Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 375

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 9.2

1. A ball of mass 100 gm is projected upwards with velocity 10 m/s. It returns back with 6 m/s. Find
work done by air resistance.
2. Velocity-time graph of a particle of mass 2 kg moving in a straight line is as shown in Fig. 9.20.
Find the work done by all the forces acting on the particle.
v (m/s)

20

2 t (s)
Fig. 9.20

3. Is work-energy theorem valid in a non-inertial frame?

4. A particle of mass m moves on a straight line with its velocity varying with the distance travelled
according to the equation v = α x , where α is a constant. Find the total work done by all the
forces during a displacement from x = 0 to x = b .
5. A 5 kg mass is raised a distance of 4 m by a vertical force of 80 N. Find the final kinetic energy of
the mass if it was originally at rest. g = 10 m /s 2.
6. An object of mass m has a speed v 0 as it passes through the origin. It is subjected to a retarding
force given by Fx = − Ax . Here, A is a positive constant. Find its x-coordinate when it stops.
7. A block of mass M is hanging over a smooth and light pulley through a light string. The other end
of the string is pulled by a constant force F. The kinetic energy of the block increases by 40J in
1s. State whether the following statements are true or false:
(a) The tension in the string is Mg
(b) The work done by the tension on the block is 40 J
(c) The tension in the string is F
(d) The work done by the force of gravity is 40J in the above 1s
8. Displacement of a particle of mass 2 kg varies with time as s = (2t 2 − 2t + 10) m. Find total work
done on the particle in a time interval from t = 0 to t = 2 s.
9. A block of mass 30 kg is being brought down by a chain. If the block acquires a speed of 40 cm/s
in dropping down 2 m. Find the work done by the chain during the process.
(g = 10 m /s 2 )

9.6 Potential Energy

The energy possessed by a body or system by virtue of its position or configuration is known as the
potential energy. For example, a block attached to a compressed or elongated spring possesses some
energy called elastic potential energy. This block has a capacity to do work. Similarly, a stone when
released from a certain height also has energy in the form of gravitational potential energy. Two
charged particles kept at certain distance has electric potential energy.
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 377

If a body of mass m is raised to a height h from the surface of earth, the change in potential energy of
the system (earth + body) comes out to be
mgh
∆U = (R = radius of earth)
 h
1 + 
 R
or ∆U ≈ mgh if h << R
Thus, the potential energy of a body at height h, i.e. mgh is really the change in potential energy of the
system for h << R . So, be careful while using U = mgh, that h should not be too large. This we will
discuss in detail in the chapter of Gravitation.
Electric Potential Energy
The electric potential energy of two point charges q1 and q 2 separated by a distance r in vacuum is
given by
1 q q
U = ⋅ 1 2
4π ε 0 r
1 N-m 2
Here, = 9 . 0 × 10 9 = constant
4πε 0 C2

Extra Points to Remember

˜ Elastic potential energy is either zero or positive, but gravitational and electric potential energy may be
zero, positive or negative.
˜ For increase or decrease in gravitational potential energy of a particle (for small heights) we write,
∆U = mgh
Here, h is the change in height of particle. In case of a rigid body, h of centre of mass of the rigid body is seen.
˜ Change in potential energy is equal to the negative of work done by the conservative force (∆U = − ∆W ). If
work done by the conservative force is negative, change in potential energy will be positive or potential
energy of the system will increase and vice-versa.

Ground
Fig. 9.21
This can be understood by a simple example. Suppose a ball is taken from the ground to some height,
work done by gravity is negative, i.e. change in potential energy should increase or potential energy of the
ball will increase.
∆Wgravity = − ve
∴ ∆U = + ve ( ∆U = − ∆W )
or U f − U i = + ve
dU
˜ F=− , i.e. conservative forces always act in a direction where potential energy
dr F
of the system is decreased. This can also be shown as in Fig 9.22.
If a ball is dropped from a certain height. The force on it (its weight) acts in a
direction in which its potential energy decreases. Fig. 9.22
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 379

i.e. at equilibrium position slope of U-r graph is zero or the potential energy is optimum (maximum,
dU
minimum or constant). Equilibrium are of three types, i.e. the situation where F = 0 and = 0 can
dr
be obtained under three conditions. These are stable equilibrium, unstable equilibrium and neutral
equilibrium. These three types of equilibrium can be better understood from the given three figures.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9.24

