STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

About this unit

This is a foundation unit, and a lot of the work should be familiar to you already. If
you are confident about working with forces and moments you may like to move
forwards to the sections on non-concurrent forces, and the turning moment of a crank
mechanism.

FORCE
The presence of a force can be detected from its effects. A force can be exerted to lift
something, start an object moving, stop the movement of an object or body, or cause
an acceleration. Additionally a force can be compressive, tensile, shearing etc.

The base unit of force is the "Newton", defined as the force that will give an
acceleration of one m/s2 to a mass of one kilogram. The Newton is a derived unit of
(kg.m/s2).

Force is a vector quantity so it defined by both its line of action and its magnitude.
An example is the gravitational force is exerted on the mass of a body, given
by Mg, this acts towards the centre of the earth, but is usually considered to be acting
downwards.
A body mass of 25 kg would have an mg value of 25 × 9.91 = 245.25 (N), this would
be known as the weight of the body.

Force F Force F
F Sin

 
F Cos

If "F" had a value of 20 kn acting north east, its rectangular components

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(or its vertical and horizontal components) are:-
20 Sin θ acting due north = 14.142 kn.
20 Cos θ acting due east = 14.142 kn.

The components of a force act at the same point as the applied force. A force can
have no component at right angles to its line of action, e.g. a horizontal force has
no vertical component.

Resultant of more than two forces

If more than two forces act at the same time at the same point and they act in
directions which lie in the same plane, they are known as CO-PLANAR forces.
If all the lines of action of the forces pass through the same point, they are known as
a system of CONCURRENT forces.
Concurrent forces

The resultant of such a system of forces can be found by vector addition, i.e. by
drawing the forces ‘nose to tail’ and forming a “Polygon of Forces”. A polygon is a
closed figure bounded by a number of straight lines. It is a general mathematical term
which covers all such cases.
For example, a square is a 4 sided polygon, a hexagon is a 6-sided polygon.

An alternative to drawing the force polygon to scale is to resolve each force into its’
horizontal and vertical components. We can then simply summate all the horizontal
forces together and all the vertical forces together. The resultant force is then found

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by combining these two forces together, forming a right-angle triangle with the
resultant as the hypotenuse.

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Example 1.
Find the resultant of the concurrent co-planar system of forces shown. All Forces are
given in Newtons.

Space Diagram

5 60
0

450 7

Solution.
Draw the vectors nose-to-tail, and the resultant force is the force that goes from the
start to the finish of the diagram. Note that it does not matter which order we take
the forces in. Although the diagram will look different, the resultant force will be the
same in each case.

Alternative Vector
Vector Diagram Diagram
7
4
R
4

3
R
420 7
5
5

420 3

The resultant force is 6.5N at 420 to the horizontal as shown. Note that although the
vector diagrams can be drawn with the forces in any order (two examples shown) the
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resultant will be the same in magnitude and direction. Draw these to scale to prove the
result to yourself. Even if you are going to calculate an answer, it pays to draw the
diagram approximately to scale to verify your answer. Remember, you don’t always
have time in an exam to do the calculation, and a good drawing will get you a good
proportion of the marks.

EQUILIBRIUM

A body is said to be in static EQUILIBRIUM under a system of forces if there is no

resulting tendency for the body to move.

For a body in equilibrium the resultant of any forces acting on it must be zero.
Additionally if the forces are not concurrent, [ if their lines of action do not all pass
through the same point] then all the moments of the forces must be balanced.

The definition of static equilibrium is:-

"The sum of the forces along any line must equal zero and the sum of the moments
about any point must equal zero".

For the concurrent co-planar force systems being considered, if the body on which
they act is in equilibrium their resultant must be zero. i.e. the polygon of forces for the
system must close, with the 'heads' and 'tails' of the vectors joining all the way round.

Equilibrant:

If a system of concurrent, co-planar forces is in equilibrium, their resultant must be

zero. If a system of such forces has a resultant, then an additional force, the
EQUILIBRANT for the system, is required to maintain equilibrium.

This equilibrant force must be numerically equal to the resultant, and must act in the
opposite direction, along the same line of action. Note the equilibrant must just
balance the resultant. If the resultant is a vector R, the equilibrant is the vector - R.

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Example 2

A system of concurrent, co-planar forces is shown, determine the value of the single
force needed to bring the system into equilibrium.

Space Diagram

400N

300N

35 36
0 0 0
80 580

100N
150N

Vector Diagram

400N
150N

100N

300N Resultant 230N

520
Equilibrant 230N

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So the single force needed to bring the system into equilibrium is 230N, at an angle of
1280 clockwise from the horizontal, as shown.
JIB CRANES

We shall now apply force vector theory to some specific force systems, starting with
Jib cranes. The simplest jib-crane consists of a post, a jib and a tie. The post is usually
vertical, with the jib hinged at its lower end to the bottom of the post. The tie connects
the top of the jib to the top of the post.
The junction of the tie and jib is called the head. In problems on jib cranes it is often
taken that the load is suspended directly from a fixture at the crane head, the problem
then involves a simple triangle of forces.
In other cases the description may include a pulley at the crane head, the lifting rope
would pass over this pulley and down to a winch behind the crane. Such cases involve
more than three forces at the crane head, and such a case is illustrated below.

TIE

Wire
Wire
POST
JIB Load

SPACE DIAGRAM

The purpose of the space diagram is to find the angles so that we can draw the vector
diagram. We should also at this point decide which members are struts (in
compression, arrows go OUTWARDS) and which are ties (in tension, arrows go
INWARDS). We should circle the point under consideration for drawing the vector
diagram. This helps to remind us that the arrows on the vector diagram should be in
the same direction as the arrows on the space diagram at the point under
consideration.

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Example 3.
The jib length of a simple jib crane is 6.4 m, the vertical post is 4 m and the tie length
is 3.5 m.
Find the forces in the jib and tie when a load of 40 kN is suspended from the crane
head.

