial
compressive residual stresses into metal
components such as turbine engine fan
blades.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
It is used in toughened glass to allow for large, thin,
crack- and scratch-resistant glass displays on smart
phones. However, unintended residual stress in a
designed structure may cause it to fail prematurely.
When undesired residual stress is present from prior
metalworking operations, the amount of residual stress
may be reduced using several methods. These methods
may be classified into thermal and mechanical (or non-
thermal) methods. All the methods involve processing
the part to be stress relieved as a whole.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
• Thermal method
The thermal method involves changing the
temperature of the entire part uniformly,
either through heating or cooling. When parts
are heated for stress relief, the process may
also be known as stress relief bake. Cooling
parts for stress relief is known as cryogenic
stress relief and is relatively uncommon.
 5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
i) Stress relief bake: Most metals, when heated, experience a
reduction in yield strength. If the material's yield strength is
sufficiently lowered by heating, locations within the material that
experienced residual stresses greater than the yield strength (in the
heated state) would yield or deform. This leaves the material with
residual stresses that are at most as high as the yield strength of the
material in its heated state.
• Stress relief bake should not be confused with annealing or
tempering, which are heat treatments to increase ductility of a
metal. Although those processes also involve heating the material
to high temperatures and reduce residual stresses, they also involve
a change in metallurgical properties, which may be undesired.
• For certain materials such as low alloy steel, care must be taken
during stress relief bake so as not to exceed the temperature at
which the material achieves maximum hardness (See Tempering in
alloy steels).
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
ii) Cryogenic stress relief: Cryogenic stress relief
involves placing the material (usually steel)
into a cryogenic environment such as liquid
nitrogen. In this process, the material to be
stress relieved will be cooled to a cryogenic
temperature for a long period, then slowly
brought back to room temperature.
5.3.3 Residual stress during quenching and
heating
• Non-thermal methods
• Mechanical methods to relieve undesirable
surface tensile stresses and replace them with
beneficial compressive residual stresses include
shot peening and laser peening. Each works the
surface of the material with a media: shot
peening typically uses a metal or glass material;
laser peening uses high intensity beams of light
to induce a shock wave that propagates deep into
the material.
 Chapter 6.Iron-Iron Carbide and Heat treatment of
steels
Constituents of Iron and steel
1.Ferrite (𝜶 iron):
It is also known as (𝛼 ) alpha -iron, which is an
interstitial solid solution of a small amount of
carbon dissolved in iron with a body-centered
cubic (B.C.C.) crystal structure. It is the softest
structure on the iron-iron carbide diagram.
Average properties are:
Tensile Strength: 40,000 psi
Elongation: 40 % in 2 in gage length
Hardness: Less than Rockwell B 90.
Toughness: Low
 Constituents of Iron and steel
2.Cementite (Fe3C):
• Cementite is also known as iron carbide which
has a chemical formula, Fe3C. It contains 6.67
% Carbon by weight. It is a typical hard and
brittle interstitial compound of low tensile
strength (approximately 5,000 psi) but high
compressive strength. Its crystal structure is
orthorhombic.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

3.Pearlite (𝜶 + Fe3C)
• It is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.83 % carbon and is
formed at 727oC on very slow cooling. It is very fine plate
like or lamellar mixture of ferrite 87.5% and
cementite12.5%. The structure of pearlite includes a white
matrix (ferritic background) which includes thin plates of
cementite. Average properties are:
• Tensile Strength: 120,000 psi
• Elongation: 20 % in 2 in gage length
• Hardness: Rockwell C 20 or BHN 250-300
• A fixed amount of carbon and a fixed amount of iron are
needed to form Cementite (Fe3C). Also, pearlite needs fixed
amounts of cementite and ferrite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

4.Austenite (𝜸 iron):
• It is also known as (𝛾) gamma-iron, which is an interstitial
solid solution of carbon dissolved in iron with a face-
centered cubic crystal (F.C.C) structure. Average properties
of austenite are:
• Tensile strength: 150,000 psi.
• Elongation: 10 % in 2 in gage length.
• Hardness Rockwell: C 40
• Toughness: High
• Austenite is normally unstable at room temperature. Under
certain conditions it is possible to obtain austenite at room
temperature.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

• If there is not enough carbon, that is less than 0.83 %,

the carbon and the iron will combine to form Fe3C
until all the carbon is consumed. This cementite will
combine with the required amount of ferrite to form
pearlite. The remaining amount of ferrite will stay in
the structure as free ferrite. Free ferrite is also known
as pro-eutectoid ferrite. The steel that contains pro-
eutectoid ferrite is referred to as hypo-eutectoid steel.
• If, however, there is an excess of carbon above 0.83 %
in the austenite, pearlite will form, and the excess
carbon above 0.83 % will form Cementite. The excess
Cementite deposits in the grain boundaries. This excess
cementite is also known as pro-eutectoid cementite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

5.Martensite: This is a body centered tetragonal

iron phase produced by entrapping carbon on
decomposing of austenite when cooled
rapidly. It is the main constituent of hardened
steel .It is magnetic and made up of needle
like fibrous mass . It has carbon content upto
2%.It is extremely hard and brittle . The
decomposition of austenite below 3200c starts
that formation of martensite.Martensite is the
product of quenching.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

6.Ledeburite (𝜶 + Fe3C)
• It is the eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite. It contains 4.3 % Carbon and
represents the eutectic form of cast iron.
Ledeburite exists when the carbon content is
greater than 2 %, which represents the
dividing line on the equilibrium diagram
between steel and cast iron.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

7. Delta Iron
• Delta iron exists between 1539 and 1493oC. It
may exist in combination with the melt to
about 0.50 % Carbon, in combination with
austenite to about 0.18 % Carbon and in a
single phase state out to about 0.10 % carbon.
Delta iron has the body centered cubic (B.C.C)
crystal structure and is magnetic
 Constituents of Iron and steel

8.Troosite: It is mixture of radial lamellae of ferrite and

cementite and therefore differ from pearlite only in
the degree of fineness and carbon content.It is
composed of the cementite phase in the ferrite
matrix that can be resolved by a light microscope. It
is produced either by tempering a martensitic steel
between 250 to 4500c or by quenching a steel slowly
until transformation begins and then rapidly to
prevent its completion.It is less hard and brittle than
martensite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel
9. Sorbite: This is produced by the
transformation of tempered martensite
between 550 to 650oc. A sorbite structure is
characterized by strength and a high degree
of toughness.Its properties lie intermediate
between those of pearlite and troostite.
 Constituents of Iron and steel

10. Bainite: It is produced in steel when austenite

transforms at a temp. below that at which
pearlite is produced and above that at which
martensite is formed . Binite is produced by
austempering . Thus , binite is a decomposition
product of austenite , consisting of an aggegate
of ferrite and carbide.Binite is isothermal
transformation product and can not be produced
by continuous cooling.
 The iron – carbon system, phase
transformations
• A study of iron-carbon system is useful and important in many
respects. This is because (1) steels constitute greatest amount of
metallic materials used by man (2) solid state transformations that
occur in steels are varied and interesting. These are similar to those
occur in many other systems and helps explain the properties.
• Iron-carbon phase diagram shown in figure-16 is not a complete
diagram. Part of the diagram after 6.67 wt% C is ignored as it has
little commercial significance. The 6.67%C represents the
composition where an inter-metallic compound, cementite (Fe3C),
with solubility limits forms. In addition, phase diagram is not true
equilibrium diagram because cementite is not an equilibrium phase.
However, in ordinary steels decomposition of cementite into
graphite never observed because nucleation of cementite is much
easier than that of graphite. Thus cementite can be treated as an
equilibrium phase for practical purposes
Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• The Fe-Fe3C is characterized by five individual phases and

four invariant reactions. Five phases that exist in the
diagram are: α–ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, γ-
austenite (FCC) Fe-C solid solution, δ-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C
solid solution, Fe3C (iron carbide) or cementite - an inter-
metallic compound and liquid Fe-C solution. Four invariant
reactions that cause transformations in the system are
namely eutectoid, eutectic, monotectic and peritectic.
• As depicted by left axes, pure iron upon heating exhibits
two allotropic changes. One involves α–ferrite of BCC
crystal structure transforming to FCC austenite, γ-iron, at
910ْ C. At 1400ْC, austenite changes to BCC phase known
as δ-ferrite, which finally melts at 1536ْ C.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
• Carbon present in solid iron as interstitial impurity, and forms solid
solution with ferrites / austenite as depicted by three single fields
represented by α, γ and δ. Carbon dissolves least in α–ferrite in
which maximum amount of carbon soluble is 0.02% at 723ْ C. This
limited solubility is attributed to shape and size of interstitial
position in BCC α–ferrite. However, carbon present greatly
influences the mechanical properties of α–ferrite. α–ferrite can be
used as magnetic material below 768ْ C. Solubility of carbon in γ-
iron reaches its maximum, 2.11%, at a temperature of 1147ْ C.
Higher solubility of carbon in austenite is attributed to FCC
structure and corresponding interstitial sites. Phase
transformations involving austenite plays very significant role in
heat treatment of different steels. Austenite itself is non-
magnetic. Carbon solubility in δ-ferrite is maximum (0.1%) at
1495ْ C.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
• As this ferrite exists only at elevated
temperatures, it is of no commercial importance.
Cementite , Fe3C an inter-metallic compound
forms when amount of carbon present exceeds
its solubility limit at respective temperatures. Out
of these four solid phases, cementite is hardest
and brittle that is used in different forms to
increase the strength of steels. α–ferrite, on the
other hand, is softest and act as matrix of a
composite material. By combining these two
phases in a solution, a material’s properties can
be varied over a large range.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• For technological convenience, based on %C dissolved in it,

a Fe-C solution is classified as: commercial pure irons with
less than 0.008%C; steels having %C between 0.008-2.11;
while cast irons have carbon in the range of 2.11%-6.67%.
Thus commercial pure iron is composed of exclusively α–
ferrite at room temperature. Most of the steels and cast
irons contain both α–ferrite and cementite. However,
commercial cast irons are not simple alloys of iron and
carbon as they contain large quantities of other elements
such as silicon, thus better consider them as ternary alloys.
The presence of Si promotes the formation of graphite
instead of cementite. Thus cast irons may contain carbon
in form of both graphite and cementite, while steels will
have carbon only in combined from as cementite.
As shown in figure-16, and mentioned earlier, Fe-C
system constitutes four invariant reactions:
• peritectic reaction at 1495ْC and 0.16%C, δ-
ferrite + L γ-iron (austenite)
• monotectic reaction 1495ْC and 0.51%C, L L
+ γ-iron (austenite)
• eutectic reaction at 1147ْC and 4.3 %C, L γ-
iron + Fe3C (cementite) [ledeburite]
• eutectoid reaction at 723ْC and 0.8%C, γ-iron
α–ferrite + Fe3C (cementite) [pearlite]
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• Product phase of eutectic reaction is called ledeburite, while

product from eutectoid reaction is called pearlite. During cooling to
room temperature, ledeburite transforms into pearlite and
cementite. At room temperature, thus after equilibrium cooling, Fe-
C diagram consists of either α–ferrite, pearlite and/or cementite.
Pearlite is actually not a single phase, but a micro-constituent
having alternate thin layers of α–ferrite (~88%) and Fe3C,
cementite (~12%). Steels with less than 0.8%C (mild steels up to
0.3%C, medium carbon steels with C between 0.3%-0.8% i.e. hypo-
eutectoid Fe-C alloys) i.e. consists pro-eutectoid α–ferrite in
addition to pearlite, while steels with carbon higher than 0.8%
(high-carbon steels i.e. hyper-eutectoid Fe-C alloys) consists of
pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite. Phase transformations
involving austenite i.e. processes those involve eutectoid reaction
are of great importance in heat treatment of steels.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• In practice, steels are almost always cooled from the

austenitic region to room temperature. During the
cooling upon crossing the boundary of the single phase
γ-iron, first pro-eutectoid phase (either α–ferrite or
cementite) forms up to eutectoid temperature. With
further cooling below the eutectoid temperature,
remaining austenite decomposes to eutectoid product
called pearlite, mixture of thin layers of α–ferrite and
cementite. Though pearlite is not a phase,
nevertheless, a constituent because it has a definite
appearance under the microscope and can be clearly
identified in a structure composed of several
constituents.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram
• The decomposition of austenite to form pearlite occurs by nucleation
and growth. Nucleation, usually, occurs heterogeneously and rarely
homogeneously at grain boundaries. When it is not homogeneous,
nucleation of pearlite occurs both at grain boundaries and in the
grains of austenite. When austenite forms pearlite at a constant
temperature, the spacing between adjacent lamellae of cementite is
very nearly constant. For a given colony of pearlite, all cementite
plates have a common orientation in space, and it is also true for the
ferrite plates. Growth of pearlite colonies occurs not only by the
nucleation of additional lamellae but also through an advance at the
ends of the lamellae. Pearlite growth also involves the nucleation of
new colonies at the interfaces between established colonies and the
parent austenite. The thickness ratio of the ferrite and cementite
layers in pearlite is approximately 8 to 1. However, the absolute
layer thickness depends on the temperature at which the isothermal
transformation is allowed to occur.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• The temperature at which austenite is transformed has a

strong effect on the inter-lamellar spacing of pearlite. The
lower the reaction temperature, the smaller will be inter-
lamellar spacing. For example, pearlite spacing is in order of
10-3 mm when it formed at 700ْC, while spacing is in order
of 10-4 mm when formed at 600ْC. The spacing of the
pearlite lamellae has a practical significance because the
hardness of the resulting structure depends upon it; the
smaller the spacing, the harder the metal. The growth rate
of pearlite is also a strong function of temperature. At
temperatures just below the eutectoid, the growth rate
increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, reaching a
maximum at 600ْC, and then decreases again at lower
temperatures.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• Additions of alloying elements to Fe-C system

bring changes (alternations to positions of phase
boundaries and shapes of fields) depends on that
particular element and its concentration. Almost
all alloying elements causes the eutectoid
concentration to decrease, and most of the
alloying elements (e.g.: Ti, Mo, Si, W, Cr) causes
the eutectoid temperature to increase while
some other (e.g.: Ni, Mn) reduces the eutectoid
temperature. Thus alloying additions alters the
relative amount of pearlite and pro-eutectoid
phase that form.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• Fe-C alloys with more than 2.11% C are called cast

irons. Phase transformations in cast irons involve
formation of pro-eutectic phase on crossing the
liquidus. During the further cooling, liquid of eutectic
composition decomposes in to mixture of austenite
and cementite, known as ledeburite. On further
cooling through eutectoid temperature, austenite
decomposes to pearlite. The room temperature
microstructure of cast irons thus consists of pearlite
and cementite. Because of presence of cementite,
which is hard, brittle and white in color, product is
called white cast iron.
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

