NUCLEAR MODELS

NUCLEAR MODELS-SHELL MODEL

A number of nuclear models have been proposed to provide a satisfactory

nterpretation of all the nuclear properties.

In shell model it is assumed that each nucleons moves in an orbit

haracterized by definite angular momentum and a definite energy. It is
assumed that each nucleon moves independent of the others.

Shell model helped to explain the extra stability of nuclei with magic
number of nucleons.

Evidences in favor of shell model:

 The nuclei with 2,8,20,28,50,82,126 nucleons of same kind shows extra

stability.

 The isotopes having magic number of protons and neutrons are more
abundant.
2
NUCLEAR MODELS-SHELL MODEL

Number of stable isotopes of an element containing magic number of

protons is usually large compared to those for other elements.

All the three naturally occurring radio active series decay to stable end point
Pb with atomic number, Z=82 mass number, A=208, indicating extra stable
configuration of magic numbers.

Nuclei with magic number of nucleons have very low neutron capture cross
section. At magic number it seemed to have closed shells and thus no
vacancy for additional nucleons.

The isotopes 𝑂, 𝐾, 𝑋𝑒 are spontaneous neutron emitters. This can be

nterpreted as , loosely bound neutrons /valance neutrons are emitted by
sotopes to attain the magic number and gain stability.

Q becomes practically zero at magic numbers showing the spherical

symmetry of nucleus for closed shells. If Z value and N value are gradually
ncreased from one magic number to the next . Q increases from zero to the
maximum and then decreases to zero. 3
SINGLE PARTICLE SHELL MODEL

The shell model is based on the assumption that , each nucleon stays in a
well defined quantum states. As in atom, nucleus has no massive central
body acting as a fixed force center of the charge.

In this model it is assumed a that the nucleons in the nucleus move

independently in a common potential determined by average motion of all
other nucleons.

It is assumed that each nucleon experiences a central attractive force

which is the effect of the remaining nucleons acting as a core in the
nucleus.

Most of the nucleons are paired, so that pair of nucleon contributes 0 spin
and 0 angular momentum. The paired nucleons thus form an inert core.
The properties of an odd A nucleus are characterized by the unpaired
nucleon.

4
NFINITE SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL

In order to understand the properties of nucleus including magic numbers

we consider infinite square well potential and harmonic oscillator potential

In infinite square well potential it is assumed that the nucleons move

independently in a common potential of infinite depth. This potential
depends only on r and thus a central potential.

𝑉 𝑟 0; 𝑟 𝑅 and 𝑉 𝑟 ∞; 𝑟 𝑅

The nucleus is visualized as consisting of filing shells having maximum

number of neutrons and protons permitted by Pauli’s principle. The
remaining neutrons and protons will occupy the unfilled shells. In the
infinite square well potential the position of energy levels in an infinitely
deep well of radius r is calculated. Here we assumed that, the potential is
zero inside the well and is infinite outside. The wavefunction u( r) vanishes
at the boundary and outside the well.

5
NFINITE SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL

The Schrodinger equation of the system can be written as;

ℏ
𝑟 𝐸 𝑉 𝑢 0
ℏ

Solution of this equation,

𝑢 𝑟 𝐽 𝑘𝑛𝑟 , 𝑎 𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

For l=0; 𝑟 𝐸 𝑢 0
ℏ

ℏ
Solution, 𝑢 𝑟 And energy, 𝐸 for n=1,2,3…

For l=1; the Schrodinger equation is,

ℏ
𝑟 𝐸 𝑢 0
ℏ
6
NFINITE SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL

solution of this equation is,

ℏ
𝑢 𝑟 and 𝐸

The symbols s,p,d,f etc.. represents the states l=0,1,2,3 etc..

Each shell model level actually consists of (2l+1) substates, each with a
different angular wavefunction. Because of the 2 different orientations of
the nuclear spin the level can have 2(2l+1) protons. Since n and p are
two different particles, this level can have 2(2l+1) neutrons in addition to
the 2(2l+1) protons. Depending on l we have different energy levels. For
each l there is a set of values for different n.