Solution
At the crane head, three forces meet which are in equilibrium. The jib is under
compression and therefore a strut. The tie is in tension and as its name suggests is a
TIE. The wire is under tension (Wires are always under tension, you can’t push on a
rope can you!). The wire is fixed at the crane head and therefore there are only three
forces acting at the crane head
The arrows are inserted according to this philosophy and the vector diagram is
constructed to represent the forces at the crane head.

TIE
C

B
Wire

JIB
6.4m
A

SPACE DIAGRAM

Cos A = b2 + c2 - a2 = 6.42 + 42 - 3.52

2×b×c 2 × 6.4 × 4

= 0.8732 hence:- A = 29.167o

Sin Rule, 3.5 = 4

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 Sin 29.167 Sin C

C = Sin-1 4 × Sin 29.167 = Sin-1 0.557 = 33.85o

3.5

B = 180 - (29.167 + 33.847) = 117o

Having drawn the space diagram and calculated the angles we can now draw the
vector diagram. Remember we can draw the vectors in any order, but we should start
with those we know most about, i.e. magnitude and direction. In this case this is the
load. We can then draw either the jib force or tie force, in direction only, ensuring the
arrows follow round “nose-to-tail”. The line will be of indeterminate length. For
equilibrium, we know that the diagram must form a closed figure, so we can draw the
remaining vector backwards form the start point, again using its direction only. The
intersection of this line with our other line enables us to determine the magnitude of
each force as shown. Once you have drawn the vector diagram, check the arrows.
They should all follow round for a system in equilibrium, and they should be in the
same direction as those on your space diagram at the point under consideration. If
this is not the case, then you have made a mistake, or possibly what you considered
to be a strut in your space diagram might be a tie, or vice-versa.

29.170
JIB 40 kN
LOAD
(Wire)

116.990
33.850
TIE

VECTOR DIAGRAM

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Sin Rule, Jib Force = 40
Sin 116.985 Sin 33.847

Jib Force = 40 × Sin 116.985 = 63.997 kN

Sin 33.847

Tie Force = 40
Sin 29.167 Sin 33.847

Tie Force = 40 × Sin 29.847 = 35kN

Sin 33.847

Example 4

The jib of a crane is 6.5m long and is hinged at its foot to the base of a vertical post
4m high, the jib being at an angle of 300 to the post. A lifting wire passes over a
pulley at the crane head and is led at 450 to a winch. The wire is in the plane of the jib.
Determine the forces in the jib and tie when a 40kN load is suspended.

Solution
This problem involves four forces at the crane head, the additional force being the
force in the wire passing over the head and back to the winch. Note that if there is no
mention of friction in the question, then we can assume that the force in the wire is
the same from one side of the pulley to the other, and this means the force in the wire
on each side of the pulley will be the load, 40kN. Since we know the magnitude and
direction of these forces, we should draw these first. Note that the question said
“Determine” and this clearly allows us to use the much quicker method of using a
scale drawing of both the space and vector diagrams.

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 SPACE DIAGRAM, DRAWN TO SCALE

TIE

112
0 Wire
Wire
POST
JIB Load
40kN

600
450

VECTOR DIAGRAM, DRAWN TO SCALE Tie Force =

17.5kN
by scale

40kN
90+450
Jib Force =
87kN
40kN by scale

600

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RECIPROCATING ENGINE MECHANISM

A Force system which is in everyday use is the reciprocating engine mechanism. The
connecting rod and crank of a reciprocating engine converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston to rotary motion at the crank shaft.
Consider the forces meeting at the crosshead, the lower end of the piston rod
pushes vertically downwards on the crosshead, the thrust in the connecting rod is an
upward resisting force at its top end inclined to the vertical, the guide exerts a
horizontal force to balance the horizontal component of the con rod thrust.

Force = Pressure x
Area

Crosshead guide
Reaction
Con-Rod

Length = L Note that for any crank angle ,
from Sine Rule,
R = L
Sin  Sin 
Crank Radius ‘R’.
Stroke = 2R R 



Note that the if the piston effort acts vertically, the guide force acts horizontally,
hence the vector diagram of the forces at the crosshead is always a right-angled
triangle.

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 
Connecting Rod
Piston Rod Force
Force

Note:
Crosshead
Con Rod Force = Piston Rod Force
guide reaction
Cos 

Example 5
The piston of a reciprocating engine exerts a force of 160 kN on the crosshead when
the crank is 45 degrees past top dead centre. If the stroke of the piston is 950 mm and
the length of the connecting rod is 1.6 m, find the guide force and the force in the
connecting rod.

crank length = ½ stroke = 0.475 m

length of connecting rod = 1.6 m
crank angle from T.D.C. = 45o

0.475 = 1.6
Sin  Sin 45 
Connecting Rod Piston Rod Force
Force
 = 12.12o

Crosshead
From vector diagram:- guide reaction
Tan = Guide Force
Piston Force
Guide force = 160 × Tan  = 34.353 kN

Cos  = Piston force

Con Rod Force

Con Rod Force = 160 = 159 kN

Cos 12.12

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TYPES OF LEVERS

A Class 1 lever has the fulcrum placed between the effort and load. The movement of
the load is in the opposite direction of the movement of the effort. This is the most
common lever configuration.

EFFORT LOAD
Effort arm Load arm

Fulcrum

The effort in a class 1 lever is in one direction, and the load moves in the opposite
direction.

Note that the length of the effort arm can be greater than, equal to or less than the
length of the load arm in a class 1 lever.

Examples of class 1 levers include:

 See-Saw

 Oars on a boat

 Scissors

 Pair of pliers

A Class 2 lever has the load between the effort and the fulcrum. In this type of lever,
the movement of the load is in the same direction as that of the effort. Note that the
length of the effort arm goes all the way to the fulcrum and is always greater than the
length of the load arm in a class 2 lever.

EFFORT
LOAD
Load arm

Effort arm Fulcrum

The load in a class 2 lever moves in the same direction as the effort.