Three identical balls are placed in equilibrium in positions as shown in figures (a), (b) and (c)
respectively.
In Fig. (a), ball is placed inside a smooth spherical shell. This ball is in stable equilibrium position. In
Fig. (b), the ball is placed over a smooth sphere. This is in unstable equilibrium position. In Fig. (c),
the ball is placed on a smooth horizontal ground. This ball is in neutral equilibrium position.
The table given below explains what is the difference and what are the similarities between these
three equilibrium positions in the language of physics.
Table 9.1
S. No. Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium
1. Net force is zero. Net force is zero. Net force is zero.
dU dU dU
2. = 0 or slope of U-r graph is = 0 or slope of U-r graph is = 0 or slope of U-r graph is
dr dr dr
zero. zero. zero.
3. When displaced from its When displaced from its equilibrium When displaced from its
equilibrium position a net restoring position, a net force starts acting on equilibrium position the body has
force starts acting on the body the body which moves the body in neither the tendency to come
which has a tendency to bring the the direction of displacement or back nor to move away from the
body back to its equilibrium away from the equilibrium position. original position. It is again in
position. equilibrium.
4. Potential energy in equilibrium Potential energy in equilibrium Potential energy remains constant
position is minimum as compared position is maximum as even if the body is displaced from
to its neighbouring points. compared to its neighbouring its equilibrium position.
d2U points. d2U
or = positive or =0
dr 2 d2U dr 2
or = negative
dr 2
5. When displaced from equilibrium When displaced from equilibrium When displaced from equilibrium
position the centre of gravity of the position the centre of gravity of position the centre of gravity of
body goes up. the body comes down. the body remains at the same
level.
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 381

V Example 9.15 For the potential energy curve shown in figure.

U
B

C 6 8
A x (m)
2 4

D E
Fig. 9.28
(a) Find directions of force at points A, B, C, D and E.
(b) Find positions of stable, unstable and neutral equilibriums.
dU dU
Solution (a) F = − or − = − (slope of U - x graph )
dr dx

Point Slope of U - x graph F = (Slope of U - x graph)

A Positive Negative
B Positive Negative
C Negative Positive
D Negative Positive
E Zero Zero

(b) At point x = 6 m, potential energy is minimum. So. it is stable equilibrium position.

At x = 2 m, potential energy is maximum. So, it is unstable equilibrium position.
There is no point, where potential energy is constant. So, we don't have any point of
unstable equilibrium position.

V Example 9.16 The potential energy of a conservative force field is given by

U = ax 2 − bx
where, a and b are positive constants. Find the equilibrium position and discuss
whether the equilibrium is stable, unstable or neutral.
dU
Solution In a conservative field F = −
dx
d
∴ F =− ( ax 2 − bx ) = b − 2ax
dx
For equilibrium F = 0
b
or b − 2ax = 0 ∴ x=
2a
d 2U
From the given equation we can see that = 2a (positive), i.e. U is minimum.
dx 2
b
Therefore, x = is the stable equilibrium position. Ans.
2a
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 383

Average Power
The ratio of total work done and total time is defined as the average power.
W
Thus: Pav = Total
t total

V Example 9.17 A ball of mass 1 kg is dropped from a tower. Find power of

gravitational force at time t =2 s. Take g =10 m/ s2 .
Solution At t = 2s, velocity of the ball,
v = gt = 10 × 2 = 20 m/s (downwards)
Gravitational force on the ball,
F = mg = 1× 10 = 10 N (downwards)
∴ Instantaneous power, P = F ⋅ v = Fv cos θ
= (10) ( 20)cos 0° F v
θ = 0°
= 200 W Ans. Fig. 9.30

V Example 9.18 A particle of mass m is lying on smooth horizontal table. A

constant force F tangential to the surface is applied on it. Find
(a) average power over a time interval from t = 0 to t = t,
(b) instantaneous power as function of time t.
F
Solution (a) a = = constant
m
2
1 2  1 ( m )  F t 
mv    
F W 2  2  m
v = at = t ⇒ Pav = = =
m t t t
F2t
= Ans.
2m
F2t
(b) Pi = Fv cos 0° = Fv = ( F )   =
Ft
Ans.
 m m

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 9.5

1. A block of mass 1 kg starts moving with constant acceleration a = 4 m /s 2. Find
(a) average power of the net force in a time interval from t = 0 to t = 2 s,
(b) instantaneous power of the net force at t = 4 s.
2. A constant power P is applied on a particle of mass m. Find kinetic energy, velocity and
displacement of particle as function of time t.
3. A time varying power P = 2 t is applied on a particle of mass m. Find
(a) kinetic energy and velocity of particle as function of time,
(b) average power over a time interval from t = 0 to t = t .
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 385