7
NFINITE SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL

l=0 state is written as 1s. It consists of two nucleons. The next level
corresponds to l=1. It is 1p which consists of 2(2*1+1)=6 nucleons. Here
the shell close at particle number, 2,8,20,34,40,58 etc.. So, the magic
number is not explained correctly after 20. Also consider the infinite
potential well by which it is unable to remove the nucleons from the
nucleus. Thus infinite square well potential contradicts the experimental
nucleus. 8
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR POTENTIAL

We now consider a particle moving with simple harmonic motion

isotopically bound in 3D. If the mass of the particle is m and angular
velocity 𝜔. 𝑉 𝑟 . So the schrodinger equation becomes,

ℏ ℏ
𝑢 𝐸𝑢

Solving this equation and then find the energy;

𝐸 2𝑛 𝑙 ℏ𝜔 𝑁 ℏ𝜔 where, 𝑁 2𝑛 𝑙 2

For each N values there is a different degenerate group of l with different

n values, such that 𝑙 𝑁 and every even l corresponds to even N. Thus
the sequence of single particle level for a harmonic oscillator consists of
bands of degenerate levels, each band separated by energy ℏ𝜔 from the
next.
9
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR POTENTIAL

For N=0,1,2,3… n=1,2,3…, l=0,1,2,3… We have, 𝑁 2𝑛 𝑙 2

n harmonic oscillator the groups are, 1s;1p;1d,2s; 1f,2p; 1g,2d,3s; 1h,2f,3p;

etc.. 10
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR POTENTIAL

The closure of the shells for a harmonic oscillator potential occurs at

2,8,20,40,70,112 etc.. So this potential also could not explain the magic numbers
after first few. Also in harmonic oscillator potential the edges are assumed to be
sharp which is not correct in the case of the nucleus.
11
SPIN ORBIT POTENTIAL

Both above 2 potentials, magic numbers where not explained properly

because of wrong assumptions. So a new potential with finite depth was
considered to explain the magic numbers. This potential is called Wood-
Saxon potential.

This potential has finite depth and no sharp edges. But this also could not
explain magic numbers. The disagreement at the higher magic numbers is
explained by including non central component in the force acting on a
nucleon in the nucleus. It is corresponding to the interaction between the
orbital angular momentum and the spin angular momentum of a particle.
The general form of the spin orbit potential is, 𝑉 𝑉 𝑠. 𝑙
12
SPIN ORBIT POTENTIAL

We have the total angular momentum, 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠

So, 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠 𝑙 𝑠 2𝑙. 𝑠

2𝑙. 𝑠 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠

2 𝑙. 𝑠 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠 ℏ 𝐼 𝐼 1 𝑙 𝑙 1 𝑠 𝑠 1

𝐼 have values from 𝑙 𝑠 to 𝑙 𝑠

For 𝐼 𝑙

2 𝑙. 𝑠 ℏ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 1

𝑙 𝑙 1 3
ℏ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 ℏ 𝑙 1
2 2 4 4

13
SPIN ORBIT POTENTIAL

For 𝐼 𝑙

2 𝑙. 𝑠 ℏ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 1

ℏ 𝑙 2𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 ℏ 𝑙

2 𝑙. 𝑠 2 𝑙. 𝑠 ℏ 𝑙 ℏ 𝑙 1 ℏ 𝑙 ℏ 𝑙 ℏ

2𝑙 1 ℏ

ℏ
𝑙. 𝑠 𝑙. 𝑠

14
SPIN ORBIT POTENTIAL

This gives the energy split in different states or different N values. This
splitting depends only on the value, l and increases on the value of l. The
degeneracy of the levels is given by (2l+1).

Each energy level is split into 2 according to 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠 and 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠

So the spin orbit coupling gives the experimentally proved magic numbers.
15
PREDICTIONS OF SHELL MODEL

 Stability of the closed shell nuclei. The model clearly reproduces all the
magic numbers.

 Spin and parity of nucleus at ground state is predicted. The shell model
predicts the ground state spin for large number of nuclei for even-even,
odd-odd, even-odd nucleus.

16
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND PARITY

In a single particle potential, the motion of a single nucleon is governed

by the potential caused by all other nucleons. The energy of the nucleon is
equal to the interaction energy of nucleons with other nucleons + l-s
coupling energy. Nucleons with opposite spin form pairs that is all
completely fill shells have zero angular momentum. The parity, 𝜋 depends
on 𝑙 and even 𝑙 gives positive parity and odd 𝑙 gives negative parity.