Examples of Class 2 levers include:

 Wheelbarrow

 Crowbar

 Nut cracker

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A Class 3 lever has the effort between the load and the fulcrum. Both the effort and
load are in the same direction. Note that the length of the load arm goes all the way to
the fulcrum and is always greater than the length of the effort arm in a Class 3 lever.
Also, load in a Class 3 lever moves in the same direction as the effort.

Because of the location of the effort with respect to the fulcrum, often a bearing or
other device is needed to hold the beam in place as it pivots. Otherwise, the effort will
pull the arm off the fulcrum.

EFFORT
LOAD
Effort arm

Load arm Fulcrum

Examples of Class 3 levers include:

 Tweezers

 Stapler

 Hockey stick

 Fishing Rod

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MOMENT OF A FORCE

You should recall that the moment of a force "P" about a point "O", is given by the
product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from "O".

50kN

3m

O 400

400

For instance, for the arrangement shown, the moment of the 50kN force about ‘O’ is
Moment = 50x = 50 × 3Sin 40 = 32.14 kNm
Note that the same result will be arrived at if we take the component of the 50kN
Force which is perpendicular to the point under consideration, as below.

50kN

3m 50 Sin 400 kN

O 400

50 Cos 400 kN

Note that the components of the 50kN force are still applied at the same point as the
50kN Force itself.
So for the vertical component, moment = 50 Sin 400 × 3 = 32.14 kNm as before

Note that the line of action of the horizontal component, 50 Cos 400 passes through
the point we are taking moments about, and therefore has no moment about this point.

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Example 6

Calculate the reactions at each of the supports for the simply supported beam shown.

50kN
10kN

3m 5m 2m
R1 R2

Solution

One of the benefits of taking moments is that it enables us to eliminate the moment of
at least one of the forces by taking moments about where that force acts. So here, we
would wish to eliminate either one of the unknown reaction forces, so let us take
moments about R1, remembering that for equilibrium, the sum of the forces about any
point must equal zero.

Summing the moments about R1, clockwise positive, summation = zero. (this
statement is often written shorthand, as follows).

 M clockwise +ve,  = 0

10 × 3 + 50 × 8 - R2 × 10 = Zero

R2 = 43 kN

We could now take moments about R2 and find R1, but it is quicker to apply the other
condition for equilibrium, that the sum of the forces in any direction must be zero.

 Vert Forces = zero:

R1 + R2 - 60 = zero

R1 = 60 - 43 = 17 kN

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Example 7
A beam, 8 m long is hinged at one end and simply supported at the other. It is loaded
as shown.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction force at the hinge.

25kN 20kN

Hinge 25 Sin 30
0
30

HHOR 25 Cos 30
2m 1m
HVER R1
T

Solution
An important principle illustrated in this example is that reactions at simply
supported flat surfaces are always normal to the surface (as with R), but we do not
know exactly what direction the reaction at a hinge or pin joint will be and therefore
we need to calculate its components, usually horizontal and vertical, separately and
then add them up to give the magnitude and direction of the total reaction at the
hinge.

In many mechanics questions we can rely on the basic conditions of equilibrium to

produce three equations from which we can solve for at least 3 unknowns. We can
summate the forces in two, mutually perpendicular directions and summate the
moments. In addition, by taking moments about an unknown force we can eliminate
its moment at that point and hence “ignore” it from the point of view of its moment
(But remember to consider it as a force when summating forces! – many students
eliminate the moments at hinges by taking moments about them but then forget that
this does NOT mean there is no force at the hinge).

So, let us apply the three conditions for equilibrium here.

“Summation of the Horizontal Forces, left to right positive = zero”.

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Which can be written in shorthand form:
 H Forces  +ve,  = 0
HHOR - 25 Cos 30 = 0

So HHOR = 25 Cos 30 = 21.651 kN

Summation of the Horizontal Forces, left to right positive = zero


 V Forces ↑ +ve,  = 0
HVERT + R1 - 25 Sin 30 – 20 = 0

HVERT + R1 = 32.5 kN ……………………..1

This of course leaves us with two unknowns, so we still need a second equation. So
let us take moments, and since hinge reactions are always awkward because we do
not, at this time, know their line of action, let us take moments about the hinge and
thus make the moment of the hinge force about this point zero.

“Sum of moments about the hinge, clockwise positive, summation = zero”

Which can be written in shorthand form:
 M about hinge, clockwise +ve,  = 0

25 Sin30 × 2 + 20 × 7 – R1 × 8 = 0

R1 = 25 + 140 = 20.625kN
8
From equation 1, HVERT + R1 = 32.5 kN.

Substituting for R1 gives HVERT = 11.875 kN

We can now combine the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force by
adding them vector ally (drawn nose-to-tail remember) to find the magnitude and
direction of the hinge force.

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 Hinge Force = 24.7kN
HVER 11.875kN Tan  = 11.875
21.65kN

 = 28.740
HHOR 21.65kN

From Pythagoras,
2
HingeForce  11.8752  21.655 = 24.69 kN at 28.74o as shown

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 THE RAPSON’S SLIDE (STEERING GEAR)

An important mechanism which uses the principles of moments we have just

discussed is the Rapson’s slide, used in ram type steering gears. The hydraulic
pressure in the rams generates a force (equal to pressure x area) on the crosshead
block. This can be resolved into two forces, one normal to the guide, and the other
perpendicular to the tiller arm. It is this latter force that will give a turning moment to
the rudder.

RUDDER STOCK

y  cos  
X
GUIDE RESULTANT
  FORCE FORCE

HYDRAULIC
FORCE


RAM
CROSSHEAD BLOCK

HYD CYLINDER
CROSSHEAD GUIDE TILLER ARM

VECTOR DIAGRAM

RESULTANT FORCE
F GUIDE
= cos 
FORCE

HYD. FORCE F

Turning moment on rudder stock = Resultant force  y

Turning moment on rudder stock =F × l = Fl

cos  × cos  cos2 

This is for a two ram gear, for a 4 ram gear we have double this, i.e.2Fl
cos2 

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TURNING MOMENT OF A CRANK MECHANISM

Now that we have recapped moments, let us take another look at the crank
mechanism, this time in terms of the turning moment produced at the crankshaft.