However, depending on cooling rate and other alloying

elements, carbon in cast iron may be present as
graphite or cementite. Gray cast iron contains graphite
in form of flakes. These flakes are sharp and act as
stress risers. Brittleness arising because of flake shape
can be avoided by producing graphite in spherical
nodules, as in malleable cast iron and SG (spheroidal
graphite) cast iron. Malleable cast iron is produced by
heat treating white cast iron (Si < 1%) for prolonged
periods at about 900ْC and then cooling it very slowly.
The cementite decomposes and temper carbon appears
approximately as spherical particles
 Iron – Iron carbide phase diagram

• SG iron is produced by adding inoculants to

molten iron. In these Si content must be about
2.5%, and no subsequent heat treatment is
required.
6.1.1 Applications and limitations of Iron-Iron
Carbide Diagram
Applications
With the core knowledge gained from the iron-carbon phase, one can
investigate different types of structures derived from heat treatment of
steel. The iron-carbon diagram provides a valuable foundation on which
knowledge of both plain carbon and alloy steels in their immense variety
is gained. The iron-iron carbide diagram is useful in finding out what will
be the crystal structure and the physical and chemical properties of iron at
known carbon percentage and temperature.
Limitations
1. Information about transformation of austenite at varying cooling rates is
missing.
2. Design of heat treatment for desired properties is not possible.
3. It does not give the answer to the question “How much time is required
to start the transformation or how long does the transformation take to
complete?".
6.2 Simple Heat Treatments
 6.2.1 Annealing
• Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a
specific temp/color and then allowed to cool slowly. This
softens the metal which means it can be cut and shaped more
easily. Mild steel, is heated to a red hot state and allowed to
cool slowly. However, metals such as aluminum will melt if
heated for too long. Annealed metals are relatively soft and
can be cut and shaped more easily. They bend easily when
pressure is applied. As a rule, they are heated and allowed to
cool slowly. The different types of annealing are:
• Full Annealing
• Process Annealing
• Stress-Relief Annealing
• Spheroidisation
 Full Annealing
• Full Annealing is the process of slowly raising the temp about
50oC (90oF) above the Austenite temp line A3 or line ACM in
the case of hypo-eutectoid steels (steels with less than
0.77%).
• It is held at this temp for sufficient time for all the materials to
transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case
may be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20oC/hr.
(36oF/hr.) in a furnace to about 50oC (90oF) into the Ferrite-
Cementite. At this point, it can be cooled in a room temp air
with natural convection.
• The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with Ferrite or
Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper-eutectoid).
The steel becomes soft and ductile.
 Process Annealing
• Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made
out of low carbon steels (less than 0.25%). This allows the
parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working
without fracturing. Process Annealing is done by raising the
temp to just below the Ferrite- Austenite region, line A1 on
the diagram. This temp is about 727oC (1341oF) so heating it
to about 700oC (1292oF) should suffice. This is held long
enough to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase, and
then cooled in still air. Since the material stays in the same
phase throughout the process, the only change that occurs in
the size, shape and distribution of the grain structure. This
process is cheaper than either full annealing or normalizing
since the material is not heated to a very high temp or cooled
in a furnace
 Stress-Relief Annealing

• Stress-Relief Annealing is used to reduce

residual stresses in large castings, welded
parts and cold-formed parts. Such parts tend
to have stresses due to thermal cycling or
work hardening. Parts are heated to temp of
up to 600-650oC and held for an extended
time about 1 hour and more and then slowly
cooled in still air.
 Spheroidisation
• Spheroidisation is an annealing process used for high carbon steels
(carbon more than 0.6%) that will be machined or cold formed
subsequently. This is done by one of the following ways:
• 1. Heat the part to a temperature just below the Ferrite- Austenite line,
line A1 or below the Austenite - Cementite line, especially below the
727oC (1340oF) line. Hold the temperature for a prolonged time and
follow by fairly slow cooling.
• 2. Cycle multiple times between temperature slightly above and slightly
below the 727oC (1340oF) line, say for example between 700 and 750oC
and cool slowly.
• 3. For tool and alloy steels, heat to 750 to 800oC (1382 - 1472oF) and hold
for several hours followed by slow cooling.
improved machining in continuous cutting operations such as lathes and screw machines.
Spheroidisation also improves resistance to abrasion.
 Applications of Annealing