Even-even Nucleus:

If the number of neutrons and protons are even, all of them pair to make
the total angular momentum 𝐼 0.Here the parity is positive(If I 0, 𝑙 0

Odd A(Odd-even nucleus):

This kind of combination is very rare. And in this case the angular
momentum and parity of the nucleus is determined by the unpaired
nucleon.
17
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND PARITY

Odd-Odd nucleus:

In odd-odd nucleus the total angular momentum is equal to the vector sum
of angular momentum of unpaired nucleus. The parity is the product of the
parities of individual unpaired nucleons.

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 and

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

In few cases exceptions are observed and these are explained using
Nordheim’s rule. According to this rule, 𝐼 can be 𝐼 𝐼 or 𝐼 𝐼
depending on the Nordheim’s number.

Nordheim’s number 𝐼 𝐼 𝑙 𝑙

18
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND PARITY

If the Nordheim’s number is even, the total angular momentum is

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

If the Nordheim’s number is odd, the total angular momentum is

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

x: 𝑁;

𝒍 𝟏 n p 𝟏𝒑𝟏/𝟐
Nordheim’s no=½+½+1+1=3
So, 𝐈 𝐼 𝐼 1 𝒍 𝟏 nnnn pppp 𝟏𝒑𝟑/𝟐
Here 𝑙 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ.
So,
𝒍 𝟎 nn pp 𝟏𝒔𝟏/𝟐
𝑜𝑑𝑑 ∗ 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒 ∗ 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒
Neutron Proton
19
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

For nucleus having even number of protons and neutrons, the nucleons
pair up and give zero magnetic dipole moment in its ground state. But if
mass number is odd, it will have a non zero magnetic moment
contributed by the last unpaired nucleon. The total magnetic moment is
the vector sum of spin magnetic moment and orbital magnetic moment.

𝜇 𝜇 𝜇

If we consider the z component of 𝜇,

ℏ
𝜇 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑠 where, 𝜇 is the nuclear magneton
ℏ

For proton and neutron, 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are different.

For proton,𝑔 1&𝑔 5.5857 and For neutron, 𝑔 0&𝑔 3.826

20
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

We have, 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠 or 𝐼 𝑙 𝑠

Here magnetic quantum number 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 where 𝑚 has its maximum

value 𝐼 . Now, 𝜇 𝐼, 𝑚 𝐼 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑠 𝐼, 𝑚 𝐼
ℏ

We have to calculate 𝜇 for 𝐼 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑙

𝟏
When 𝑰 𝒍 :
𝟐

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 and 𝐼 𝑚 𝑚

Here 𝑙 𝑚 𝑚 . Then 𝑚 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 1/2

ℏ
𝑙 𝑙ℏ and 𝑠

21
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

ℏ
𝜇 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑠 𝑔𝑙
ℏ ℏ

𝜇 𝑔𝑙 𝜇 (1)

If the last nucleon is proton, 𝑔 1&𝑔 5.5857

. .
𝜇 𝑙 𝜇 𝐼 𝜇 𝐼 2.3 𝜇

If the last nucleon is neutron, 𝑔 0&𝑔 3.826

.
𝜇 𝜇 1.913𝜇

𝟏
When 𝑰 𝒍 :
𝟐

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 and 𝐼 𝑚 𝑚
22
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

𝑙 𝑚 𝑚 .

Then 𝑚 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝜓 or 𝑚 𝑙 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝜓

The total wave function will be a linear combination of ψ 𝑎𝜓 𝑏𝜓

𝜇 𝑎𝜓 𝑏𝜓 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑠 𝑎𝜓 𝑏𝜓
ℏ

𝜇 𝑎𝜓 𝜇 𝑎𝜓 𝑏𝜓 𝜇 𝑏𝜓

𝜇 𝑎 𝜓 𝜇 𝜓 𝑏 𝜓 𝜇 𝜓 (2)

𝜓 𝜇 𝜓 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑠 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚
ℏ

ℏ
𝑔 𝑙ℏ 𝑔𝑙 𝜇 (3)
ℏ
23
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

𝜓 𝜇 𝜓 𝑚 𝑙 1, 𝑚 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑠 𝑚 𝑙 1, 𝑚
ℏ