From previous work, Con-Rod Force = Piston Rod Force

Cos 
The turning moment is therefore given by the product of this con-rod force and its
lever arm ‘X’.

Con-Rod

Length = L

180 – ( + )

( + ) R

X 



From the diagram, Sin ( + ) = X/R. So turning lever ‘X’ = R Sin ( + )

Turning effect = Con-rod force x lever arm = Piston Rod Force × R Sin ( + )
Cos 

This is an important result, which you should be able to prove.

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Non-Coplanar Forces

If the forces are not in the same plane, then we cannot draw a two dimensional vector
diagram to represent them. We must therefore apply a different technique. For the
common arrangement of shear legs, the method is to use an imaginary component,
which has the advantage of being in the same plane as all of the other components in
the system. This is best illustrated by an example.

Example 8.

A set of shear legs arranged as shown are 6.5 m long, the back stay is 12 m long and
the distance from the rear of the backstay to the centre of the shear leg straddle is 7.5
m
Calculate the force in each shear leg when a load of 160 kN is supported.

12m

5.5m
7.5m

Solution
The first step is to replace the two front legs with one, central imaginary leg IL. This
will be in the same plane as both the back legs and the front legs. We can now
draw a space diagram for each plane.

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 SPACE DIAGRAM,
SPACE DIAGRAM, PLANE OF FRONT
PLANE OF BACK STAY LEGS

B
160kN
12 6.5m
5.9
A C 
7.5 2.75m 2.75m

Imaginary leg length IL

= 6.5 2  2.752
= 5.9m

The purpose of the space diagram is to find the angles so that we can draw the vector
diagram. We should also at this point decide which members are struts (in
compression) and which are ties (in tension). We can also circle the point under
consideration for drawing the vector diagram. This helps to remind us that the arrows
on the vector diagram should be in the same direction as the arrows on the space
diagram at the point under consideration.

From the space diagram, the angles can be found as follows:

From the Cosine rule,

Cos A = 122 + 7.52 - 5.92 Which gives A = 230

2 × 12 × 7.5

From the Sin Rule,

5.9 = 7.5 Which gives B = 300
Sin 23.1 Sin B

This makes the remaining angle C = 1270

Cos  = 2.75 Which gives  = 650

6.5

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We can now draw the Vector diagrams, firstly for the plane of the backstay.
Remember! The direction of the vectors is given by the direction of the force in the
member at the point under consideration, and for equilibrium the vectors are drawn
nose-to-tail and form a closed figure.

VECTOR DIAGRAM,
VECTOR DIAGRAM, PLANE OF FRONT
PLANE OF BACK STAY LEGS

300 Front
leg 1
1130

160kN IL  IL
0
37

Front
leg 2

From the vector diagram for the plane of the backstay we can calculate the load in the
imaginary leg using the Sin rule:
IL = 160
0
Sin 113 Sin 300

Which gives IL Force = 295 kN

We can now transfer this force into the plane of the FRONT legs. Remember that in
this plane the vector will be a vertical line. The real front legs combine together to
give the same RESULTANT as the imaginary leg. So note that in this second vector
diagram we are not drawing three forces meeting at a point, we are drawing the two
real front leg forces added together to give a resultant equal to the imaginary leg
force.

From this second vector diagram, again using the Sin Rule,
295 = Front Leg Force
0
Sin 130 Sin 250

Which gives Force in each front leg = 163 kN

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Self Assessed Questions for you to try. (Answers given)

1 The following four forces pull on a point: 70 N due East, 100 N, East 35o
North, 45 N, West 15o North and 80 N, South West. Find the resultant force
(a) graphically (b) by calculation, and state its direction relative to the 70 N
force.

Ans: 53 N, East 13.5o North

2 A derrick is hinged at its lower end to the bottom of a vertical mast and
supported at its upper end by a horizontal topping lift attached to the mast. If
the angle between derrick and mast is 40o calculate the forces in the derrick
and topping lift when a load of 60 kN is suspended from the derrick head.

Ans: 78.3 kN Compressive 50.2 kN Tensile

3 A simple jib crane has a vertical post 2 m high, the jib is 4 m long and the tie
is 3 m long. A wire rope is attached to the jib head and is led downwards and
outwards from the crane to make an angle of 60o to the vertical. Find, by
graphical construction, the forces in the jib and tie when the pull in the rope is
75 kN.

Ans: Jib 108.5 N Tie 148.5 N

4 A boiler with a mass of 20 tonne is lifted by a pair of sheer-legs whose lengths

are 20 m. These legs are inclined forwards at 60o to the horizontal and are 7 m
apart at the base, being supported at the rear by a back leg of length of 30 m.
Find the force in each leg.

Ans: Backstay 229.5 kN Legs 191.5 kN

5 A uniform beam is lifted horizontally by a sling. In one case the sling is 1.5 m
from one end where a force of 320 N is required to keep the beam
horizontal. In another case, the sling is 1.2 m from the same end when a force
of 500 N is required to keep the beam horizontal. Find the weight and length
of the beam.

Ans: 400 N 5.4 m

6 A uniform beam is 10 m long and has a mass of 2.55 x 103 tonne. If a vertical
force of 100 kN is applied 2.5 m from the support at one end, how far from the
support at the other end should a vertical force of 150 kN be applied so that
the force in each support is the same? Ans: 3.33 m
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7 A connecting rod with a mass of 0.714 tonne is 3 m long and its centre of
gravity is at mid-length. If it hangs suspended from the top end, find the
horizontal force required at the bottom end to hold the rod at 20o to the centre-
line of the engine. Find also the minimum force required and the magnitude
and direction of the reaction at the crosshead when the minimum force is
applied.