• Annealed metals are relatively soft and can be

cut and shaped more easily. They bend easily
when pressure is applied. As a rule they are
heated and allowed to cool slowly. Thus
applications include decorative items, Low-
friction applications (locks, gears, and
doorknobs), plumbing/electronics, musical
instruments for acoustic properties & in bells
and cymbals.
Comparison between Annealing and Normalizing
• In general, the main purpose of annealing heat treatment is to
soften the steel, regenerate overheated steel structures or
just remove internal tensions. It basically consists of heating
to austentising temperature (800ºC and 950ºC depending on
the type of steel), followed by slow cooling. Normalization is
an annealing process. The objective of normalization is to
intend to leave the material in a normal state, in other words
with the absence of internal tensions and even distribution of
carbon. For the process the high temperatures are maintained
until the complete transformation of austenite with air
cooling. It is usually used as a post-treatment to forging, and
pre-treatment to quenching and tempering. Induction is used
in most applications of annealing and normalizing in
compared to conventional ovens.
 Applications of Normalizing
• By completing the normalization of metal (e.g. steel), the
strength of the piece of steel can be improved, compared
to steel that is not normalized or treated with another
heating process. The ductile performance of the steel
can also be improved through normalization; this is
possible without reducing the hardness or strength as
can happen with other heat treatments. By using the
normalization process, modifications can be made to the
grain structure of the steel to make it usable for specific
purposes. Steels with low levels of carbon do not have
their rate of ductility altered by using the normalization
process. It is usually done for steel parts that require
maximum amount of impact strength.
• 6.2.3 Quenching and its medium Quenching is the act
of rapidly cooling the hot steel to harden the steel. The
various mediums in which quenching can be done are:
Water: Quenching can be done by plunging the hot
steel in water. The water adjacent to the hot steel
vaporizes, and there is no direct contact of the water
with the steel. This slows down cooling until the
bubbles break and allow water contact with the hot
steel. As the water contacts and boils, a great amount
of heat is removed from the steel. With good agitation,
bubbles can be prevented from sticking to the steel,
and thereby prevent soft spots. Water is a good rapid
quenching medium, provided good agitation is done.
However, water is corrosive with steel, and the rapid
cooling can sometimes cause distortion or cracking
 Salt Water: Salt water is a more rapid quench medium
than plain water because the bubbles are broken easily
and allow for rapid cooling of the part. However, salt
water is even more corrosive than plain water, and
hence must be rinsed off immediately.
Oil: Oil is used when a slower cooling rate is desired.
Since oil has a very high boiling point, the transition
from start of martensite formation to the finish is slow
and this reduces the likelihood of cracking. Oil
quenching results in fumes, spills, and sometimes a fire
hazard.
 Polymer quench: Polymer quenches that will
produce a cooling rate in between water and
oil. The cooling rate can be altered by varying
the components in the mixture-as these are
composed of water and some glycol polymers.
Polymer quenches are capable of producing
repeatable results with less corrosion than
water and less of a fire hazard than oil. But,
these repeatable results are possible only with
constant monitoring of the chemistry.
 Cryogenic quench: Cryogenics or deep freezing is done
to make sure there is no retained Austenite during
quenching. The amount of martensite formed at
quenching is a function of the lowest temperature
encountered. At any given temperature of quenching
there is a certain amount of martensite and the
balance is untransformed Austenite. This
untransformed Austenite is very brittle and can cause
loss of strength or hardness, dimensional instability, or
cracking. Quenches are usually done to room
temperature. Most medium carbon steels and low alloy
steels undergo transformation to 100% martensite at
room temperature. However, high carbon and high
alloy steels have retained Austenite at room
temperature. To eliminate retained Austenite, the
quench temperature has to be lowered. This is the
reason to use cryogenic quenching.
• Hardness is a function of the carbon content of
the steel. Hardening of a steel requires a change
in structure from the body-centered cubic
structure found at room temperature to the face-
centered cubic structure found in the Austenitic
region. The steel is heated to Austenitic region.
When suddenly quenched, the martensite is
formed. This is a very strong and brittle structure.
When slowly quenched it would form Austenite
and Pearlite which is a partly hard and partly soft
structure. When the cooling rate is extremely
slow then it would be mostly Pearlite which is
extremely soft.
 Hardenability
• Hardenability, which is a measure of the depth of full
hardness achieved, is related to the type and amount of
alloying elements. Different alloys, which have the same
amount of Carbon content, will achieve the same amount
of maximum hardness; however, the depth of full hardness
will vary with the different alloys. The reason to alloy steels
is not to increase their strength, but increase their
hardenability — the ease with which full hardness can be
achieved throughout the material. Usually when hot steel is
quenched, most of the cooling happens at the surface, as
does the hardening. This propagates into the depth of the
material. Alloying helps in the hardening and by
determining the right alloy one can achieve the desired
properties for the particular application. Such alloying also
helps in reducing the need for a rapid quench cooling —
thereby eliminate distortions and potential cracking. In
addition, thick sections can be hardened fully.
 Hardenability
Hardenability and Jominy End Quench Test :
The influence of alloy composition on the ability
of a steel alloy to transform to martensite for a
particular quenching treatment is related to a
parameter called hardenability. For every
different steel alloy there is a specific relationship
between the mechanical properties and the
cooling rate. Hardenability is used to describe the
ability of an alloy to be hardened by the
formation of martensite as a result of a given
heat treatment. One standard procedure that is
widely utilized to determine hardenability is the
Jominy end quench test.
Hardenability
6.2.4 Hardening and Tempering
Steels can be heat treated to high hardness and
strength levels. The reasons for doing this are obvious.
Structural components subjected to high operating
stress need the high strength of a hardened structure.
Similarly, tools such as dies, knives, cutting devices, and
forming devices need a hardened structure to resist
wear and deformation. Hardened steels are so brittle
that even slight impacts may cause fracture. Tempering
is a heat treatment that reduces the brittleness of a
steel without significantly lowering its hardness and
strength. All hardened steels must be tempered before
use.
 Quench and Tempering Processes
The various hardening methods are:
(1) Conventional Heat, Quench and Temper
process
(2) Stepped Quenching or Martempering
(3) Isothermal Quenching or Austempering
• Conventional Heat, Quench and Temper Process In this
process, austenite is transformed to martensite as a result
of rapid quench from furnace to room temperature. Then,
martensite is heated to a temperature which gives the
desired hardness. One serious drawback is the possibility of
distorting and cracking the metal as a result of severe
quenching required to form martensite without
transforming any of the austenite to pearlite. During
quenching process, the outer area is cooled quicker than
the center. Thinner parts are cooled faster than parts with
greater cross-sectional areas. What this means is that
transformations of the austenite are proceeding at different
rates. As the metal cools, it also contracts and its
microstructure occupies less volume. Extreme variations in
size of metal parts complicate the work of the heat treater
and should be avoided in the designing of metal parts. This
means there is a limit to the overall size of parts that can be
subjected to such thermal processing.
• Martempering has the following advantages
over conventional quenching:
1. Less volume changes occur due to the
presence of a large amount of retained
austenite and possibility of self-tempering of
martensite.
2. Less warping since the transformations occur
simultaneously in all parts of the article.
3. Less chances of quenching cracks appearing
in the article.
Isothermal Quenching or Austempering
It is performed in the same manner principally as
martempering but with a longer holding time at hot
bath temperature (above the martensite point) to
ensure a sufficiently complete austenite decomposition
(usually with acircular troostite or bainite). This method
is used to overcome the restrictions of conventional
quench and tempering. The quench is interrupted at a
higher temperature than for Martempering to allow the
metal at the center of the part to reach the same
temperature as the surface. By maintaining that
temperature, both the center and the surface are
allowed to transform to bainite and are then cooled to
room temperature. Molten salts are usually used as a
medium in martempering and austempering. The lower
the temperature of the salt bath, the higher the cooling
rate it provides. . Austempering process is commercially
used for thin steel sections to obtain products free from
cracks and with good impact resistance.
Advantages of Austempering
1. Less distortion and cracking than
Martempering.
2. No need for final tempering (less time
consuming and more energy efficient).
3. Improvement of toughness (impact resistance
is higher than the conventional quench and
tempering).
4. Improved ductility.
6.2.5 Different types of surface hardening processes
6.2.5.1 Carburizing
Carburizing is a heat treatment process in which iron
or steel absorbs carbon liberated when the metal is
heated in the presence of a carbon bearing material,
such as charcoal or carbon monoxide, with the intent
of making the metal harder. Depending on the amount
of time and temperature, the affected area can vary in
carbon content. Longer carburizing times and higher
temperatures lead to greater carbon diffusion into the
part as well as increased depth of carbon diffusion.
When iron or steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the
higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes
hard via the transformation from austenite to
martensite, while the core remains soft and tough as a
ferritic and/or pearlite microstructure
• This manufacturing process can be characterized
by the following key points: It is applied to low-
carbon work pieces; work pieces are in contact
with a high-carbon gas, liquid or solid; it produces
a hard work piece surface; work piece cores
largely retain their toughness and ductility; and it
produces case hardness depths of up to 0.25
inches (6.4 mm). In some cases it serves as a
remedy for undesired decarburization that
happened earlier in a manufacturing process.
• 2. Gas Carburizing Gas carburizing can be done
with any carbonaceous gas, such as methane,
ethane, propane, or natural gas. Most carburizing
gases are flammable and controls are needed to
keep carburizing gas at 1700 o F from contacting
air (oxygen). The advantage of this process over
pack carburizing is an improved ability to quench
from the carburizing temperature. Conveyor
hearth furnaces make quenching in a controlled
atmosphere possible.
• 3. Liquid Carburizing Liquid carburizing can be
performed in internally or externally heated
molten salt pots. Carburizing salt contains
cyanide compounds such as sodium cyanide
(NaCN). Cycle times for liquid cyaniding is
much shorter (1 to 4 hours) than gas and pack
carburizing processes. Disadvantage is that
the salt has to be disposed, which proves to
be very costly and it is hazardous to
environment as well
• 6.2.5.2 Nitriding In this process, nitrogen is diffused into the
surface of the steel being treated. The reaction of nitrogen
with the steel causes the formation of very hard iron and
alloy nitrogen compounds. The resulting nitride case is
harder than tool steels or carburized steels. The advantage
of this process is that hardness is achieved without the oil,
water or air quench. As an added advantage, hardening is
accomplished in a nitrogen atmosphere that prevents
scaling and discoloration. Nitriding temperature is below
the lower critical temperature of the steel and it is set
between 925 o F and 1050 o F. The nitrogen source is
usually Ammonia (NH3). At nitriding temperature the
ammonia dissociates into Nitrogen and Hydrogen according
to the chemical reaction: 2NH3 → 2N + 3H2
The nitrogen diffuses into the steel and hydrogen is
exhausted. A typical nitriding setup is illustrated in
figure 6.20
• Methane or propane serve as the source of carbon, the
ammonia serves as the source of nitrogen. Quenching is
done in a gas which is not as severe as water quench. As a
result of les severe quench, there is less distortion on the
material to be treated. A typical Carbonitriding system is
shown in the following slide. Case hardness of HRC 60 to 65
are achieved at the surface but not as high as nitrided
surfaces. Case depths of 0.003 to 0.030 in can be
accomplished by carbonitriding. One of the advantages of
this process is that it can be applied to plain carbon steels
which give significant case depths. Carbonitriding gives less
distortion than carburizing. Carbonitriding is performed at
temperatures above the transformation temperature of the
steels (1400 o F to 1600 o F).
• 6.2.5.4 Cyaniding It is similar to carbonitriding, and
involves the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into
the surface of the steel. The source of the diffusing
element in this method is a molten cyanide salt such as
sodium cyanide. It is a supercritical treatment involving
temperatures in the range of 1400o F to 1600o F. Case
depths are between 0.010 in. and 0.030 in. During
cyaniding, the cyanide salts are oxidized with the
liberation of atomic carbon and nitrogen, which diffuse
into the steel. In medium-temperature cyaniding, the
cyanide layer formed, containing 0.6–0.7 percent C and
0.8–1.2 percent N, has a thickness of 0.15 to 0.6 mm,
while in high-temperature cyaniding (a method often
used instead of carburizing), the cyanide layer,
containing 0.8–1.2 percent C and 0.2–0.3 percent N,
has a thickness of 0.5 to 2 mm
• Diffusion times are less than one hour. Water
or oil quench is required to remove residual
cyanide. This type of cases present a
significant distortion. Advantage of this
method is the short time it requires to
complete the diffusion, otherwise it should be
avoided because of high distortion. The major
drawback of cyaniding is that cyanide salts are
poisonous and the process itself is costly.
• Major defects in a metal or alloy due to faulty heat
treatment Following are some of the major defects
found in metal or alloy due to faulty heat treatment: 1.
Overheating: Prolonged heating of a metal or alloy
above the A3 line (refer figure 6.1) leads to the
formation of very large actual grains. It is called
overheating. On cooling a metal, this yields a structure
containing coarse crystalline martensite. Such structure
has reduced ductility and toughness. It is possible to
retrieve an overheated metal or alloy by usual
annealing. For considerable overheating, double
annealing may be used. 2. Burning: Heating a metal or
an alloy to still higher temperatures near melting point
for a longer time leads to burning. This results in the
formation of iron oxide inclusions along the grain
boundaries. Burnt metal or alloy has a stoney fracture
and such metal or alloy is irretrievable and is rejected.
• 3. Oxidation: Sometimes a metal or alloy is oxidized
due to oxidizing atmosphere in the furnace. It is
characterized by a thick layer of scale on the surface of
a metal or alloy. It can be prevented by using controlled
atmosphere in the furnace or using molten salt baths.
4. Decarburization: It is the loss of carbon in the
surface layers of the metal or alloy. Decarburization
results in lower hardness and lower fatigue life. It is
caused by the oxidizing furnace atmosphere. In order
to prevent decarburization, the metal or alloy should
be heated in a neutral or reducing atmosphere or in
boxes with cast iron chips or in molten salt baths.
• 5. Cracks: The cracks occur in quenching when the internal
tensile stresses exceed the resistance of the metal or alloy
to separation. The tendency of a metal or alloy to crack
formation increases with carbon content, hardening
temperature and cooling rate in the temperature interval of
martensite transformation. It also increases with the
hardenability of metal or alloy. Another reason of crack
formation is the concentration of local stresses. To prevent
the formation of cracks, it is advisable to (i) avoid stress
concentrations such as sharp corners on projections, acute
angles, and abrupt changes from thicker to thinner cross-
sections etc., (ii) conduct quenching from lowest possible
temperature, (iii) cool the metal or alloy slowly in the
martensite interval of temperatures by quenching in two
media and stepped quenching (i.e. martempering), (iv)
apply isothermal quenching.
• 6. Distortion and warping: Distortion or
deformation consisting in changes in the size and
shape of heat-treated work, is due to thermal and
structural stresses. Asymmetrical distortion of
work is often called warping in heat-treating
practice. It is usually observed in the case of non-
uniform heating or over-heating for hardening,
when the work is quenched in the wrong position
and when the cooling rate is too high in the
temperature interval of martensite
transformation. An elimination of these causes
should substantially reduce warping.
 CHAPTER 7
TYPES OF STEELS AND CAST IRON

7.1 Alloy Steel

• Steel in itself is an alloy of iron with mainly carbon along with elements
like chromium, manganese, nickel, silicon, vanadium, molybdenum, etc.
Alloy steel refers to the alloying of steel with these different elements in a
significant amount. Alloying of steel is done in order to acquire desired
characteristics.
For example:
Alloying of steel with sulphur increases the machinability of steel however
it reduces weldability of steel. Likewise alloying of other elements with
steel can improve hardenability, provide solid solution strengthening of
ferrite, improve corrosion resistance, etc.
Types of Alloy Steels
• HSLA Steel
• Stainless Steel
• Tool Steel
 Steels
• Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain
appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements;
there are thousands of alloys that have different
compositions and/or heat treatments. The mechanical
properties are sensitive to the content of carbon,
which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Some of the more
common steels are classified according to carbon
concentration—namely, into low-, medium-, and high
carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each group
according to the concentration of other alloying
elements. Plain carbon steels contain only residual
concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a
little manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying
elements are intentionally added in specific
concentrations.
What is mild steel?
• Mild steel is a type of carbon steel with a low amount of carbon
(typically 0.05% to 0.25%); these are also known as “low carbon
steels.” Low carbon steel is considered a relatively inexpensive and
versatile material that is commonly used in various construction
and manufacturing applications.
• The low carbon content makes mild steel more ductile and easier to
shape, form and weld than other types of steel. Mild steel has
good machinability and can be easily drilled, cut, and fabricated into
various shapes and sizes.
• In addition, low carbon steel has a relatively high tensile strength,
making it suitable for use in high-stress applications such as beams,
columns and machinery components. It’s versatility and
affordability make it a popular choice for a wide range of
applications.
What is carbon steel?
Carbon steel is a type of steel that contains carbon as the main
alloying element, with other elements present in smaller amounts.
This metal is commonly used in the manufacturing of many
products and structures due to its high strength and low cost.
Carbon steel can be further classified into various grades based on
its chemical composition and mechanical properties, such as low
carbon steel (mild steel), medium carbon steel, high carbon steel
and ultra high carbon steel. Each grade has its own specific uses and
applications, depending on the desired properties of the final
product.
Medium to high carbon steel is commonly used to make machinery
components, such as gears, crankshafts and shafts. Its high
strength, and particularly high hardness make it an ideal choice for
a wide range of tooling applications.
• Carbon steel types
• There are several types of carbon steel, each with unique properties
and applications. These types include:
• Low carbon steel
• Also known as “mild steel,” this type of steel is more ductile and
easier to shape, form and weld compared to other carbon steel
types. This makes mild steel a popular choice over higher-carbon
steels when it comes to construction and manufacturing
applications.
• Medium carbon steel
• Contains 0.3% to 0.6% carbon content, making it stronger and
harder than low-carbon steel but also more brittle. It is often used
in applications that require both strength and ductility, such as
machinery components, automotive parts and building frames.
High carbon steel
High carbon steel contains 0.6% to 1.5%
carbon content and is known for its high
strength and hardness, but high carbon steel
is even more brittle than medium-carbon
steel. High carbon steel is used in applications
that require high strength such as knife
blades, hand tools and springs.
 Steels
Low-Carbon Steels
These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and
are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form
martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents.
As a consequence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak but
have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are
machinable, weldable, and,of all steels, are the least expensive
to produce. Typical applications include automobile body
components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle
iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges,
and tin cans. Tables 11.1a and 11.1b present the compositions
and mechanical properties of several plain low-carbon
steels.They typically have a yield strength of 275 MPa (40,000
psi), tensile strengths between 415 and 550 MPa (60,000 and
80,000 psi), and a ductility of 25%EL.
 Steels
High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA)
Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-
strength, low-alloy (HSLA)steels. They contain other
alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel,
and molybdenum in combined concentrations as high
as 10 wt%, and possess higher strengths than the plain
low-carbon steels. Most may be strengthened by heat
treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480
MPa (70,000 psi); in addition,they are ductile,
formable, and machinable , more resistant to corrosion
than the plain carbon steels, which they have replaced
in many applications where structural strength is
critical (e.g., bridges, towers, support columns in high-
rise buildings, and pressure vessels).
 Steels
Medium-Carbon Steels
The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between
about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be heat-treated by
austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties. They are most often utilized in the
tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered
martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low
hardenabilities and can be successfully heat-treated only in very
thin sections and with very rapid quenching rates. Additions of
chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the capacity of these
alloys to be heat-treated , giving rise to a variety of strength–
ductility combinations. These heat-treated alloys are stronger than
the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts,
and other machine parts and high-strength structural components
calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance, and
toughness.
 Steels
High-Carbon Steels
The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between
0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile
of the carbon steels.They are almost always used in a hardened and
tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and
capable of holding a sharp cutting edge. The tool and die steels are
high-carbon alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium,
tungsten, and molybdenum.
These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very hard
and wear resistant carbide compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, and
WC). Some tool steel compositions and their applications are listed
in Table 11.3. These steels are utilized as cutting tools and dies for
forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors,hacksaw
blades, springs, and high-strength wire
 Steels
Stainless Steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to
corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere. Their
predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required.
Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by
nickel and molybdenum additions.
Stainless steels are divided into three classes on
the basis of the predominant phase constituent
of the microstructure—martensitic, ferritic, or
austenitic.
Stainless Steels
Stainless Steels
All true stainless steels contain a minimum of
11% Chromium which makes them excellent
to corrosion. The secret lies in the protective
surface layer of chromium oxide that forms
when the steel is exposed to oxygen.
Chromium causes the austenitic region to
shrink and hence the ferrite region increases
in size making it a ferrite stabilising agent.
Types of Stainless Steels
1. Ferritic Stainless Steels
These contain 12% to 25% Cr and less than 0.1%
carbon. Because of B.C.C structure, the ferritic
stainless steels have good strengths and
moderate ductility derived from solid solution
strengthening and strain hardening. Ferritic
stainless steels are magnetic. They are not heat
treatable. They have excellent corrosion
resistance, moderate formability and are
relatively less expensive
2. Martensitic Stainless Steels
These contain 12% to 25% Cr and 0.1% to 1.0%C.
A 17%Cr - 0.5%C alloy heated to 1200oC forms
100% austenite, which transforms to martensite
on quenching in oil. The martensite is then
tempered to produce high strengths and
hardness. The combination of hardness, strength
and corrosion resistance makes the alloy
attractive for applications such as high quality
knives, ball bearings and valves.
3. Austenitic Stainless Steels
Nickel, which is an austenite stabilizing element,
increases the size of austenite field, while nearly
eliminating ferrite from the iron-chromium-carbon
alloys. If the carbon content is below, about 0.3%, the
carbides do not form and the steel is virtually all
austenite at room temperature. The F.C.C austenite
stainless steels have excellent ductility, formability and
corrosion resistance. These are non-magnetic, which is
an advantage for many applications. Unfortunately, the
high nickel and chromium contents make the alloy
expensive. The 304 alloy containing 18% Cr and 8% Ni
is most widely used grade of stainless steel.
Stainless steel
• Tool Steels
• Tools steels are high carbon steels that obtain high hardness by
quench and temper heat treatment. Hardenability and stability at
high temperatures are the results of alloying elements. Water
hardenable steels must be quenched rapidly to produce martensite
and also soften rapidly even at low temperatures. Oil hardenable
steels form martensite more easily, temper slowly but still soften at
high temperatures. The alloy carbides are particularly stable, resist
growth for spheroidisation and are important in establishing the
high temperature resistance of steels. Tool steels are mainly used in
making cutting tools for machining, die casting as high strength,
hardness, toughness and temperature resistance is needed off
them. With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels
are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce
the required quality. The manganese content is often kept low to
minimize the possibility of cracking.
 7.1.2 Weldability of Steels
• Weldability of steels refers to the ability of steels to be joined by welding.
As steels are used as important structural components along with the
strength of steels, joints must also be strong for the integrity of structures.
Many low carbon steels weld easily. Welding of medium and high carbon
steel is comparatively more difficult since martensite can form in the heat
affected zone rather easily, thereby causing a weld with poor toughness.
Several strategies such as preheating the material or minimizing
incorporation of hydrogen have been developed to counter these
problems. In low carbon steels the strength of the welded zones is higher
than the base material itself. This occurs as a result of formation of
pearlite microstructure during cooling. Retained austenite along the ferrite
grain boundaries prevents recrystallization and thus helps retain a finer
grain size which contributes to the strength of the welded joints. During
welding, metal near the weld starts to heat up above the A1 temperature
(refer fig. 6.1) and austenite forms.
• During cooling, austenite transforms to a new structure depending on the
cooling rate.
• We should not weld steels in quenched or tempered conditions because
the portion of the heat affected zone that heats above the A1
temperature forms martensite on cooling and the portion of steels below
A1 temperature may over tempering.
• Embrittlement of Steel
• Embrittlement is the complete loss or partial loss of ductility in
material where an embrittled product characteristically fails by
fracture without appreciable deformation. The most common
embrittlement is usually encountered in galvanized steel related to
aging phenomena, cold working, and absorption of hydrogen.
Embrittlement or loss of ductility in steel is often associated with
strain-aging. Strain-aging refers to the delayed increase in hardness
and strength, and loss of ductility and impact resistance which
occur in susceptible steels as a result of the strains induced by cold
working. The aging changes proceed slowly at room temperature,
but proceed at an accelerated rate as the aging temperature is
raised and may occur rapidly at the galvanizing temperature of
approximately 455°C (850°F).
Note: Metallurgy's aging process is when metals are exposed to air or other gases and left
to stand for a period of time; this allows the atoms in the metal to rearrange themselves
into more stable arrangements. The resulting metal is stronger and more durable than the
original.
• Hydrogen Embrittlement may also occur due to the possibility of
atomic hydrogen being absorbed by the steel. The susceptibility to
hydrogen Embrittlement is influenced by the type of steel, its
previous heat treatment, and degree of previous cold work. In the
case of galvanized steel, the acid pickling reaction prior to
galvanizing presents a potential source of hydrogen. However, the
heat of the galvanizing bath partially expels hydrogen that may have
been absorbed. In practice hydrogen Embrittlement of galvanized
steel is usually of concern only if the steel exceeds approximately
1100 MPa (150 ksi) in ultimate tensile strength, or if it has been
severely cold worked prior to pickling. Loss of ductility of cold-
worked steels is dependent on many factors including the type of
steel (strength level, aging characteristics), thickness of steel, and
degree of cold work, and is accentuated by areas of stress
concentration such as caused by notches, holes, fillets of small radii,
sharp bends, etc.
 7.2 Cast Iron and its types