𝑔 𝑙 1 𝜇 (4)

Finding a and b using ladder operators:

𝐼 𝐼 𝑖𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐼 𝐼 𝑖𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

ℏ
𝐼 𝐼, 𝑚 𝐼 𝑚 𝐼 𝑚 1 𝐼, 𝑚 1

ψ 𝑎𝜓 𝑏𝜓 and

𝐼, 𝑚 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝑏|𝑚 𝑙 1, 𝑚
24
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

Operating the raising operator on both sides:

𝐿𝐻𝑆 𝐼 |𝐼, 𝑚 𝐼 0 ; As 𝑚 𝐼 is the highest value possible, it

cannot be raised further.

Then, 𝐼 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝐼 𝑏 𝑚 𝑙 1, 𝑚 0

Take the first term: 𝐼 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝐿 𝑆 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚

𝐿 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝑆 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚

𝐿 acting on 𝑚 𝑙 gives the first term zero as 𝑚 𝑙 is the highest value

possible and cannot be raised.

ℏ
𝐼 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝑎 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 (A)
25
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

𝐼 𝑏 𝑚 𝑙 1, 𝑚 𝐿 𝑆 𝑏 𝑚 𝑙 1, 𝑚

ℏ
𝑏 2𝑙|𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 (B)

ℏ ℏ
Then, 𝑎|𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 𝑏 2𝑙 | 𝑚 𝑙, 𝑚 0

𝑎 𝑏 2𝑙 0

𝑎 𝑏 2𝑙

We have, 𝑎 𝑏 1

𝑏 2𝑙 𝑏 1; 2𝑙𝑏 𝑏 1; 𝑏 (5)

𝑎 𝑏 . 2𝑙 (6)
26
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

Substitute (3),(4),(5),(6) in 𝜇

𝜇 𝑎 𝜓 𝜇 𝜓 𝑏 𝜓 𝜇 𝜓

𝑔𝑙 𝜇 𝑔 𝑙 1 𝜇

2𝑙 𝑔 𝑙 𝑔 𝑙 1

𝑔 2𝑙 𝑙 1 1 2𝑙

𝐼 𝑙 ⇒𝑙 𝐼

𝜇 𝑔 2 𝐼 𝐼 1 𝑔 𝐼

27
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

𝜇 𝑔 2𝐼 3𝐼 𝑔𝐼

𝜇 𝑔 2𝐼 3 𝑔 (7)

If the last nucleon is proton, 𝑔 1&𝑔 5.5857

𝜇 2𝐼 3 5.5857 𝐼 1.2928

If the last nucleon is neutron, 𝑔 0&𝑔 3.826

𝜇 3.826 1.913

28
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT- SCHMIDT DIAGRAMS

If we plot the magnetic dipole moment 𝜇 against the nuclear spin I we

get two Schmidt diagrams.

These curves are Schmidt diagrams and the magnetic moments accord
for the Schmidt values.
29
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT- SCHMIDT DIAGRAMS

The experimental values of 𝜇 does not fall exactly on the Schmidt line but
etween the two curves. This discrepancy is explained as follows.

 The assumption of single particle shell model and the assumption that
only last nucleon contribute to the magnetic moment.

 The assumption that the magnetic dipole moment of nucleons in the

nuclei is same as in the free state . We took values of 𝑔 and 𝑔 as the
same as that of free particle. But the proton and neutron are not free
particles but a part of a nucleus.

30
QUADRUPOLE MOMENT

Q is the measure of deviation of charge distribution in a nucleus from the

spherical form. According to single particle model, the nucleus with closed
shell should have spherical distribution of charge and thus zero Q. Q of an
odd A is attributed to the last unpaired nucleons in the nucleus. In single
particle shell model the last nucleon determine the electromagnetic
moments and the inner core being spherically symmetric does not
contribute we can write,

𝑄 𝑍 3𝑍 𝑟 𝜌𝛿𝜏 (1)

For homogenously charged ellipsoidal nucleus of charge Ze and semi

axes a and b. 𝑄 𝑍 𝑏 𝑎 (2)