Ans: 1.274 kN 1.2 kN 6.69 kN at 9.7o to vertical

8 A beam of length 10 m with one end resting against a smooth inclined plane
of 45o is held horizontally between a pair of frictionless rollers at the other
end. A horizontal force of 4 kN is applied at the end held between the rollers
whilst a vertical force of 8 kN acts downward at 2 m from the end resting
against the incline. Determine, for equilibrium conditions, the magnitude of a
force F acting at 2 m from the rollers and at 60o downward from the
horizontal, away from the rollers.
Ans: 7.36 kN

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Static Equilibrium

1. Moment of a force is

Moment (M) of a force about a point = force × perpendicular distance from the
point, to the line of action of the force.
M = F × d (answer will be in Nm)

Equilibrium refers to a state of balance.

When a number a forces produce no motion then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Consider the two examples below. (cone and sphere)

2. Cone

Unstable Stable Neutral

equilibrium equilibrium Equilibrium

Unstable
Topples Stable
over Neutral
Falls
G G back

mg mg G
R G
R G
mg mg R
mg
R R
x x

(a) A cone placed on its tip is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

(b) When the cone is placed on its base it is in stable equilibrium. Even when
tilted from this position through a fairly large angle, the vertical line through
the centre of gravity, G will still fall inside the base AB and the cone will fall
back to its original position.

(c) The cone is now lying on its side. The base is now simply a straight line
and if the cone is rolled into a new position, the vertical line through the
centre of gravity still continues to pass through exactly the same point in the

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 base. Whatever the position of the cone, the reaction from the table, will act in
the same straight line as the force of gravity through G and so the cone will be
in equilibrium. The force of gravity exerts no moment about the base and if
displaced will remain at rest in its new position. This condition is described as
neutral equilibrium

3. Sphere

stable Unstable Neutral

Equilibrium Equilibrilum Equilibrium

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

Consider a bar loaded as shown below:

60 N 40 N

0.2 m 0.3 m

The bar is resting on a knife- edge support and is free to swing about the support (like a
see-saw). A single, support such as this is termed a fulcrum. As the bar can swing about
the fulcrum let us measure the turning effects of the forces about this point of support.

The 40 N force is tending to turn the bar around in a clockwise direction.

moment = 40 (N) × 0.3 (m) clockwise

= l2Nm (clockwise)

The 60 N force, on the other hand, is tending to turn the bar around in an anticlockwise
direction.

Moment = 60(N) × 0.2 (m) anticlockwise

= 12 Nm (anticlockwise)

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Thus, we see that one moment balances the other moment and as a consequence the bar
will not tend to rotate in any direction.
A body, or system of forces, in a state of rest (or balance) is said to be in equilibrium.

For equilibrium it is always true that, measured about any point:

Σ of the clockwise moments = Σ of the anticlockwise moments

This is a consequence of the “Principle of Moments” which states that “if a system of
forces is in equilibrium, then the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, considered
about any point must be zero

Also, in order that there will be no vertical motion, the sum of the forces acting
downwards, i.e. 60N +. 40N = 100N, must be equal to the sum of the forces acting
upwards through the support (or supports). This means that, in this case illustrated, an
upward force or reaction (of magnitude 100N) must act through the fulcrum. Had there
been forces acting to the left in a horizontal direction, a force of equal magnitude acting
in the opposite direction (i.e. to the right) would be needed to stop the bar sliding
horizontally.

CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM

When considering the effect of a number of forces acting on a system, or body, the
conditions for equilibrium may be stated thus: -

(i) the algebraic sum of the vertical forces must be zero

i.e. sum of forces acting vertically upwards = sum of forces
acting vertically downwards [ ΣFv = 0 ]

(ii) the algebraic sum of the horizontal forces must be zero i.e. sum of
forces acting horizontally to the left = the sum of forces acting
horizontally to right [ΣFh = 0]

(iii) the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, acting about any
point, must be zero
i.e. the sum of clockwise moments = the sum of the anticlockwise
moments [ ΣMoments = 0 ]

N.B. If the conditions stated above are satisfied, then the body (or system of forces) is
in a state of equilibrium.

If not, then there will be a resultant force acting which will tend to cause the
body (or system of forces) to accelerate with linear and/or angular acceleration.
e.g. For the loaded beam shown below, calculate the upward force exerted by each
support, i.e. the reactions of the supports R1 and R2.

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 200 N 100 N 120 N

A 0.75 m 0.75 m 0.75 m 0.75 m B

R1 R2

It is assumed, of course, that the loaded beam is in equilibrium.

To determine the magnitude of the support reactions it is customary to take moments

about either (A) R1 or (B) R2.
Taking moments about any other point (using the fact that clockwise moments are equal
to anticlockwise moments) will yield one equation with two unknowns, namely R1 and
R2
Taking moments about R1 or R2 will eliminate one of them in the equation produced,
since any force whose line of action passes through a given point has no moment about
that point.

Taking moments about point (A) R1, we get:-

clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments

(200 × 0.75) + (100 × 1.5) + (120 × 2.25) = (R2 × 3)

150 + 150 + 270. = 3R2

R2 = 570 / 3 = 190N
Also R1 + R2 = 200 +100 +120 = 420
Hence R1 = 420 -190 = 230 N

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Frameworks

A framework is a structure built up of straight bars, or members, connected by pin-

joints. The external loads on such a structure are applied at the pin-joints.
The figure below is a typical framework, a Warren girder. The frame is built up of
triangles formed by three pin-jointed members enclosing a space. Such a structure is
said to be stiff and can carry a load. Since the structure is in equilibrium the force
polygon for the external loads and support reactions must close and the resultant
moment about any point must be zero.

Pin Joint

A pin joint allows the joined members to rotate as opposed to a rigid joint that does
not; a rigid joint may be welded but a pin joint may be a bolt or a rivet or any form of
swivel pin. It is assumed that there is no friction in a pin joint. A pin joint is used to
prevent any bending action being transmitted from one member to another one.