• Cast Irons are iron, carbon, silicon alloys mostly

containing 2.5-5.5% carbon, 0.5-3% silicon that
pass through the eutectic reaction during
solidification. Cast iron make excellent casting
alloys since they are easily melted, are very fluid
in the liquid state, and do not form undesirable
surface. These alloys have wide range of
strength and hardness and in most cases easy
to be machined.
 7.2 Cast Iron and its types

Figure 7.3: Schematic drawings of five types of cast iron: (a) Grey iron, (b) White
iron, (c) Malleable iron, (d) Ductile iron and (e) Compacted graphite iron
 Cast Iron and its types
1.Grey Cast Iron
It contains 2.3%C,1.2-2.8%Si,0.4-1%Mn,0.15-0.1%S.
• Grey cast iron contains small, interconnected graphite flakes which
results in low strength and ductility. When fractured, the break in
this type of cast iron appears grey and hence it’s called grey cast
iron. It contains many clusters and eutectic cells of interconnected
graphite flakes which are connected at the graphite nucleus. High
strength in grey cast iron is achieved by reducing carbon content by
alloying or heat treating. Although graphite flakes concentrate
stresses and lower ductility and strength, they have high
compressive strength, good machinability, good resistance to sliding
ware, good resistance to thermal fatigue, good thermal conductivity
and good vibration damping.
 Cast Iron and its types
2.White Cast Iron
It contains 1.8-3.6%C,0.5-2%Si,0.2-0.8%Mn,).18%P and ).1%S.
• White cast iron is formed as a result of the eutectic reaction of Fe-C alloys
that occurs at 1140°C. White cast iron produced by this reaction contains
Fe3C and Pearlite. This is the metastable state and in true equilibrium the
reaction results in graphite. When Chromium and Bismuth are added it
results in white cast iron as it prevents the formation of graphite. Thus,
white cast iron has a light appearance.
• A more advanced form of white cast iron is chilled cast iron. When an area
of grey cast iron is chilled rapidly from the melt, cast iron is formed at the
melt that has been cooled called the chilled cast iron. The depth of chill
decreases and the hardness of the chilled zone increases with increasing
carbon content. As chromium supresses the formation of graphite and
increases hardness and abrasion resistance, it is added in amount, 1-4%.
Chilled cast iron is used in railway car wheels, crushing rolls, stamp shoes
and dies and heavy duty machinery parts.
 Cast Iron and its types

3.Malleable Cast Iron

• Malleable cast iron is formed by heat treatment of
white cast iron (2.5% C and 1.5% Si) which forms
clumps of graphite. It has better ductility and
machinability than white or grey cast iron. During heat
treatment the cementite formed during solidification
decomposes and graphite clumps or nodules are
produced. Malleable Cast Iron is therefore used for
connecting rods and universal joint yokes, transmission
gears, differential cases and certain gears, compressor
crankshafts and hubs, flanges, pipe fittings and valve
parts for railroad, marine and heavy duty applications.
The major drawback of malleable cast iron is shrinkage.
 Cast Iron and its types
4.Ductile Cast Iron
• Ductile cast iron is also called nodular cast iron because it contains
spheroidal graphite particles. Ductile cast iron is formed by treating
liquid iron with 4.3% magnesium which causes spheroidal graphite
to grow during solidification without lengthy heat treatment
process. Compared to grey cast iron ductile cast iron has excellent
strength and ductility. Due to higher Silicon ductile iron is strong but
not as tough as malleable cast iron. Ductile cast iron is preferred
because of its versatility and high performance at low cost. Ductile
cast iron doesn’t shrink during solidification reducing its material
requirement and thus making it cheaper.
• Ductile Cast iron is used when strength, toughness combined with
good machinability and low cost is required. It is used to make
crankshafts, engine connecting suspension system parts, power
transmission yokes, high security valves and cast iron pipes.
 Cast Iron and its types
5.Compacted Graphite Iron
• Compacted graphite iron(CGI), also known as vermicular graphite iron is a
metal which is gaining popularity in applications that require either
greater strength, or lower weight than cast iron. The graphite in
compacted graphite iron differs in structure from that in grey iron because
the graphite particles are shorter and thicker. This results in stronger
adhesion between the graphite and the iron giving the material a greater
tensile strength.
• The first commercial application for compacted graphite iron was for the
brake discs for high speed rail trains. More recently compacted graphite
iron has been used for diesel engine blocks. It has proven to be useful in
the manufacture of V topology diesel engines where the loading on the
block is very high between the cylinder banks, and for heavy goods
vehicles which use diesel engines with high combustion pressures.
• It is also used for turbo housings and exhaust manifolds. In the latter case
to reduce corrosion.
 7.2.2 Applications of Cast Iron
• Cookware, such as skillets, pots and pans, is one of the common
uses of cast iron. Once the cookware is cured, it seals in the
seasoning of the foods cooked in them and even adds iron to the
diet.
• Cooking utensils for stove-top and outdoor cooking are also
constructed of cast iron. Many of these cast-iron cooking utensils
include spoons, grill presses and tongs.
• Designers use cast iron to build furniture, particularly outdoor
patio pieces. Cast-iron furniture includes chairs and glass-top tables.
• Welded barbecue grills use heavy cast-iron materials and stainless
steel. Larger models of these grills are often so heavy that two
people have to carry them.
• Industrial and residential construction used cast iron on buildings,
especially for beams and posts that hold up architectural structures.
Cast iron is also used in pipe plumbing.
• In the late 1700s, bridges constructed in Europe and the United
States used cast iron as their primary building material.
 CHAPTER 8
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
8.1 Corrosion
It is the gradual destruction of material, usually metals, by chemical
reaction with its environment. In the most common use of the word, this
means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant
such as oxygen. Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known
example of electrochemical corrosion. This type of damage typically
produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion can also occur
in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in
this context, the term degradation is more common. Corrosion degrades
the useful properties of materials and structures including strength,
appearance and permeability to liquids and gases.
Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air,
but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain
substances. Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or
it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the
surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on
exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the
exposed surface, such as passivation and chromate conversion, can
increase a material's corrosion resistance. However, some corrosion
mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.
 Types of Corrosion
Uniform corrosion: As the name suggests, electrochemical
corrosion occurs over entire exposed surface with equal
intensity. It usually results in formation of a scale/film. This
form of corrosion is most common, easy to monitor, and less
damaging than the other forms. Painting the surface is best
counter measure for it.
• Crevice corrosion: This occurs as a result of concentration
difference between two regions of same metal
component. Corrosion takes place in the local that is of
lower concentration. Probable sites for this corrosion are:
crevices and recesses, under scales of dirt/corrosion
product. This form of corrosion may be avoided if enough
care is taken to avoid concentration differences. E.g.:
welding instead of riveting. Other measures include
removing accumulated deposits; avoiding stagnant areas.
• Pitting: It is another form of localized corrosion.
As a consequence of this, small pits, and holes
form, hence the name. This occurs in normal
direction to the surface exposed, and so is difficult
to monitor. Thus, it is extremely dangerous form
of corrosion, as material loss is often undetectable
till the component fails. Same measures as for
crevice corrosion are part of care against this form
of corrosion. In addition, polishing of surfaces
could do good.
Types of corrosion
• Inter-granular corrosion: This occurs again due to concentration
difference, but now along grain boundaries, which are usually of
different chemical composition compared with rest of the grains.
Thus grain boundaries are highly susceptible to corrosion. This form
of corrosion is very severe in stainless steels. These materials may
be protected by suitable heat treatment; lowering carbon content;
addition of alloying elements those readily forms of carbides.