Solution (a) Wc = − ∆U = − (U f − U i )
= U i −U f = U A −U B
= − 30 − 20 = − 50 J Ans.
(b) Wall = ∆K = K f − K i
= KB −K A
= 10 − 50 = − 40 J Ans.
(c) Work done by the forces other than conservative
= ∆E = E f − E i
= (K f +U f ) − (K i +U i )
= (K B +U B ) − (K A +U A )
= (10 + 20) − ( 50 − 30) = 10 J Ans.

Note Work done by conservative force is negative ( = −50 J ). Therefore potential energy should increase and we
can see that, Uf > Ui as UB > UA

Final Touch Points

1. Suppose a particle is released from point A with u = 0.
u=0
A

h
v

B
.

Friction is absent everywhere. Then velocity at B will be

v = 2gh (irrespective of the track it follows from A to B)
Here, h = hA − hB
2. In circular motion, centripetal force acts towards the centre. This force is perpendicular to small
displacement dS and velocity v. Hence, work done by it is zero and power of this force is also zero.
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 363

Extra Points to Remember

˜ Work done by a force may be positive, negative or even zero also, depending on the angle (θ) between the
force vector F and displacement vector S. Work done by a force is zero when θ = 90°, it is positive when
0° ≤ θ < 90° and negative when 90°< θ ≤ 180°. For example, when a person lifts a body, the work done by
the lifting force is positive (as θ = 0° ) but work done by the force of gravity is negative (as θ = 180° ).
˜ Work depends on frame of reference. With change of frame of reference, inertial force does not change
while displacement may change. So, the work done by a force will be different in different frames. For
example, if a person is pushing a box inside a moving train, then work done as seen from the frame of
reference of train is F ⋅ S while as seen from the ground it is F⋅ ( S + S 0 ) . Here S 0 , is the displacement of
train relative to ground.
˜ Suppose a body is displaced from point A to point B, then
S = rB − rA = ( xB − xA ) $i + ( yB − yA ) $j + ( zB − zA ) k$
Here, ( xA , yA , zA ) and ( xB , yB , zB ) are the co-ordinates of points A and B.

V Example 9.1 A body is displaced from A = (2 m, 4 m, −6 m) to

rB = ( 6$i − 4$j + 2k$ ) m under a constant force F = ( 2$i + 3$j − k$ ) N . Find the work
done.
Solution r A = ( 2$i + 4$j − 6k$ ) m
∴ S = rB − r A
= ( 6$i − 4$j + 2k$ ) − ( 2$i + 4$j − 6k$ )
= 4$i − 8$j + 8k$
W = F ⋅ S = (2$i + 3$j − k$ ) ⋅ ( 4$i − 8$j + 8k$ ) = 8 − 24 − 8 = − 24 J Ans.
Note Work done is negative. Therefore angle between F and S is obtuse.

V Example 9.2 A block of mass m = 2 kg is pulled by a force F = 40 N upwards

through a height h = 2 m. Find the work done on the block by the applied force
F and its weight mg. ( g = 10 m/s2 )
F

Fig. 9.2

Solution Weight mg = ( 2) (10) = 20 N

Work done by the applied force WF = F h cos 0°.
As the angle between force and displacement is 0°
or WF = ( 40) ( 2) (1) = 80 J Ans.
Similarly, work done by its weight
Wmg = ( mg ) ( h ) cos 180°
or Wmg = ( 20) ( 2) ( −1) = − 40 J Ans.
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 365

Note In this method of finding work done, you need not to worry for the sign of work done. If we put proper limits
in integration then sign of work done automatically comes.
x2
It is important to note that ∫ F dx is also the area under F - x graph between x = x1 to x = x 2 .
x1
F F

dW W = Area

x1 x2 X x1 x2 X
dx
Fig. 9.5

Spring Force
An important example of the above idea is a spring that
obeys Hooke’s law. Consider the situation shown in
figure. One end of a spring is attached to a fixed vertical
support and the other end to a block which can move on a
x=0
horizontal table. Let x = 0 denote the position of the block
F
when the spring is in its natural length. When the block is
displaced by an amount x (either compressed or elongated)
a restoring force (F) is applied by the spring on the block.
The direction of this force F is always towards its mean x
position ( x = 0) and the magnitude is directly proportional
to x or Fig. 9.6