Framework supports and reactions

The Warren girder below is supported at B on rollers lying on a horizontal surface. It

is usual to assume perfectly smooth surfaces and rollers; the reaction R at B is
therefore vertical.

Load Load

Vertical
reaction R

The left-hand support at A is a pin-joint; hence the direction of the reaction at A will
depend on the loading. In the case shown the external loads are vertical and the
reaction at B is vertical also. Thus the support reaction at A is vertical. The separate
reactions at A and B may therefore be found by taking moments about A and B in
turn.
The wall crane below is fixed to the wall by pin-joints at A and B respectively. Since
there is only one member attached to the wall at A the line of action of the reaction
there must lie along the axis of the member 1
Reaction A
1
Z

3
C
B
Reaction
Load W
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Since there are two members, 2 and 3, attached to the pin at B the line of action of the
wall reaction there is not yet known. However, the load W at C and the two reactions
at A and B respectively must all pass through the same point Z, as shown (principle of
concurrency for three forces in equilibrium).
The line of action of the reaction at B lies therefore along the line BZ. Hence the
triangle of forces may be drawn for the three external forces on the frame and the
unknown reactions determined in magnitude and direction.

Internal forces

Each bar of a frame must itself exert forces to balance the external loads. These forces
exerted by the members are called internal resisting forces.
Consider the triangular frame shown below in Fig. a.

W P
B B

A C A
P

(a) (b)

The loads and reactions are applied at the pin-joints, which are assumed perfectly
smooth and therefore frictionless. The only forces on each bar are therefore equal and
opposite and act along the axis of the bar. Each bar is therefore subject to a push or a
pull and is either in tension or compression. If in tension it is called a tie; if in
compression it is a strut. In Fig. b the bar AB is in compression and is a strut.
In Fig. (a) below the bar AB is a tie since the external forces P together exert a pull.
Now imagine AB to be cut in two as shown.

P A B
T T P

(a)
P C C P

A (b) B

To maintain equilibrium there would have to be a pair of equal and opposite forces T
at the cut. One force T is required to balance the pull at A, the other is required to
balance the pull at B. The two equal and opposite forces T are the internal forces
exerted by the bar and are each equal to the external load P. Note that the internal
forces act away from the pin ends A and B respectively.
Similarly, when AB is subjected to compressive forces P, Fig. b above, the internal
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forces C in the strut are each equal in magnitude to the external load P and act
towards the pin-joints A and B respectively.
The internal forces exerted by a tie act away from a pin-joint.
The internal forces exerted by a strut act towards a pin-joint.

Equilibrium of forces at a pin-joint

Consider now the forces at a pin-joint B, Fig. a, which forms part of a framework.

B T
Q

R
A R
P
T

(a) Q
(b)
At such a joint there might be a load P, together with forces Q (tensile) and R
(compressive) exerted on the pin by other members of the structure. In the figure a
further bar AB is shown in which the force T is unknown.
For equilibrium we must consider the balance of forces acting at the pin B.
Hence we must take into account the force exerted by the bar AB on the pin. This is
the internal force T, say.
For a given structure the directions of all the forces P. Q, R and T are known. Hence
if the magnitude and nature (tension or compression) of all except two of these forces
are known, the magnitude and nature of these two unknown forces may be determined
from a polygon of forces for the joint. For example, if, in Fig. a the forces P and Q are
known then R and T may be found graphically. The directions of the forces R and T
may be found from the force polygon and these directions determine whether the
corresponding members are in tension or compression.
In Fig. b the polygon of forces shows that T acts away from the joint.
Hence bar AB is in tension.
Note that if there are more than two unknown forces at a joint the polygon of forces
cannot be completed. It is then necessary to consider some other joint of the frame
first in order to reduce the number of unknown forces.

Force diagram for a frame structure

Consider the structure shown below in Fig. a. There is a vertical load W at joint X and
the reactions at the supports are L and R vertically upwards.
To determine the forces in each bar we draw the force polygon for each joint. It is
essential to use Bow’s notation. Hence we letter the spaces between each bar and
support reaction as shown. There is no ‘magic’ way of lettering the spaces but it
should be done systematically.

(X)

A B
SOUTH (a)
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L R
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We remember, however, that when drawing the force polygon for a joint the force
vectors must be drawn in cyclic order (usually by going clockwise round the joint).
Thus the load W is described by the letters AB (clockwise round the joint) and the
support reaction R by BC. Similarly a joint may be described by the letters of the
spaces meeting at the joint. For example, joint X is described as joint ABD.
The force polygon abd for joint ABD is shown in Fig. b.

W
a
(X)
d
W
A B
(a) D
b
C Joint ABD
L R (b)

 ab, represents the load AB (= W) in magnitude and direction.

 bd represents the load in bar RD and is parallel to RD.
 da represents the load in bar DA and is parallel to DA.

Since W acts vertically downwards, the sense of force ab, is from a to b.

Following the arrowed vectors in order round abd we see that the force bd is in the
sense b to d and da is in the sense d to a.

Since force da in DA acts towards the joint, then DA is in compression. Similarly BD

is in compression.
Similarly, the force polygons for joints BCD and ADC are drawn in Fig. c and (d)
respectively.
Note that, when drawing the separate force polygons, it is necessary to go round each
joint in the same order as every other joint.

Once begun the order cannot be changed.

W a
d c L
(X) c
d c
A B R
(a) D b
Joint BCD
Joint ADC
C (c)
(d)
L R

In Fig. d, dc represents the force in CD at joint ADC.