• Selective leaching: It is the preferential removal of a solid alloy by

corrosion process. Best example can be dezincification(process of
freeing from zinc) of brass. It also occurs as the loss of Ni, Sn and
Cr from Cu-alloys; Fe from cast iron; Ni from steel alloys, and Co
from satellite. As a result of this corrosion, mechanical properties of
the components are impaired as the component becomes porous.
Measures of protection include change if composition; change of
environment; use of cathodic protection.
• Erosion-corrosion: It is defined as acceleration of
corrosion attack in a metal due to relative motion of a
corrosive fluid and a metal surface i.e. is result of
combined action of chemical attack and mechanical
abrasion/wear. Practically, all metals and alloys are
prone to this corrosion form. It has more damaging
influence on metals which passivate by forming a
protective film and also on soft metals like Cu and Pb.
Counter measures include: change of design; choosing
different metal for the component; removal of
particulates and bubbles form the fluid to lessen the
erosive effects.
• Hydrogen embrittlement is more failure than a form of
corrosion, but it is often results from the hydrogen, produced
from corrosion. Atomic hydrogen produced during corrosion
diffuses interstitially through crystal lattice, and interferes
with dislocation motion, leading to failure. It is similar to
stress corrosion in the sense that ductile materials experience
brittle failures as a result. Counter measures to hydrogen
embrittlement include: heat treatment to reduce strength of
the alloy; removal of source of hydrogen; baking the
component to drive out any dissolved hydrogen.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have
physical or electrical contact with each other and are
immersed in a common electrolyte, or when the same
metal is exposed to electrolyte with different
concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal
(the anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more
noble metal (the cathode) corrodes at a retarded rate.
When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own
rate. The type of metal(s) to be used is readily determined
by the galvanic series. For example, zinc is often used as a
sacrificial anode for steel structures. Galvanic corrosion is
of major interest to the marine industry and also anywhere
water (containing salts) contacts pipes or metal structures.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
• Factors such as relative size of anode, types of metal, and operating
conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity, etc.) affect galvanic corrosion.
The surface area ratio of the anode and cathode directly affects the
corrosion rates of the materials. Galvanic corrosion is often utilized in
sacrificial anodes.
• A potential difference usually exists between two dissimilar metals when
they are immersed in a corrosive or conductive solution. If these metals
are placed in contact (or otherwise electrically connected), this potential
difference produces electron flow between them. Corrosion of the less
corrosion-resistant metal is usually increased and attack of the more
resistant material is decreased, as compared with the behavior of these
metals when they are not in contact. The less resistant metal becomes
anodic and the more resistant metal cathodic. Usually the- cathode or
cathodic metal corrodes very little or not at all in this type of couple.
Because of the electric currents and dissimilar metals involved, this form
of corrosion is called galvanic, or two-metal, corrosion. It is
electrochemical corrosion, but we shall restrict the term galvanic to
dissimilar-metal effects for purposes of clarity.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
8.3 Stress Corrosion
Stress-corrosion cracking refers to cracking caused by the simultaneous
presence of tensile stress and a specific corrosive medium. Many
investigators have classified all cracking failures occurring in corrosive
mediums as stress-corrosion cracking, including failures due to hydrogen
embrittlement. However, these two types of cracking failures respond
differently to environmental variables. To illustrate, cathodic protection is
an effective method for preventing stress-corrosion cracking whereas it
rapidly accelerates hydrogen-embrittlement effects. Hence, the
importance of considering stress-corrosion cracking and hydrogen
embrittlement as separate phenomena is obvious. For this reason, the two
cracking phenomena are discussed separately in this chapter.
During stress-corrosion cracking, the metal or alloy is virtually unattacked
over most of its surface, while fine cracks progress through it. This
cracking phenomenon has serious consequences since it can occur at
stresses within the range of typical design stress. Exposure to boiling
MgCl2 at 310 °F (154 °C) is shown to reduce the strength capability to
approximately that available at 1200 °F.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

• The two classic cases of stress-corrosion cracking are

"season cracking" of brass, and the "caustic
embrittlement" of steel. Both of these obsolete terms
describe the environmental conditions present which
led to stress-corrosion cracking. Season cracking refers
to the stress-corrosion cracking failure of brass
cartridge cases. During periods of heavy rainfall,
especially in the tropics, cracks were observed in the
brass cartridge cases at the point where the case was
crimped to the bullet. It was later found that the
important environmental component in season
cracking was ammonia resulting from the
decomposition of organic matter.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

• Many explosions of riveted boilers occurred in early steam-

driven locomotives. Examination of these failures showed
cracks or brittle failures at the rivet holes. These areas were
cold-worked during riveting operations, and analysis of the
whitish deposits found in these areas showed caustic, or
sodium hydroxide, to be the major component. Hence,
brittle fracture in the presence of caustic resulted in the
term caustic embrittlement. While stress alone will react in
ways well known in mechanical metallurgy (i.e., creep,
fatigue, tensile failure) and corrosion alone will react to
produce characteristic dissolution reactions; the
simultaneous action of both sometimes produces the
disastrous results.
 8.4 Corrosion Protection
• 1. Applied Coatings
• Plating, painting, and the application of enamel are the most common
anti-corrosion treatments. They work by providing a barrier of corrosion-
resistant material between the damaging environment and the structural
material. Aside from cosmetic and manufacturing issues, there are
tradeoffs in mechanical flexibility versus resistance to abrasion and high
temperature. Platings usually fail only in small sections, and if the plating
is more noble than the substrate (for example, chromium on steel), a
galvanic couple will cause any exposed area to corrode much more rapidly
than an unplated surface would. For this reason, it is often wise to plate
with active metal such as zinc or cadmium. Painting either by roller or
brush is more desirable for tight spaces; spray would be better for larger
coating areas such as steel decks and waterfront applications. Flexible
polyurethane coatings, like Durabak-M26 for example, can provide an anti-
corrosive seal with a highly durable slip resistant membrane. Painted
coatings are relatively easy to apply and have fast drying times although
temperature and humidity may cause dry times to vary.
 8.4 Corrosion Protection
2. Reactive Coatings
If the environment is controlled (especially in re-circulating
systems), corrosion inhibitors can often be added to it.
These form an electrically insulating or chemically
impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces, to
suppress electrochemical reactions. Such methods
obviously make the system less sensitive to scratches or
defects in the coating, since extra inhibitors can be made
available wherever metal becomes exposed. Chemicals that
inhibit corrosion include some of the salts in hard water
(Roman water systems are famous for their mineral
deposits), chromates, phosphates, polyaniline, other
conducting polymers and a wide range of specially-
designed chemicals that resemble surfactants (i.e. long-
chain organic molecules with ionic end groups).
 8.4 Corrosion Protection
3. Anodization
This climbing descender is anodized with a yellow finish. Aluminum
alloys often undergo a surface treatment. Electrochemical
conditions in the bath are carefully adjusted so that uniform pores
several nanometers wide appear in the metal's oxide film. These
pores allow the oxide to grow much thicker than passivating
conditions would allow. At the end of the treatment, the pores are
allowed to seal, forming a harder-than-usual surface layer. If this
coating is scratched, normal passivation processes take over to
protect the damaged area.
Anodizing is very resilient to weathering and corrosion, so it is
commonly used for building facades and other areas that the
surface will come into regular contact with the elements. Whilst
being resilient, it must be cleaned frequently. If left without
cleaning, panel edge staining will naturally occur.
Structure of Anodic Oxide Films
When aluminum and aluminum alloys are polarized anodically in
electrolytic solutions, oxide films are formed on the substrates. This
procedure is termed “anodizing,” and the oxide film formed by this
procedure is called anodic oxide film.” Anodic oxide films can be
classified into two groups: barrier and porous-type oxide films.
The structure and growth characteristics of these anodic oxide films
is described in this section.
Barrier-type oxide films are obtained in neutral solutions containing
borate, phosphate, and adipate and consist of a thin compact
amorphous oxide layer (Fig. 1a). The film thickness, δbf, in nm, is
proportional to the potential, Ea, in volts, applied during anodizing
and is expressed as:
 δbf = K · Ea (Eq 1)
where K is 1.3 to 1.6.

Fig. 1 Structure of barrier type oxide films formed on

aluminum after (a)electropolishing, (b)
hydrothermal treatment, and (c) thermal treatment
 8.4 Corrosion Protection

4. Bio-film Coatings
A new form of protection has been developed by applying
certain species of bacterial films to the surface of metals in
highly corrosive environments. This process increases the
corrosion resistance substantially. Alternatively,
antimicrobial-producing biofilms can be used to inhibit mild
steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing bacteria.
5. Controlled Permeability Formwork
Controlled permeability formwork (CPF) is a method of
preventing the corrosion of reinforcement by naturally
enhancing the durability of the cover during concrete
placement. CPF has been used in environments to combat
the effects of carbonation, chlorides, frost and abrasion.
Controlled permeability formwork

Concrete cast against wood or steel formwork has a

reduced cement content and increased water/cement ratio
(concrete is less dense and more porous) compared to
concrete located beyond the cover zone. During
compaction of the concrete, excess water and air are driven
towards the formwork where they become trapped,
resulting in blowholes and other surface blemishes.
Controlled Permeability Formwork (CPF) consists of a filter
and drainage layer attached to the formwork, which allows
the water in contact with the formwork to drain away. The
result is a blemish-free surface that has the additional
benefit of having a higher resistance to aggressive
substances, increasing the life of the structure.
 8.4 Corrosion Protection

• 6. Cathodic Protection
• Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to
control the corrosion of a metal surface by
making that surface the cathode of an
electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection
systems are most commonly used to protect
steel, water, and fuel pipelines and tanks; steel
pier piles, ships, and offshore oil platforms.
CATHODIC PROTECTION is an electrochemical
means of corrosion control in which the oxidation
reaction in a galvanic cell is concentrated at the
anode, which suppresses corrosion of the
cathode in the same cell.
Figure 1 shows a simple cathodic protection
system. The steel pipeline is cathodically
protected by its connection to a sacrificial
magnesium anode buried in the same soil
electrolyte.
• CATHODIC PROTECTION is an electrochemical means
of corrosion control in which the oxidation reaction in
a galvanic cell is concentrated at the anode, which
suppresses corrosion of the cathode in the same cell.
Figure 1 shows a simple cathodic protection system.
The steel pipeline is cathodically protected by its
connection to a sacrificial magnesium anode buried in
the same soil electrolyte.
7. Sacrificial Anode Protection
Sacrificial anode in the hull of a ship. For effective CP,
the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed)
more negative until the metal surface has a uniform
potential. With a uniform potential, the driving force
for the corrosion reaction is halted. For galvanic CP
systems, the anode material corrodes under the
influence of the steel, and eventually it must be
replaced. The polarization is caused by the current flow
from the anode to the cathode, driven by the
difference in electrochemical potential between the
anode and the cathode.
• Anodic protection can be used to control the corrosion of metals in
chemical environments that exhibit very interesting behavior when
subjected to anodic polarization. This behavior can be studied with
an experimental setup, which is shown in block-diagram fashion in
Fig. 1. When the potential of the working electrode relativeto the
reference electrode is controlled and shifted in the more anodic
(positive) direction, the current required to cause that shift varies.
 8.4 Corrosion Protection
8. Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
For larger structures, galvanic anodes cannot economically deliver
enough current to provide complete protection. Impressed current
cathodic protection (ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a DC
power source (such as a cathodic protection rectifier). Anodes for
ICCP systems are tubular and solid rod shapes of various specialized
materials. These include high silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal
oxide or platinum coated titanium or niobium coated rod and wires.
9. Anodic Protection
Anodic protection impresses anodic current on the structure to be
protected (opposite to the cathodic protection). It is appropriate for
metals that exhibit passivity (e.g., stainless steel) and suitably small
passive current over a wide range of potentials. It is used in
aggressive environments, e.g., solutions of sulfuric acid.
 CHAPTER 9
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• 9.1 Aluminium Alloys
• Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the
predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper,
magnesium, manganese, silicon and zinc. There are two principal
classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of
which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and
non-heat-treatable.
• Aluminium alloys can be classified into wrought and casting alloys
on the basis of method of fabrication. Wrought alloys are formed by
plastic deformation while casting alloys are formed by using casting
process. Wrought alloys can be classified as heat treatable and non-
heat treatable alloys. Non-heat treatable alloys include aluminium
alloys with magnesium, manganese and silicon. While heat
treatable wrought alloys are aluminium alloys with Copper, Lithium,
Silicon and Zinc
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

• Properties
• Aluminium and its alloys are easily formable and can be worked upon by
rolling, extruding, drawing, machining and other mechanical processes.
• They have high thermal and electrical conductivity and do not show
ductile to brittle transition at low temperatures.
• Cast aluminium alloys have low melting point, although they generally
have lower tensile strengths than wrought alloys.
• Aluminium and its alloys lend themselves to a huge variety of surface
treatments, which enhances its intrinsic qualities. For example, an
anodization of a few micrometres is enough to preserve the optical or
decorative properties of the materials, while improving resistance,
especially to corrosion and stress.
• The tensile strength of pure aluminum is around 90 MPa but this can be
increased to over 690 MPa for some heat-treatable aluminum alloys.
• Uses
• Non-heat treatable aluminum alloys are used for making electrical
components, foil, food packaging, beverage can bodies,
architectural uses, filler metal welding, beverage can tops and
marine components while heat treatable aluminum alloys are used
for truck wheels, aircraft skins, pistons, canoes, railroad cars and
aircraft frames.
• Casting alloys contain high amount of silicon to cause the eutectic
reaction giving the alloys low melting points, good fluidity and good
castability
• Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and
components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required.
• Advanced aluminum alloys have enabled the design of high-speed
ships, by lightening hulls by 40% to 50% over steel.
• 9.2 Magnesium Alloys
• Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium
with other metals, often aluminium, zinc,
manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths metals
and zirconium. Magnesium alloys have a
hexagonal lattice structure, which affects the
fundamental properties of these alloys. Plastic
deformation of the hexagonal lattice is more
complicated than in cubic latticed metals like
aluminium, copper and steel. Therefore
magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