F ∝x (Hooke’s law)
∴ F = − kx …(i)
Here, k is a constant called force constant of spring and F
depends on the nature of spring. From Eq. (i) we see that
F is a variable force and F - x graph is a straight line
x=x
passing through origin with slope = − k. Negative sign in X
Eq. (i) implies that the spring force F is directed in a
direction opposite to the displacement x of the block.
Let us now find the work done by this force F when the
block is displaced from x = 0 to x = x. This can be Fig. 9.7
obtained either by integration or the area under F - x
graph.
x x
W = ∫ dW = ∫ Fdx = ∫0
1
Thus, − kx dx = − 2
kx 2
0
Here, work done is negative because force is in opposite direction of displacement.
Similarly, if the block moves from x = x1 to x = x 2 . The limits of integration are x1 and x 2 and the
work done is
x2
W = ∫ − kx dx =
1
2
k ( x12 − x 22 )
x1
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 367

Solution (a) From x = − 2 m to x = 0, displacement of the particle is along positive x-direction

while force acting on the particle is along negative x-direction. Therefore, work done is negative
and given by the area under F-x graph with projection along x-axis.
1
∴ W = − ( 2) (10) = − 10 J Ans.
2
(b) From x = 0 to x = 2 m, displacement of particle and force acting on the particle both are along
positive x-direction. Therefore, work done is positive and given by the area under F -x graph,
1
or W = ( 2) (10) = 10 J Ans.
2

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 9.1

1. A block is displaced from (1m, 4m, 6m) to (2$i + 3$j − 4k$ ) m under a constant force
F = (6$i − 2$j + k$ ) N. Find the work done by this force.
2. A block of mass 2.5 kg is pushed 2.20 m along a frictionless horizontal table by a constant force
16 N directed 45° above the horizontal. Determine the work done by
(a) the applied force,
(b) the normal force exerted by the table,
(c) the force of gravity and
(d) determine the total work done on the block
3. A block is pulled a distance x along a rough horizontal table by a horizontal string. If the tension
in the string is T, the weight of the block is w, the normal reaction is N and frictional force is F.
Write down expressions for the work done by each of these forces.
4. A bucket tied to a string is lowered at a constant acceleration of g/4. If mass of the bucket is m
and it is lowered by a distance l then find the work done by the string on the bucket.
1
5. A 1.8 kg block is moved at constant speed over a surface for which coefficient of friction µ = . It
4
is pulled by a force F acting at 45° with horizontal as shown in Fig. 9.9. The block is displaced by
2 m. Find the work done on the block by (a) the force F (b) friction (c) gravity.
F
45°

Fig. 9.9

6. A block is constrained to move along x-axis under a force F = − 2x . Here, F is in newton and x in
metre. Find the work done by this force when the block is displaced from x = 2 m to x = − 4 m.
4
7. A block is constrained to move along x-axis under a force F = 2 ( x ≠ 0). Here, F is in newton
x
and x in metre. Find the work done by this force when the block is displaced from x = 4 m to
x = 2 m.
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 369

V Example 9.7 An object is displaced from point A(2 m, 3 m, 4 m) to a point

B ( 1 m, 2 m, 3 m) under a constant force F = ( 2$i + 3$j + 4k$ ) N . Find the work done
by this force in this process.
rf (1 m, 2 m, 3 m)
Solution W =∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ ( 2i$ + 3$j + 4k$ ) ⋅ ( dxi$ + dy$j + dzk$ )
ri (2 m, 3 m, 4 m)

= [ 2x + 3 y + 4 z ] (1 m, 2 m, 3 m) = −9 J Ans.
(2 m, 3 m, 4 m)

Alternate Solution
Since, F = constant, we can also use.
W = F⋅S
Here, S = r f − r i = ( $i + 2$j + 3k$ ) − ( 2$i + 3$j + 4k$ )
= ( − $i − $j − k$ )
∴ W = ( 2$i + 3$j + 4k$ ) ⋅ ( − i$ − $j − k$ )
= − 2 − 3 − 4 = − 9J Ans.