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The force is away from the joint; hence DC is in tension and is a tie. Also, the line
acb represents the closed polygon for the external load and reactions. Thus

 bc represents the upward reaction BC (=. R), and

 ca represents the upward reaction CA (= L).
The combined force polygon

Since
 dc is equal and opposite to cd,
 ad is equal and opposite to da, and
 bd is equal and opposite to db,

Then it can be seen that the three separate force polygons from the figure above may
be combined into a single diagram as shown in Fig. e.
W
a
(X)

A B
(a) D d c

C
L R

b
(e)

In practice, therefore, it is not necessary to draw separate polygons for each joint. A
single diagram will suffice for the whole framework. It is no longer possible,
however, to use the vector arrows on the force polygon since they are oppositely
directed for each joint. Hence, as the diagram is completed for each joint, a separate
sketch is required of the original framework on which the force directions at a joint
are inserted. From the directions of the two arrows on each bar, the nature of the force
is determined. This is best illustrated by numerical examples.

Example
The triangular framework shown in Fig. a is loaded by a vertical force of 1 kN at joint
ABD.
Determine graphically the magnitude and nature of the force in each member and the
vertical support reactions at the pin-joints ADC and BCD.

1 kN

A B
D
30 60

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 (a)

Solution
Joint ABD, Fig. b:
 Draw ab vertically downwards to represent the 1 kN load AB.
 Draw bd’ from b parallel to BD.
 Draw ad” from a parallel to DA. d’
a a
1 kN d

d’’
A B
D
Joint ABD b
30 60

C (b)

The intersection point d of bd’ and ad” completes the force diagram for the joint.
The directions of the forces at the joint are fixed by the downward direction of the
vector ab representing the known 1 kN load. Going round the triangle abd clockwise
(i.e. round the joint ABD) we see that bd is in the sense b to d and da is in the sense
d to a.
The force directions are taken from the force diagram and inserted in the sketch of the
frame, Fig. d.
The force in BD is bd towards the joint.
The force in DA is da towards the joint.

Joint BCD, Fig. c: the known part of the force diagram abd is redrawn in full lines
(for clarity only).
a
1 kN
d c

A B
D
30 60
Joint ADC b
C
(c)

The only known force at this joint is DB represented by db, i.e. equal and opposite to
the force bd at the top joint.
The force in BC is represented by a vertical line bc from b, but the point c is as yet
unknown.
The force in CD is found by drawing a line dc from d parallel to CD.
The intersection of dc and bc fixes the point c and completes the force diagram for
the joint.
The direction of the forces at the joint are fixed by the known direction of the vector
db. Going round the triangle dbc shows that the force BC is vertically upwards (bc)
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and the force CD is away from the joint (vector cd).
These force directions are inserted in Fig. d.

Joint ADC, Fig. c: the force in AD is ad, equal and opposite to the force da.
The force in DC is dc, equal and opposite to the force cd. Traversing the triangle adc
in order shows that the vertical support reaction CA is ca vertically upwards. (Note
that if we went round the triangle — or the joint — in the wrong order we should find
that the force CA was downwards, which is obviously incorrect.)
These force directions are inserted in the sketch, Fig. d.

ab

da bd

ad
db

ca dc cd bc
(d)

The bars BD and DA are in compression since the internal forces are towards the
joints. Bar DC is in tension since the forces are away from the joints.
By construction, the following results are obtained:

Tension Compression
Bar kN kN

AD - 0.5
BD - 0.87
CD 0.43 -

Reaction at BC = 0.75 kN
Reaction at AC = 0.25 kN

Note. In practice only one force diagram is required, i.e. Fig. c, and arrows should not
be drawn on the vectors. Also the force directions at the joints may be drawn on a
scale diagram of the framework instead of on a separate sketch.

Example
The wall crane shown below in Fig. a is loaded by a vertical force of l0 kN at the joint
ABD. The bar AD is horizontal and the framework is pinned to the vertical wall at
joints ADC and BC. Determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in the
framework. What are the magnitude and direction of the reaction at the top wall joint?

45
10 kN
D
C C
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(a)
Solution
Note that the vertical line of the wall is not a load or bar of the frame. Space C
separates the reaction BC at the lower wall joint and the reaction CA at the upper wall
joint.
The reaction CA is unknown in magnitude and direction. The reaction of the wall at
the lower joint is equal and opposite to the force in bar BC.

Joint ABD, Fig. b:

45
10 kN
D a d
C C

30
B Joint ABD

b
(b)
(a)

 Draw ab vertically downwards from a to represent the l0 kN load AB.

 Draw bd parallel to bar BD, and ad parallel to bar DA.

The intersection d of bd and ad completes the force diagram for the joint.
The directions of the forces at the joint are fixed by the known downward vector ab.
Following the vectors in order round triangle abd determines the direction bd
(towards the joint) and the direction da (away from the joint). These directions are
shown in Fig. a.

Joint DBC, Fig. c: the known force at this joint is db, equal and opposite to
bd.

c
A

45 a
10 kN d
D
C C

30
Joint BCD
B

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 (c)

 From b draw bc parallel to BC.

 From d draw dc parallel to CD.

Thus point c is determined.

The force directions at the joint are fixed by the vector arrow from d to b, as shown.
Joint ADC, Fig. d: the known force is ad in AD, equal and opposite to da, already
found.
c
A

45 a
10 kN d
D
C C

30
Joint ADC
B

(d)
(a)

Join ca. This then represents the force in CA, the reaction at the joint. It acts away
from the joint.
The polygon abdc is the complete force diagram for the framework.
By construction, the forces are found to be as follows:

Tension Compression
Bar kN kN

BC - 14.6
CD - 3.8
DB - 14.1
DA 10 -

Reaction at top wall joint = CA = 7.8 kN at 20  to, and below the vertical

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Example

The Warren girder shown in below Fig. a is loaded vertically by forces of 20 and
30 kN at the lower panel pin-joints. It is simply supported at the joints ABG and
AED.
Determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in each bar and the magnitude of
the support reactions.
Solution

There are more than two unknown forces at every joint; hence we cannot begin the
force diagram immediately. It is necessary first to calculate the vertical reactions at
the supports by taking moments about each support in turn.
A

A 45 45
E G A
F
D 45 45 B

20 kN C 30 kN
(a)

Let L = vertical reaction DA and R = vertical reaction AB

Assume each horizontal bar of the frame to be of length 2 units.