• Properties
• Magnesium is the lightest structural metal and its alloys containing
Lithium have extremely light weight.
• Magnesium has low modulus of elasticity and poor resistance to fatigue,
creep and wear.
• Magnesium alloys can be strengthened either by dispersion
strengthening or age hardening.
• Some age hardened alloys such as those containing Zirconium, Thorium,
Silver, and Cerium have good resistance to over aging temperatures.
• Magnesium alloys with less impurities and high Cerium content form a
protective layer of MgO making it corrosion resistant.
• The machinability of magnesium alloys is the best of any commercial
metal, and in many applications, the savings in machining costs more than
compensate for the increased cost of the material.
• Magnesium alloys are easily machined, cast, forged, and welded.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

• Uses
• Magnesium alloys are used for aerospace applications, high speed
machinery and materials handling equipment.
• Cast magnesium alloys are used for many components of modern
cars, and magnesium block engines have been used in some high-
performance vehicles.
• Magnox (alloy), whose name is an abbreviation for 'magnesium
non-oxidising', is 99% magnesium and 1% aluminium, and used in
the cladding of fuel rods in some nuclear power stations.
• They are now also used in jet-engine parts, rockets and missiles,
luggage frames, portable power tools, and cameras and optical
instruments.
• They is also used in pyrotechnics, especially in incendiary bombs,
signals, and flares, and as a fuse for thermite.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• 9.3 Copper Alloys
• Copper alloys have higher densities than that of
steels. Copper based alloys benefit by
strengthening mechanisms as they improve the
mechanical properties of copper alloys. Copper
containing 0.1% impurities is used for electrical
and microelectronics applications. Small amounts
of cadmium, silver and Aluminium oxide improve
their hardness without impairing conductivity.
Cold working is used for strengthening of single
phase copper based alloys.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

• Properties
• Even though their yield strength is higher than that of
aluminium and magnesium alloys, they have low
specific strengths.
• They are better resistant to creep, fatigue, and wear.
• Most of high ductility, corrosion resistance, electrical
and thermal conductivity and can be joined and
fabricated into complex shapes easily.
• The face centred cubic structure of copper provides
excellent ductility and high strain hardening coefficient.
• Copper alloy corrode easily by reacting with sulphur
and forms a green layer on the surface.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

• Uses
• Copper based alloys are used in pumps, valves and
plumbing parts where their properties are used as
advantages.
• Copper based alloys are used as decorative items because
of the changing colours as it reacts with different elements.
• Copper and its alloys are widely used in deep draw and
flat stamped products because they have excellent
electrical and thermal performance, good resistance to
corrosion, high ductility and relatively low cost.
• Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards use copper
and its alloys in place of aluminum because of its superior
electrical conductivity.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Types of Copper alloys
• 1. Brass

• Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions

of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of
brasses with varying properties. Brass is a substitutional
copper alloy. The relatively low melting point of brass (900
to 940 °C, depending on composition) and its flow
characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast.
Different grades of brass, with different amounts of zinc,
have different characteristics in surface smoothness,
corrosion-resistance, ease and quality of machining,
response to plating, ductility levels, chemical and
temperature limits.
• Uses: It is used for decoration for its bright gold-
like appearance; for applications where low
friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings,
doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for
plumbing and electrical applications; and
extensively in brass musical instruments such as
horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is
also used in zippers. Brass is often used in
situations where it is important that sparks not
be struck, as in fittings and tools around explosive
gases.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

2. Bronze
• Bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze
does not necessarily contain tin, and a variety of alloys
of copper, including alloys with arsenic phosphorus,
aluminum, manganese, and silicon, are commonly
termed "bronze". Bronze is generally harder than
wrought iron, with Vickers hardness of 60–258. Bronze
is softer, weaker and less stiff than steel. Bronze resists
corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal
fatigue more than steel and is a better conductor of
heat and electricity than most steels.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

• Uses: Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and

ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel
owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to
salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship
propellers and submerged bearings. It is also widely used
for cast bronze sculpture. Many common bronze alloys
have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding
slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details
of a mold. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for
bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs. Bronze is
also used to make bronze wool for woodworking
applications where steel wool would discolor oak.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• 9.4 Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
• Nickel and Cobalt have high strengths and high melting points and
thus are used for corrosion protection and high temperature
resistance. Solidified powders of nickel and cobalt based super
alloys can be formed by using spray atomization followed by hot
isostatic pressing which are then used for making rings that retain
the turbine blades. Since Iron, Nickel and Cobalt are magnetic, they
form very good magnetic materials.
• Solidified powders of nickel and cobalt based super alloys can be
formed by using spray atomization followed by hot isostatic
pressing which are then used for making rings that retain the
turbine blades. Since Iron, Nickel and Cobalt are magnetic, they
form very good magnetic materials. Because of their
biocompatibility, cobalt alloys are used for prosthetic devices.
• A Ni-Fe alloy Invar displays approximately no expansion during
heating and are hence used in producing bimetallic composite
materials. Cobalt is used for absorbing shocks and vibrations in
cutting tools.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Copper added nickel alloy called Monel is used for its
strength and corrosion resistance in salt water and at
elevated temperatures.
• Solid solution strengthening, dispersion strengthening
and precipitation hardening are used to make super
alloys which basically consist of Iron, Nickel and Cobalt.
These strengthening measures produce high strength
at elevated temperatures, resistance to corrosion and
resistance to creep up to 1000°C. Thus made super
alloys are used in making vanes and blades for turbines
and jet engines, heat exchangers, chemical reaction
vessel components and heat treating equipment.
Typical alloys and their applications are listed in the table below

Figure 9.1: Compositions, properties and applications for selected

Nickel and Cobalt alloys
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• 9.5 Titanium Alloys
• Titanium alloys are metals which contain a mixture of
titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have
very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme
temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary
corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme
temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials
and processing limit their use to military applications,
aircraft, spacecraft, medical devices, connecting rods on
expensive sports cars and some premium sports equipment
and consumer electronics.
• Auto manufacturers Porsché and Ferrari also use titanium
alloys in engine components due to its durable properties in
these high stress engine environments.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Although "commercially pure" titanium has acceptable
mechanical properties and has been used for
orthopaedic and dental implants, for most applications
titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium
and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by
weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies
dramatically with temperature, allowing it to undergo
precipitation strengthening. This heat treatment
process is carried out after the alloy has been worked
into its final shape but before it is put to use, allowing
much easier fabrication of a high-strength product.
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Titanium has excellent mechanical properties. An adherent TiO2
layer on the surface provides excellent resistance to corrosion and
contamination below 535°C but above this temperature the oxide
film breaks down and small atoms such as carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen make titanium brittle.
• Excellent corrosion resistance makes titanium suitable for chemical
processing equipment, marine components and biomedical
implants. Titanium alloys are also used in making airframes and jet
engine components. When combined with niobium, it forms a
superconductive intermetallic compound (mixture of elements
producing its own crystal structure and mechanical properties).
Titanium alloys are used for sports equipment such as the head of
the golf club.
 9.6 Refractory Metals
• Refractory metals are metals with really high melting
points normally above 2000°C. This category consists of
tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum and niobium. These
metals are therefore used for their high temperature
service such as filaments in light bulbs, rocket nozzles,
nuclear power generators, tantalum and niobium
based electronic capacitors and chemical processing
equipment. However, their high densities limit their
specific strengths.
• Refractory metals rapidly oxidize between 200 and
425°C and are therefore contaminated or embrittled.
Hence, special precautions are required during casting,
welding, hot working or powder metallurgy. For
tungsten filaments, preserving in vacuum protects it
from oxidization.
 9.6 Refractory Metals
• Some metals can be coated with a silicide or aluminium coating.
These coating materials are selected on the basis of their high
melting temperature, compatibility with refractive metals, ability to
form a diffusion barrier so that contaminants can’t reach the
underlying metals, and their coefficient of thermal expansion which
is required to be similar to that of refractory metals. As refractory
metals have B.C.C crystal structure, they have low ductile to brittle
transition temperature. For niobium and tantalum this temperature
is below room temperature whereas for molybdenum and
tungsten, it’s above room temperature. Therefore, niobium and
tantalum can be easily formed while molybdenum and tungsten are
hot worked to produce a fibrous micro structure improving their
forming characteristics. Further alloying of refractory metals
produces improved mechanical properties along with improving
high temperature properties.
 CHAPTER 10
ORGANIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS
10.1 Polymers
• Polymers are materials consisting of giant macromolecules which
are built of many units joined by chemical bonding. The process by
which polymers are formed is called polymerization. Polymers are
used in many applications including clothing, toys, home
appliances, structural and decorative items, paints, adhesives,
automobile tyres, car bumpers, biomedical devices, interiors, foams
and packaging. Polymers are also used to make electrical
components as they possess insulating ability and low dielectric
constant. Polymers can also be used as substitutes for glass when
they are transparent. Because of their lightweight, corrosion
resistant property and their inexpensiveness they are used in
several applications. Engineering polymers are therefore designed
to improve strength at elevated temperatures but are expensive to
manufacture.
ORGANIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

10.1.1 Types of Polymers

Polymers can be classified into three groups and their comparison
can be done as follows:
1) Thermoplastic
2) Thermosetting
3) Elastomers

Thermoplastic polymers have flexible linear chain whether straight

or branched while thermosetting polymers have rigid three
dimensional network. Elastomers on the other hand are a mixture
of thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers with spring like
molecules. Polyethylene, polyurethane and rubber are examples of
thermoplastic, thermosetting and elastomer respectively.
ORGANIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics behave in a ductile manner and
are composed of long chains produced by joining
together of monomers. The individual chains may
be branched or single. The Vander Waals forces
between atoms of each chain is very weak.
Therefore, these chains tangle up(mix together)
in order to form a material and can be untangled
by the application of tensile stress. They soften
and melt upon heating and can therefore be
easily recycled.
ORGANIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosetting polymers are composed of long
chains of molecules, single or branched that are
cross linked to each other to form a three
dimensional network. Thermosetting polymers
are therefore stronger but brittle when compared
to thermoplastics. Unlike thermoplastics they do
not melt on heating, they decompose and the
cross links break making it harder for them to be
recycled.
ORGANIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Elastomers
Elastomers are basically rubbers which can be
plastically deformed up to 200%. The polymer
chains consist of coil like molecules which can
reversibly stretch by applying a force.
Thermoplastic polymers have the ease of
processing of thermoplastics and elastic
behaviours of elastomers.
Characteristics and typical applications of
few plastic materials.

a) Thermo plastics
1. Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS):
Characteristics: Outstanding strength and toughness,
resistance to heat distortion; good electrical properties;
flammable and soluble in some organic solvents.
Application: Refrigerator lining, lawn and garden
equipment, toys, highway safety devices.
2. Acrylics (poly-methyl-methacrylate)
Characteristics: Outstanding light transmission and
resistance to weathering; only fair mechanical
properties.
Application: Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures,
drafting equipment, outdoor signs
Characteristics and typical applications
of few plastic materials
3. Fluorocarbons
Characteristics: Chemically inert in almost all environments,
excellent electrical properties; low coefficient of friction; may be
used to 260o C; relatively weak and poor cold-flow properties.

Application: Anticorrosive seals, chemical pipes and valves,

bearings, anti adhesive coatings, high temperature electronic
parts.