The average radius 𝑅 𝑎 𝑏 and the small deviation from the

spherical symmetry Δ𝑅 𝑏 𝑎 . Then the distortion/deformation
parameter, 𝛿
31
QUADRUPOLE MOMENT

𝑄 𝑍 𝑏 𝑎 𝑍 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎

𝑄 𝑍. 2. 𝑏 𝑎 𝑍𝑅 Δ𝑅 𝑍𝑅 𝑅

𝑄 𝑍𝑅 𝛿 (3)

𝑄 (4)

Substitute (3) in (4);

𝑄 𝛿 𝛿 (5)

𝑄 𝑟 (6) for
quadrupole moment.
32
QUADRUPOLE MOMENT

For high I values: 1

𝑄 𝑟 ;𝑄 𝑅

𝑄 (7)

By equation (7) for a nucleus 𝐿𝑢

𝑄 0.14 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑄 0.25 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑦

18

Thus the single particle shell model is wrong in calculation of Q.

33
LIMITATION OF SHELL MODEL

 Shell model cannot explain the excited states of even-even nuclei at

single particle excitation. It cannot predict the correct values of nucleus
spin for all the nuclei.

 This model cannot explain the existence of stable nuclei like

𝐻 , 𝐿, 𝐵, 𝑁 etc..

 This model fail to calculate the exact Q value of the nucleus.

𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑃 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑛


Q is positive for hole and Q is negative for excess. 34

FAILURE OF SHELL MODEL TO EXPLAIN EXCITED
STATES:
1)

In ground state of 𝟏𝟕𝑶 the last unpaired nucleon is neutron and is in

1𝑑 / state. Its angular momentum-parity is 5/2 . The first excited state
is 1/2 and this happens when 𝑑 / neutron gets excited to 𝑠 / . The
next excited state is 1/2 and this happens when 𝑝 / pair is broken and
the neutron gets excited to 𝑑 / . The next excited state is 5/2 and this
happens when 𝑝 / pair is broken and the neutron gets excited to 𝑑 /
𝑑 / neutron gets excited to 𝑠 / . Even though we could explain the
levels , the energy level gap couldn’t be explained using shell model.35
FAILURE OF SHELL MODEL TO EXPLAIN EXCITED
STATES:
)

These two nuclei have the same energy levels but there is a huge
ifference between the energies of the levels, even though both the nuclei
ave one unpaired nucleon in its last shell. Shell model couldn’t explain
he reason.

36
FAILURE OF SHELL MODEL TO EXPLAIN EXCITED
STATES:
)

n 𝟒𝟏𝐶𝑎 there is one unpaired nucleon. In 𝟒𝟑𝐶𝑎 also there is one unpaired
ucleon. According to single particle shell model both the nuclei should
ave the same energy levels. But experimentally this is not true.

37
FAILURE OF SHELL MODEL TO EXPLAIN EXCITED
STATE OF EVEN-EVEN NUCLEUS:
)

The first excited state of Argon is one proton excited from 𝑑 / to 1𝑓 / . Then
here are 2 unpaired protons, one in 𝑑 / and one in 𝑓 / . Angular
momentum, I can have values 5 to 2 in steps of 1. That
s, 5,4,3,2. Parity is negative and thus 3 state is explained.
38
FAILURE OF SHELL MODEL TO EXPLAIN EXCITED
STATE OF EVEN-EVEN NUCLEUS:
The next excited state is when one proton from 𝑠 / state is excited to
𝑑 / . Angular momentum I will have values 2 to 1 .

Parity will be positive. Thus 2 and 1 are explained. 2 state has around
MeV energy and this is the second 2 level in the diagram.

Then the first 2 is not explained by the shell model.

39
LIQUID DROP MODEL

In this model nucleus is assumed to be like a droplet of dense liquid,

composed of the sub droplets of protons and neutrons. It is suggested by
Bohr. Here we consider the collective behavior of the nucleons instead of
considering the individual motion. It is observed that BE/nucleon remain
almost constant ie, BE increase with A and volume too increases with A.

Analogies between nucleus and liquid drop:

 Liquid drop is spherical and also the atomic nucleus.

 Density of spherical drop is independent of volume , like nucleus.

 Molecules in a liquid drop interact short range compared to its diameter,

same as nucleus.