V Example 9.8 An object is displaced from position vector r1 = (2$i + 3$j) m to

r2 = ( 4$i + 6$j) m under a force F = ( 3x 2 $i + 2 y$j) N . Find the work done by this
force.
r2 r2
Solution W =∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ ( 3x 2 i$ + 2 y$j ) ⋅ ( dxi$ + dy$j + dzk$ )
r1 r1
r2
=∫ ( 3x 2 dx + 2 y dy ) = [ x 3 + y 2 ] ((42,, 63))
r1

= 83 J Ans.
In the above two examples, we saw that while calculating the work done we did not mention the path
along which the object was displaced. Only initial and final coordinates were required. It shows that
in both the examples, the work done is path independent or work done will be same along all paths.
The forces in which work is path independent are known as conservative forces.
Thus, if a particle or an object is displaced from position A to 1
B
position B through three different paths under a conservative force
field. Then, 2

W1 = W2 = W3
Further, it can be shown that work done in a closed path is zero A 3
under a conservative force field. (WAB = − WBA or
Fig. 9.13
WAB + WBA = 0). Gravitational force, Coulomb’s force and spring
force are few examples of conservative forces. On the other hand, if the work is path dependent or
W1 ≠ W2 ≠ W3 , the force is called a non-conservative. Frictional forces, viscous forces are
non-conservative in nature. Work done in a closed path is not zero in a non-conservative force field.
Note The word potential energy is defined only for conservative forces like gravitational force, electrostatic force
and spring force etc.
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 371

But the kinetic energy of the body is equivalent to the work done in giving the body this velocity.
1
Hence, KE = mv 2
2
Regarding the kinetic energy the following two points are important to note:
1. Since, both m and v 2 are always positive. KE is always positive and does not depend on the
direction of motion of the body.
2. Kinetic energy depends on the frame of reference. For example, the kinetic energy of a person of
1
mass m sitting in a train moving with speed v is zero in the frame of train but 2 mv 2 in the frame
of earth.

9.5 Work Energy Theorem

This theorem is a very important tool that relates the works to kinetic energy. According to this
theorem:
Work done by all the forces (conservative or non-conservative, external or internal) acting on a
particle or an object is equal to the change in kinetic energy of it.
∴ Wnet = ∆KE = K f − K i
Let, F1 , F2 ...be the individual forces acting on a particle. The resultant force is F = F1 + F2 + ...and the
work done by the resultant force is
W = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ ( F1 + F2 + ... ) ⋅ dr
= ∫ F1 ⋅ dr + ∫ F2 ⋅ dr + ...

where, ∫ F1 ⋅ dr is the work done on the particle by F1 and so on. Thus, work energy theorem can also
be written as: work done by the resultant force which is also equal to the sum of the work done by the
individual forces is equal to change in kinetic energy.
Regarding the work-energy theorem it is worthnoting that :
(i) If Wnet is positive then K f − K i = positive,
i.e. K f > K i or kinetic energy will increase and if Wnet is negative then kinetic energy will
decrease.
(ii) This theorem can be applied to non-inertial frames also. In a non-inertial frame it can be written as
work done by all the forces (including the pseudo forces) = change in kinetic energy in non-inertial
frame. Let us take an example.

m
m

m
m
a m
f = ma
fp = ma f = ma
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 9.15
 Chapter 9 Work, Energy and Power — 373

V Example 9.10 An object of mass m is tied to a string of

length l and a variable force F is applied on it which brings
the string gradually at angle θ with the vertical. Find the θ l

work done by the force F .

Solution In this case, three forces are acting on the object: F
m
1. tension (T ) Fig. 9.16
2. weight ( mg ) and
3. applied force ( F )
Using work-energy theorem

h = l (1 – cosθ)
θ l
T

F
h
mg
Fig. 9.17

W net = ∆KE
or WT + Wmg + WF = 0 …(i)
as ∆KE = 0
because Ki = K f = 0
Further, WT = 0, as tension is always perpendicular to displacement.
Wmg = − mgh
or Wmg = − mgl (1 − cos θ )
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get
WF = mgl (1 − cos θ ) Ans.

Note Here, the applied force F is variable. So, if we do not apply the work energy theorem we will first find the
magnitude of F at different locations and then integrate dW ( = F ⋅ dr ) with proper limits.

V Example 9.11 A body of mass m was slowly hauled up the

hill as shown in the Fig. 9.18 by a force F which at each
point was directed along a tangent to the trajectory. Find m F h
the work performed by this force, if the height of the hill is
h, the length of its base is l and the coefficient of friction is
µ. l

Solution Four forces are acting on the body: Fig. 9.18

1. weight ( mg )
2. normal reaction ( N )
3. friction ( f ) and
4. the applied force ( F )