4. Polyamides (nylons)
Characteristics: Good mechanical strength, abrasion resistance,
and toughness; low coefficient of friction; absorbs water and
some other liquids.
Application: Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles, and
jacketing for wires and cables
ORGANIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

5. Polycarbonates
Characteristics: Dimensionally stable: low water
absorption; transparent; very good impact resistance
and ductility.
Application: Safety helmets, lenses light globes, base
for photographic film
6. Polyethylene
Characteristics: Chemically resistant and electrically
insulating; tough and relatively low coefficient of
friction; low strength and poor resistance to
weathering.
Application: Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery
parts, ice trays, film wrapping materials.
 Characteristics and typical applications
of few plastic materials.
7. Polypropylene
Characteristics: Resistant to heat distortion; excellent electrical properties
and fatigue strength; chemically inert; relatively inexpensive; poor
resistance to UV light.
Application: Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV cabinets, luggage
8. Polystyrene
Characteristics: Excellent electrical properties and optical clarity; good
thermal and dimensional stability; relatively inexpensive
Application: Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor lighting panels, appliance
housings.
9. Polyester
Characteristics: One of the toughest of plastic films; excellent fatigue and
tear strength, and resistance to humidity acids, greases, oils and solvents
Application: Magnetic recording tapes, clothing, automotive tire cords,
beverage containers.
Characteristics and typical applications of few
plastic materials
b) Thermo setting polymers
1. Epoxies
• Characteristics: Excellent combination of mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance; dimensionally stable;
good adhesion; relatively inexpensive; good electrical
properties.
• Application: Electrical moldings, sinks, adhesives, protective
coatings, used with fiberglass laminates.
2. Phenolics
• Characteristics: Excellent thermal stability to over 150o C; may
be compounded with a large number of resins, fillers, etc.;
inexpensive.
• Application: Motor housing, telephones, auto distributors,
electrical fixtures.
10.1.3 Addition and Condensation Polymerisation
• The polymer is the only product in addition polymerisation. An
addition polymer is a polymer which is formed by an addition
reaction, where many monomers bond together via rearrangement
of bonds without the loss of any atom or molecule. It involves the
opening out of a double bond. The conditions of the reaction can
alter the properties of the polymer. Reaction proceeds by a free
radical mechanism. Oxygen is often used as the initiator in many
reactions.
An example of addition reaction is given below:
In this reaction vinyl chloride monomer is changed to polyvinyl
chloride by addition reaction. Condensation polymerization uses
monomers that have two functional groups per molecule. These are
said to be di-functional. Polymerization occurs when these
monomers react ‘head-to-tail’ to form a new bond that will
eventually join the monomers together. A small molecule (often
water) is eliminated during the reaction.
 An example of condensation
polymerization is given below:

Figure 10.1: Condensation reaction for polyethylene

terephthalate (PET
 10.1.4 Degree of Polymerization

The degree of polymerization, or DP, is usually defined

as the number of monomeric units in a macromolecule
or polymer or oligomer molecule.
For a homopolymer, there is only one type of
monomeric unit and the number-average degree of
polymerization is given by,
𝐷𝑃𝑛=𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑟/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
For most industrial purposes, degrees of polymerization
in the thousands or tens of thousands are desired.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) defines degree of polymerization as "the
number of monomeric units in a macromolecule an
oligomer molecule, a block, or a chain."
 10.1.5 Forming of Polymers

• Thermoplastics are melted from a solid and

reshaped before cooling. Common forming
methods include injection moulding, blow
moulding and extrusion. Thermosets are not fully
polymerised before forming. They are formed
into the desired shape and then made into a solid
through a chemical reaction to create cross-links
in the polymer chains. Common forming methods
include injection moulding, compression
moulding and transfer moulding.
 10.1.5 Forming of Polymers
• Injection Moulding
• Injection moulding is by far the most important method of forming
plastic materials. Plastic pellets are fed into a rotating auger. The
auger moves the pellets down a path towards the mould. As the
pellets move they are pushed against the heated outer walls and
are melted into a viscous liquid. At the end of the moulding
machine the polymer liquid is injected into a fashioned mould and
cooled until solid.

Figure 10.2: Injection Moulding

 10.1.5 Forming of Polymers
• Compression Moulding
• Compression moulding is principally used for thermosetting
plastics. Preheated resin is placed into a hot mould cavity.
The upper section of the mould is subsequently forced
down onto the resin to create the desired product shape.
The applied pressure and heat forces the liquefied polymer
to fill the cavity. Following the compression, a period of
heating is required to force cross-linking of the
thermosetting polymer.

Figure 10.3: Compression Moulding

 10.1.5 Forming of Polymers

• Transfer Moulding
• Transfer Moulding is similar to compression moulding in that a carefully
calculated, pre-measured amount of uncured moulding compound is used
for the moulding process. The difference is, instead of loading the polymer
into an open mould, the plastic material is pre-heated and loaded into a
holding chamber called the pot. The material is then forced/transferred
into the pre-heated mould cavity by a hydraulic plunger through a channel
called sprue. The mould remains closed until the material inside is cured.
 10.1.5 Forming of Polymers

10.1.6 Additives to Polymers

• Additives to polymers are materials that are added to
polymers in order to improve or change the visual,
process, or environmental resistance and degradation
properties.
• Additives to polymers can be categorized based on
their primary purpose, which will be either to add bulk
or volume while controlling properties and costs, or
modify the chemical or physical properties of the
polymer or reinforce the mechanical properties of the
polymer, making it stronger or higher in impacts
strength.
 10.1.7 Adhesives to Polymers
• Adhesives are materials, typically liquid or semi-liquid, that
adhere or bond items together. Adhesives come from either
natural or synthetic sources. Adhesives cure (harden) by
either evaporating a solvent or by chemical reactions that
occur between two or more constituents. Adhesives are also
very useful for joining thin or dissimilar materials, minimizing
weight, and providing a vibration-damping joint. A
disadvantage of most adhesives is that most do not form an
instantaneous joint, unlike many other joining processes,
because the adhesive needs time to cure. Types of Adhesives
1. Non-reactive adhesives: white glue, rubber cement, natural
rubber, polychloroprene
2. Reactive adhesives: polyester resin, polyurethane resin,
polyols, acrylic polymers
3. Natural adhesives: animal glue, Casein,
4. Artificial adhesives: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate
 10.2 Ceramics

Ceramics form an important part of materials group.

Ceramics are compounds between metallic and
nonmetallic elements for which the inter-atomic bonds are
either ionic or predominantly ionic. The term ceramics
comes from the Greek word keramikos which means ‘burnt
stuff’. Characteristic properties of ceramics are, in fact,
optimized through thermal treatments. They exhibit
physical properties those are different from that of metallic
materials. Thus metallic materials, ceramics, and even
polymers tend to complement each other in service.
 10.2 Types and applications of ceramics
Ceramics greatly differ in their basic composition. The properties of ceramic
materials also vary greatly due to differences in bonding, and thus found a wide
range of engineering applications. Classification of ceramics based on their specific
applications and composition are two most important ways among many.
1.Based on their composition, ceramics are classified as:
• Oxides,
• Carbides,
• Nitrides,
• Sulfides,
• Fluorides, etc.
2.The other important classification of ceramics is based on their
application, such as:
• Glasses,
• Clay products,
• Refractories,
• Abrasives,
• Cements,
• Advanced ceramics.
• In general, ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be divided into
two groups: traditional ceramics, and the engineering ceramics. Typically,
traditional ceramics are made from three basic components: clay, silica (flint) and
feldspar(Feldspars are aluminosilicate minerals containing varying amounts of
potassium, sodium and calcium). For example bricks, tiles and porcelain articles.
However, engineering ceramics consist of highly pure compounds of aluminium
oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitride (Si3N4).
• Glasses: glasses are a familiar group of ceramics – containers, windows, mirrors,
lenses, etc. They are non-crystalline silicates containing other oxides, usually CaO,
Na2O, K2O and Al2O3 which influence the glass properties and its color. Typical
property of glasses that is important in engineering applications is its response to
heating. There is no definite temperature at which the liquid transforms to a solid
as with crystalline materials. A specific temperature, known as glass transition
temperature or fictive temperature is defined based on viscosity above which
material is named as super cooled liquid or liquid, and below it is termed as glass.
• Clay products: clay is the one of most widely used ceramic raw
material. It is found in great abundance and popular because of
ease with which products are made. Clay products are mainly two
kinds – structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer pipes) and white-
wares (porcelain, chinaware, pottery, etc.).
• Refractories: these are described by their capacity to withstand high
temperatures without melting or decomposing; and their inertness
in severe environments. Thermal insulation is also an important
functionality of refractoriness.
• Abrasive ceramics: these are used to grind, wear, or cut away other
material. Thus the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance in addition to high toughness. As they
may also exposed to high temperatures, they need to exhibit some
refractoriness. Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, silica
sand, aluminium oxide / corundum are some typical examples of
abrasive ceramic materials.
• Cements: cement, plaster of paris and lime come under
this group of ceramics. The characteristic property of
these materials is that when they are mixed with water,
they form slurry which sets subsequently and hardens
finally. Thus it is possible to form virtually any shape.
They are also used as bonding phase, for example
between construction bricks.
• Advanced ceramics: these are newly developed and
manufactured in limited range for specific applications.
Usually their electrical, magnetic and optical properties
and combination of properties are exploited. Typical
applications: heat engines, ceramic armors, electronic
packaging, etc.
• Some typical ceramics and respective applications are as follows:
• Aluminium oxide / Alumina (Al2O3): it is one of most commonly used
ceramic material. It is used in many applications such as to contain
molten metal, where material is operated at very high temperatures
under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and in some unique
applications such as dental and medical use. Chromium doped
alumina is used for making lasers.
• Aluminium nitride (AlN): because of its typical properties such as
good electrical insulation but high thermal conductivity, it is used in
many electronic applications such as in electrical circuits operating
at a high frequency. It is also suitable for integrated circuits. Other
electronic ceramics include – barium titanate (BaTiO3) and
Cordierite (2MgO2 Al2O3 -5SiO2).
• Diamond (C): it is the hardest material known to available
in nature. It has many applications such as industrial
abrasives, cutting tools, abrasion resistant coatings, etc. it
is, of course, also used in jewelry.
• Lead zirconium titanate (PZT): it is the most widely used
piezoelectric material, and is used as gas igniters,
ultrasound imaging, in underwater detectors.
• Silica (SiO2): is an essential ingredient in many engineering
ceramics, thus is the most widely used ceramic material.
Silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation,
abrasives, laboratory glassware, etc. it also found
application in communications media as integral part of
optical fibers. Fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints,
etc.
• Silicon carbide (SiC): it is known as one of best ceramic material for very
high temperature applications. It is used as coatings on other material for
protection from extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive material.
It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites.
It is a semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics.
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) has properties similar to those of SiC but is somewhat
lower, and found applications in such as automotive and gas turbine
engines.
• Titanium oxide (TiO2): it is mostly found as pigment in paints. It also forms
part of certain glass ceramics. It is used to making other ceramics like
BaTiO3.
• Titanium boride (TiB2): it exhibits great toughness properties and hence
found applications in armor production. It is also a good conductor of both
electricity and heat.
• Uranium oxide (UO2): it is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel. It has
exceptional dimensional stability because its crystal structure can
accommodate the products of fission process.
• Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG, Y3Al5O12): it
has main application in lasers (Nd-YAG lasers).
• Zirconia (ZrO2): it is also used in producing
many other ceramic materials. It is also used
in making oxygen gas sensors, as additive in
many electronic ceramics. Its single crystals
are part of jewelry.
 10.2 Ceramics

10.2.1 Imperfections in Ceramics

• Imperfections include point defects and impurities. The columbic
forces are very large and any charge imbalance has a strong
tendency to balance itself. To maintain charge neutrality several
point defects can be created.
• Non-stoichiometry (composition deviates from the one predicted
by chemical formula) may occur when one ion type can exist in two
valence states. To minimize energy, the effect of non-stoichiometry
is a redistribution of the atomic charges. E.g. Fe2+, Fe3+
• For example, in FeO, usual Fe valence state is 2+. If two Fe ions are
in 3+ state, then a Fe vacancy is required to maintain charge
neutrality which means there'll be fewer Fe ions and hence leads to
non-stoichiometry.
10.2.1 Imperfections in Ceramics

Figure 10.5: Frenkel and Schottky Defect

 10.2.1 Imperfections in Ceramics

• Charge neutral defects include the Frenkel and

Schottky defects.
• Frenkel defect is a pair of cation (positive ion)
vacancy and a cation interstitial. It may also be an
anion (negative ion) vacancy and anion
interstitial. However, anions are larger than
cations and placing large anions in an interstitial
position requires a lot of energy in lattice
distortion. A Schottky-defect is a pair of nearby
cation and anion vacancies.
 10.2.1 Imperfections in Ceramics

• Impurity atoms can exist as either substitutional or

interstitial solid solutions.
• Substitutional ions substitute for ions of like type.
• Interstitial ions are small compared to host
structure - anion interstitials are unlikely.
• Solubility is higher if ion radii and charges match
closely.
• Incorporation of ion with different charge state
requires compensation by point defects.
10.2.1 Imperfections in Ceramics
 10.2.2 Silicate Ceramics
• Silicate is mainly composed of silicon and oxygen,
the two most abundant elements in earth’s crust
(rocks, soil, clay, sand). The basic building block is
SiO4 4- tetrahedron. Si-O bonding is largely
covalent, but overall SiO4 block has charge of –4.

Figure 10.6: 3D network of SiO4

tetraherdra in cristobalite
 10.2.3 Glass

• Glass is a non-crystalline (amorphous) ceramic.