 Surface tension at surface of drop is similar to the potential barrier at

surface of nucleus.
40
LIQUID DROP MODEL

The molecules in the drop will move fast if we increase the temperature
and the evaporation takes place. Similarly nucleus possess definite KE
within the nucleus. If we give energy to the nucleus, the nucleons get
emitted.

If liquid drop is made to oscillate it will split into two, similarly nucleus.

Non zero Q shows nucleus is spherical, similarly liquid drop.

ailure:

Could not explain why number of protons and neutron are equal for lighter
nuclei and neutrons more in heavier nucleus.

By this model nucleus with more N should be more stable but its not like
hat.

Could not explain magic numbers. 41

LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.

The nuclear radius, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴

Nucleus is said to be spherical,

Volume, 𝑉 𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅 𝐴

Mass of nucleus, 𝑀 𝐴𝑚 where 𝑚 is the mass of nucleon.

Then density of nuclear matter, 𝜌 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

Semi Empirical Mass formula:

The mass of a neutral atom, whose nucleus contain Z protons and A-Z
neutrons is,

𝑀 𝑍𝑀 𝐴 𝑍 𝑀 𝑍𝑀 42
LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.
𝑀 𝑍 𝑀 𝑀 𝐴 𝑍 𝑀 where,

𝐵𝐸 𝑎 𝐴 𝑎 𝐴 ∆

This is known as Von-weizsacker Semi empirical mass formula.

𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 are constants.

Volume Binding Energy(𝑬𝒗 /Exchange energy:

The neutrons and protons in the nucleus are held together by short range
attractive forces. These forces reduces the mass of nucleus below that of
its constituents by an amount proportional to the number of nucleons A.
Hence this term is regarded as volume binding energy which is also known
as exchange energy.

𝐸 ∝𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 𝑎 𝐴
43
LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.
Surface Energy(𝑬𝒔 ):

Since nucleus is finite some nucleons are nearer to the surface so that they
interact with few nucleons . Thus 𝑬𝒗 is reduced by an amount inversely
proportional to the surface area of the nucleus. The nucleons on the
surface are less tightly bond than those in the interior. For light nuclei
nearly all nucleons are at the surface, while for a heavy nucleus about half
of the nucleons are at the surface.

𝑬𝒔 ∝ 𝐴 and 𝑬𝒔 𝑎 𝐴

Coulomb Energy(𝑬𝒔 ):

Only long range force in the nuclei is the coulomb repulsion between the
protons. The uniform charge density for a nucleus with radius R and Z
protons is, 𝜌
44
LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.
If dq is the charge on the shell of thickness dr on the surface of radius r,

𝑑𝑞 𝜌. 4𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 . 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

The work-done for bringing this charge from ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑟 against the charge on
the sphere of radius r is,

Integrating this from 0 to R we get the work-done against the coulomb

repulsion, 𝐸

𝐸 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑅 𝐴

45
LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.

𝐸 ∝ /

𝐸 𝑎 /

As the coulomb repulsion increases the stability of nucleus decreases.

Asymmetry Energy(𝑬𝒂 ):

This term expresses the charge symmetric nature of the nucleon-nucleon

force. The most stable nuclei will have equal number of neutrons and
protons.

46
LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.
For stable nuclei, with Z+N up to 18, N-Z= 0 or 1

There is a sharp tendency for protons and neutrons to pair up. For higher
nuclei, the number of neutron increases than protons. This asymmetry
increases the 𝑬𝒂 . And decreases the BE,

𝐸 ∝ 𝑎

Pairing Energy(𝑬𝒑 ):

The nuclei with even number of protons and neutrons are most abundant
and most stable. Nuclei with odd numbers of both neutrons and protons
are least stable while nuclei for which either proton or neutron odd is
intermediate stable.

𝐸 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝐴
47
LIQUID DROP MODEL: SEMI EMPIRICAL MASS
FORMULA.

𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑍, 𝑁 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑍, 𝑁 𝑜𝑑𝑑

 The contribution of various terms to the BE/nucleon can be shown as;

𝑀 𝑍 𝑚 𝑚 𝑀 𝐴 𝑍

48
COLLECTIVE MODEL

In the collective model the whole nucleus is considered to calculate the

features of the nucleus. In this model shell model and liquid drop models
are considered together.

In collective model, the core of the nucleus is assumed to behave as a non

viscous liquid drop which is surrounded by loosely bound nucleons in the
outer shell. The energy levels in the collective model arise due to the
collective motion of nuclear core and the coupling between loosely bound
nucleons and the core. The motion of the nucleus can be vibrational or
rotational.

Even N- Even Z nuclei and collective model:

In even-even nuclei all the nucleons are paired and have zero spin and
even parity according to shell model. But the shell model couldn’t explain
the first excited state (2 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 of even-even nuclei.

49
COLLECTIVE MODEL: NUCLEAR VIBRATION

Nuclear Vibration:

In liquid drop model, the nucleus is spherical in ground state and any
deformation of the shape from equilibrium increase the surface energy. It
is possible for the nucleus to vibrate about its equilibrium shape.

When the nucleus vibrate about its equilibrium shape, the shape is
changing the distance on the surface in terms of 𝜃, ∅.

We can write, 𝑅 ,∅ ∑ ∑ 𝑎 𝑌 𝜃, 𝜙

We can write different states considering different modes of vibration of

nucleus.

1)For 𝜆 0; 𝑌 𝜃, 𝜙 - Monopole

The nucleus is non vibrating or not deformed.

50
COLLECTIVE MODEL: NUCLEAR VIBRATION

2) For 𝜆 1; The vibrating of nucleus is a center of mass vibration or there

is no change with in the nucleus. --- Dipole

3) For 𝜆 2; It is the lowest 𝜆 which gives the internal motion in nucleus. --

-- Quadrupole

4) For 𝜆 3; This is Octupole.

51
COLLECTIVE MODEL: NUCLEAR VIBRATION

The quantum of vibrational energy is called Phonon. The energy of a

phonon-ℏ𝜔

 When 𝜆 2;

The phonon corresponding to this is called Quadrupole phonon and

nergy is equal to 𝐸 ℏ𝜔 . The angular momentum quantum number k=2
nd parity is positive as 𝜆 is even.

When we add 1 unit of quadrupole phonon to 0 ground state of even-

even nucleus, it adds 2 units of angular momentum and positive parity.
When one phonon of 𝜆 2 type is added, then 𝐸 ℏ𝜔 . and k 2 . So
first excited state is 2 .

When 2 phonons of 𝜆 2 type is added; 𝐸 2ℏ𝜔 . and k 2. Angular

momentum=2+2=4 So total angular momentum: 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 .
Considering only even numbers, 4 , 2 , 0
52
COLLECTIVE MODEL: NUCLEAR VIBRATION

When 3 phonons of 𝜆 2 type is added; 𝐸 3ℏ𝜔 . and k 2. Parity is

positive and total angular momentum:6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0

 When 𝜆 3;

The proton corresponds to 𝜆 3 is known as octupole phonon and energy

s equal to 𝐸 ℏ𝜔 . The angular momentum quantum number k=3 and
arity is negative as 𝜆 is odd . If this is added the state will be 3

When 2 phonons are of 𝜆 3 type is added, Energy will be 𝐸 2ℏ𝜔 The

angular momentum quantum number, k=3 and parity is negative as 𝜆 is
odd.

53
COLLECTIVE MODEL: NUCLEAR ROTATION

Nuclear Rotation:

The energy state of a heavy nucleus shows an increase in the gap

between the energy states. To explain this we use nuclear rotations.
Nuclear rotations can be observed only in nuclei with non spherical shape.
These nuclei have substantial distortion from the spherical shape and are
called deformed nuclei. These nuclei have mass number between 150 and
190 and also above 220.

For a rotating object, 𝐾𝐸 𝐼𝜔 ; L I𝜔

Then 𝐾𝐸 Here 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 1 ℏ

𝐿 𝐿 1 ℏ
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐸
2𝐼
ℏ ℏ
Then for L 0; E 0, L 1; E , L 2; E etc… 54
EVIDENCES IN FAVOR OF COLLECTIVE MODEL

 Nuclear fission can be explained easily on basis of vibration of liquid drop.

 The high value of Q is explained in collective model.

 The excited states of the nuclei are properly explained by collective

model.

 The angular momentum and parity of even-even nuclei is calculated.

55