Fused silica is SiO2 to which no impurities have
been added. Other common glasses contain
impurity ions such as Na+, Ca2+, Al3+, and B3+.
• Basic unit of glass is shown in figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7: Basic unit of glass

 10.2.3 Glass

• A special characteristic of glasses is that solidification is

gradual, through a viscous stage, without a clear melting
temperature. The specific volume does not have an abrupt
transition at a temperature but rather shows a change in
slope at the glass-transition temperature. The melting
point, working point, softening point and annealing point
are defined in terms of viscosity, rather than temperature,
and depend on glass composition. Sheet Glass Forming
• Sheet forming is a continuous casting process where sheets
of glass (float glass) are formed by floating the molten glass
on a pool of molten tin or lead or any other alloy with low
melting point. This method gives the sheet uniform
thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern windows are
made of float glass, which are mostly soda-lime glass.
 10.2.3 Glass

Figure 10.8: Sheet Glass Forming

 10.2.4 Deformation and Failure
• The brittle fracture of ceramics limits applications. It occurs
due to the unavoidable presence of microscopic flaws
(micro-cracks, internal pores, and atmospheric
contaminants) that result during cooling from the melt. The
flaws need to crack formation, and crack propagation
(perpendicular to the applied stress) is usually
transgranular, along cleavage planes. The flaws cannot be
closely controlled in manufacturing; this leads to a large
variability (scatter) in the fracture strength of ceramic
materials.
• The compressive strength is typically ten times the tensile
strength. This makes ceramics good structural materials
under compression (e.g., bricks in houses, stone blocks in
the pyramids), but not in conditions of tensile stress, such
as under flexure.
 10.2.4 Deformation and Failure

• Plastic deformation in crystalline ceramics is

by slip, which is difficult due to the structure
and the strong local (electrostatic) potentials.
There is very little plastic deformation before
fracture.
• Non-crystalline ceramics, like common glass
deform by viscous flow (like very high-density
liquids). Viscosity decreases strongly with
increases temperature.
 Processing of Ceramics
• Ceramic processing is used to produce commercial products that
are very diverse in size, shape, detail, complexity, and material
composition, structure, and cost. The purpose of ceramics
processing to an applied science is the natural result of an
increasing ability to refine, develop, and characterize ceramic
materials.
• Ceramics are typically produced by the application of heat upon
processed clays and other natural raw materials to form a rigid
product. Ceramic products that use naturally occurring rocks and
minerals as a starting material must undergo special processing in
order to control purity, particle size, particle size distribution, and
heterogeneity. These attributes play a big role in the final properties
of the finished ceramic. Chemically prepared powders also are used
as starting materials for some ceramic products. These synthetic
materials can be controlled to produce powders with precise
chemical compositions and particle size.
 Processing of Ceramics

• The next step is to form the ceramic particles into a desired

shape. This is accomplished by the addition of water and/or
additives such as binders, followed by a shape forming
process. Some of the most common forming methods for
ceramics include extrusion, slip casting, pressing, tape
casting and injection moulding. After the particles are
formed, these "green" ceramics undergo a heat-treatment
(called firing or sintering) to produce a rigid, finished
product. Some ceramic products such as electrical
insulators, dinnerware and tile may then undergo a glazing
process. Some ceramics for advanced applications may
undergo a machining and/or polishing step in order meet
specific engineering design criteria.
 Applications of ceramics

• Most ceramics materials do not exhibit a non-linear plastic region

before failure. Instead, ceramics are known to be brittle and fail
catastrophically. Their application in engineering applications has
certainly been limited by their lack of toughness.
• Ceramics are used in an array of applications:
• Compressive strength makes ceramics good structural materials
(e.g., bricks in houses, stone blocks in the pyramids).
• High voltage insulators and spark plugs are made from ceramics
due to its electrical conductivity properties. E.g. Due to good
thermal insulation, ceramic tiles are used in ovens and as exterior
tiles on the Shuttle orbiter. Some ceramics are transparent to radar
and other electromagnetic waves and are used in transmitters.
 Applications of ceramics

• Hardness, abrasion resistance, imperviousness to high

temperatures and extremely caustic(sharp,cutting in a
scrathing) conditions allow ceramics to be used in special
applications where no other material can be used.
• Chemical inertness makes ceramics ideal for biomedical
applications like orthopedic prostheses(without changing
morphological structure) and dental implants.
• Glass-ceramics, due to their high temperature capabilities,
leads to uses in optical equipment and fibre insulation.
• Ceramic materials that contain alumina and silicon carbide
are extremely rigid and are used to sand various surfaces,
cut metals, polish, and grind. Ceramics that consists of
silica, zirconium oxide, magnesium oxide, silicon carbide &
alumina are used in making refractories.
 10.3 Composite materials
• Sometimes two or more materials are combined together to
produce a new material, which possesses much superior properties
than any one of the constituent materials. Such a material is known
as composite material. The common example of a natural
composite is wood, which consists of long cellulose fibre held
together by amorphous lignin. Some of the artificial (or synthetic)
composite materials are cement concrete, glass, reinforced plastic,
plywood, etc.
• A type of composite that has been discussed is pearlitic steel, which
combines hard, brittle cementite with soft, ductile ferrite to get a
superior material.
• Usually composites have two phases: matrix phase (continuous) or
dispersed phase (particulates, fibres). Properties of composites
depend on properties of phases, geometry of dispersed phase
(particle size, distribution, orientation) and amount of phase.
 10.3 Composite materials

10.3.1 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

• It is the process of use of very hard, small particles to strengthen
metals and metal alloys. The effect is like precipitation hardening
but not so strong. In dispersion strengthened composites, small
particles on the order of 10-5 mm to 2.5 x 10-4 mm in diameter are
added to the matrix material. These particles act to help the matrix
resist deformation. This makes the material harder and stronger.
Consider a metal matrix composite with a fine distribution of very
hard and small secondary particles. The matrix material is carrying
most of the load and deformation is accomplished by slip and
dislocation movement. The secondary particles impede slip and
dislocation and, thereby, strengthen the material. The mechanism is
that same as precipitation hardening but effect is not quite as
strong. However, particles like oxides do not react with the matrix
or go into solution at high temperatures so the strengthening action
is retained at elevated temperatures.
 10.3 Composite materials
Classification of composites
The composite materials are of the following three types:
10.3.2 True particulate composites (Particle-Reinforced Materials or
Agglomerated Materials): The materials in which the particles are
condensed together to form an integral mass, are known as
agglomerated materials. A common example of agglomerated
material is cement concrete, which is formed by mixing coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and water in different
proportions. Other useful agglomerated material is grinding wheel
(abrasive) which is formed by mixing asphalt, stone and resin of
different sizes. Agglomerated materials are usually dispersion
strengthened to increase their strength than the normal composites.
The particles in these composite are larger than in dispersion
strengthened composites. The particle diameter is typically on the
order of a few microns.
 10.3 Composite materials

• In this case, the particles carry a major portion of the

load. The particles are used to increase the modulus
and decrease the ductility of the matrix. Another
example of particle reinforced composite is an
automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a
matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer.
Particle reinforced composites are much easier and less
costly than making fibre reinforced composites. With
polymeric matrices, the particles are simply added to
the polymer melt in an extruder or injection molder
during polymer processing. Similarly, reinforcing
particles are added to a molten metal before it is cast.
 10.3 Composite materials
• 10.3.3 Fibre-Reinforced Materials: The materials which are produced by
combining some suitable material to provide additional strength which
does not exist in a single material, are known as reinforced materials. The
common example of reinforced material is reinforced cement concrete
(R.C.C), glass fibre, reinforced plastics, etc. Fibre-reinforced composites use
short or long fibre as their prime component, which are usually interwoven
using appropriate binder to give a stiff product.
• Fibreglass is likely the best known fibre reinforced composite but carbon-
epoxy and other advanced composites all fall into this category. The fibres
can be in the form of long continuous fibres, or they can be discontinuous
fibres, particles, whiskers and even weaved sheets. Fibres are usually
combined with ductile matrix materials, such as metals and polymers, to
make them stiffer, while fibres are added to brittle matrix materials like
ceramics to increase toughness. The length-to diameter ratio of the fibre,
the strength of the bond between the fibre and the matrix, and the
amount of fibre are variables that affect the mechanical properties. It is
important to have a high length-to-diameter aspect ratio so that the
applied load is effectively transferred form the matrix to the fibre.
 10.3 Composite materials
10.3.4 Laminar Composite Materials (Structural Materials):
The materials which are produced by bonding two or more
layers of different materials completely to each other, are
known as laminated materials or laminates. The materials,
constituting a laminated material, may be metallic or non-
metallic depending upon the type of application. Sheets
(panels) with different orientation of high strength
directions are stacked and glued together, producing a
material with more isotropic strength in the plane.
Plywood, Tufnol are some of the examples of laminates.
Strong, stiff end sheets are bonded to lightweight core
structure, for instance honeycomb which provides strength
to shear. It is used in roofs, walls, and aircraft structures.
 10.3 Composite materials ,10.3.5.1 Wood
• Wood is a natural composite material made of complex array of
cellulose called lignin. It has high tangential strength along
longitudinal axis of tree trunk. Wood is used to make other
composites like plywood and paper. Wood is machined according to
different applications.
 10.3 Composite materials
Wood
Properties
• Wood is a complex structure with no uniformity.
Diagram of the cross-section of a tree trunk
shows the following:
• Outer bark : Composed of dry, dead tissues
• Inner bark : Moist & soft layer
• Sapwood : Light colored outer wood; contains
some living cells
• Heartwood : Dark, older wood that forms inner
part of stem; contains non-living cells
 10.3 Composite materials ,10.3.5.1
Wood
• Pith : Soft tissue at center of the wood
• Classified as softwood and hardwood.
• Annual growth rings determine the age of trees.
• Moisture content is a parameter of wood. i.e.
• Wood moisture (wt. %) = (wt. of water in sample/ wt.
of dry wood sample) X 100%
• At green condition, moisture content ranges form 60-
150% while at dry condition, it comes down to around
20-30%.
• Young’s Modulus = 9 to 11 X 109 N/m2
 10.3 Composite materials
10.3.5.1 Wood
Applications
• Wood is extensively used for making doors and window
frames.
• Extensively used in in-door furniture.
• Used as floors and walls
• Used in aircrafts and water boats as major
components plus decorative items.
• Used during construction for scaffolding purpose.
• Used for making musical instruments plus sports
equipment.
 10.3 Composite materials

• 10.3.5.2 Concrete
• Concrete is a mixture of cement (or lime), sand, brick
or stone ballast and water, which when placed in forms
and allowed to cure, becomes hard like stone. The
hardening is caused by the chemical reaction between
cement and water. The cement and water form a paste
which, upon hardening, binds the aggregates to a
permanent mass. Cement is called the binding
material. The stone or brick ballast is called the coarse
aggregate as distinguished from the fine aggregate
which is sand. The mortar used in concrete is called
matrix. Cement concrete when used by itself is known
as mass concrete.
 10.3 Composite materials

• Cement (Portland cement)

• Raw materials: CaO, Sio2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 are
mixed in a rotatory kiln at temperature around
1400oC.
• Gypsum is added to cement controls its
setting time.
• Different proportions of aforesaid ingredients
differ grade of cement (Classified as Type I to
Type V)
 10.3 Composite materials

Aggregate
• Source include rocky mountains.
• Big rocks are cut using manpower, machines or
explosives.
• Aggregates of standard sizes (coarse and fine) are
sieved using appropriate sieves.
• With the components of concrete manufactured, they
are mixed in different proportions.
• Ratio of 1:2:4 for cement: water: aggregate is the usual
ratio for a concrete mixture.
• Sand is also mixed in most cases to be economical.
 10.3 Composite materials
Properties
• Aggregate size, cement types and water content plus use of sand in
concrete differs its
• Quality in terms of reactance with sulfate, strength and setting
time.
• Concrete has high compressive strength relative to its tensile
strength.
• Steel reinforcing bars are used within the concrete structure to
increase its tensile strength. Such concrete is called RCC (Reinforced
Concrete Cement).
• Steel bars are first applied with tensile force.
• Concrete paste is poured on the steel bars.
• Tensile force is removed from the steel bar.
• Steel tries to be compressed which introduces compressive force
which concrete can.
 10.3 Composite materials

Applications
• Making beams, pillars and roofs for buildings.
• Construction of septic tanks, water pipes and
water reserve tanks.
• Concrete blocks are used widely for making
pavements and making walls.
• Used in making bank vaults because of immense
strength.
• Used in water proofing of floors.
 10.3 Composite materials

10.3.5.3 Asphalt
• Asphalt is a black colored composite in liquid or semi-liquid phase.
It is highly viscous and sticky. It is a petroleum product. It is also
called bitumen or pitch. It is heated and mixed with fine aggregate
to form asphalt aggregate. Asphalt aggregate is used extensively in
road construction and waterproofing purpose.
Properties
• A petroleum product.
• A hydrocarbon with some oxygen, sulfur and other impurities.
• Highly viscous liquid/ semi-solid substance.
• Viscosity decreases with increase in temperature.
• Mechanical properties resemble with that of thermoplastic.
• Aggregate mix behaves like a strong bonded mass when set.
• Glossy but provides friction on road surfaces
 10.3 Composite materials

Applications
• Mixed with fine aggregate in 5%-95% ratio to
form asphalt concrete which is rolled onto road
to form hard surface.
• Used to make runways for airplanes.
• Mastic asphalt is used to waterproof
underground tanks and floors.
• Asphalt is also used to make lacquers and
emulsions.
• Used to seal batteries during manufacture.
 10.3 Composite materials
10.3.6 Nano-Composites
A nano-composite is a multiphase solid material where one of the
phases has one, two or three dimensions of less than 100
nanometres (nm), or structures having nano-scale repeat distances
between the different phases that make up the material. In the
broadest sense this definition can include porous media, colloids,
gels and copolymers, but is more usually taken to mean the solid
combination of a bulk matrix and nano-dimensional phase(s)
differing in properties due to dissimilarities in structure and
chemistry. These materials have high surface to volume ratio.The
mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical, catalytic
properties of the nano-composite will differ markedly from that of
the component materials. Nano-composites have enhanced
electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical plus mechanical properties
with respect to macro-composites and can be made of ceramic,
polymer or metal.
 10.3 Composite materials

• Size limits for these effects have been proposed, <5 nm

for catalytic activity, <20 nm for making a hard
magnetic material soft, <50 nm for refractive index
changes, and <100 nm for achieving super
paramagnetism, mechanical strengthening or
restricting matrix dislocation movement. Nano-
composites are found in nature, for example in the
structure of the abalone shell and bone. The use of
nanoparticle-rich materials long predates the
understanding of the physical and chemical nature of
these materials.
• Carbon-reinforced composite is one of its most useful
example of nano composite.