Taking moments about joint AED

4 × R = (30 × 3) + (20 × 1)

Therefore R = 27.5 kN

Taking moments about joint ABG

4 × L = (30 × 1) + (20 × 3)

Therefore L = 22.5 kN

Check: L + R = 22.5 + 27.5 = 50 kN

= total load

b
Joint ABG, Fig. b:
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g a
 A 45 45
E G A
F B
D 45 45

20 kN C 30 kN

 Draw ab vertically upwards to represent the 27.5 kN reaction AB.

 Draw bg through b parallel to BG.
 Draw ga through a parallel to GA.

The force directions at the joint are fixed by the upward vector ab. The direction of
the force in BG is away from the joint. The direction of the force in GA is towards the
joint. The direction arrows are now added to Fig. 3.16(a).

A 45 45
E G A
F
D 45 45 B

20 kN C 30 kN
(a)

Joint GBCF, Fig. c:

b

A 45 45 Joint GBCF

E G A
F B
D 45 45
(c)
20 kN C 30 kN
(a)
g a

Draw bc to represent the downward load BC of 30 kN. f c

Draw fg through g parallel to FG.
Draw cf through c parallel to CF.

The intersection of fg and cf gives point f and completes the diagram for the joint.
The directions of the forces at the joint are fixed by the known direction bc of the
load BC. Traversing the polygon bcfg in order determines the force directions.

Joint DEFC, Fig. d:

A 45 45 Joint GBCF

E G A
F
D 45 45 B
(d)
20 kN C 30 kN
(a)

g e a

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d
 f c

 Draw cd vertically downward from c to represent the known load CD of 20

kN.
 Draw de parallel to DE.
 Draw ef parallel to EF.

If correctly drawn, the point e lies on the intersection of de and ef, and also on the
horizontal line ae, parallel to AE.
The directions of the forces at the joint are fixed by the known direction of cd.
The directions are found by following the arrows round the polygon cdef in order.
The forces in the frame are scaled off and tabulated as follows:

Tension Compression
Bar kN kN

BG 39 -
GA - 27.5
CF 25 -
FG 3.5 -
DE 32 -
EF - 3.5
EA - 22.5

Reaction AB = 27.5kN
Reaction DA = 22.5 kN

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 Frameworks tutorial

Determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in the frameworks shown below
and state in each case the magnitude and direction of the reactions at the supports.

50 kN 50 kN
A 2.5 kN A
C B E
1 kN C 1 kN 2m G B
D F G D F D
A
60 60 X 8m E 60 60
Y
B X C Y
10 kN
(b)
(a) (c)

Cable Y A A Y
X B F J
30 30 B F A C
E E 45E
C G X 45 H Y
10 kN 90 45 45 90
90 B D G
D 100 kN
C D
50 kN 50 kN
(f)
30 (e)
(d)
X

3.5 m
A A C
D 1 tonne 5m 1.5 m 10 tonne
D E 75
5m B
X D
A 7.5 m 30 C B 30 Y 45 45 60
C B 20 kN
(h) X Y
2.5 m (i)

X Y
(g)

20 kN
30 kN 20 kN
E 20 kN B C 20 kN
H
A B D F H
60 30 A G D
F J
Y 30 30 30 30
C G X Y
X
20 kN E
(j) (k)

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Answers (negative answers denote compression)
Fig. (a): AD, 11.5; BD, - 5.8; DC, -11.5; CA, 11.5 kN.
Reaction at X = 11.5 kN horizontal
Reaction at Y = 15.3kN at 48 to vertical
Fig. (b): CG = BF = -2.8 kN; FE = GE = 2.5 kN; FG = 0
Reaction at X = Reaction at Y = 2.25 kN vertical
Fig. (c): AE, -28.9; BD, -57.7; CD, 28.9; DE, 0; GF, -57.7; FC, 28.9; EF, 0 kN
Reaction at X = Reaction at Y = 50 kN vertical
Fig. (d): AE, 17.3; EB, -20; BD, -17.3; CD, 5; DE, -10 kN
Reaction at X = 13.2 kN at 41 to vertical
Reaction at Y = pull in cable = 8.7 kN
Fig.(e): AB=AF=-50 ;BC=FG=70.7; ED=50; BE=FE= 0 kN
Both reactions 50 kN vertical

Fig. (f): AB, -66.7; CD, 0; vertical AJ, 0; horizontal AJ, 0; BC, 94.3; BE, 33.3;
EG, 66.7; HG, 33.3; FH, 33.3; EF, -47.1; HJ, -47.1; AF, -33.3; AC, -66.7
Reaction at X = 66.7 kN vertical
Reaction at Y = 33.3 kN vertical
Fig. (g)*:AC, 12.8; AD, 6.9; BD, -14.7; CD, -7.6kN
Reaction at X = 12.8 kN parallel to bar AC
Reaction at Y = 21.9 kN at 15.3 to vertical
Fig. (h): AD = AE, -33.3; DC = BE, +29.6; DE, 33.3 kN
Both reactions 10 kN vertical
Fig. (i): AC, 98.1; BC, -170; CD, -25.4; AD, 94.8kN
Reaction at X = 94.8 kN parallel to bar AD
Reaction at Y 178kN at 76.2 to horizontal
Fig. (j): AB, -44.8; ED, -37.6; FH, -36; FG, 18; BD, 17.5; BC, 22.4; DF, 22.4 kN
Reaction at X = 38.8 kN vertical
Reaction at Y = 31.3 kN vertical
Fig. (k): AF = DJ, -60; BH = CH, -20; HG, -35; FG = GJ, 0; EF =JE, 52 kN
Both reactions 30 kN vertical

* Note that the dead loads are in tonnes and must be converted to kilonewtons.

SOUTH TYNESIDE COLLEGE ©Management Level (III/2) Mechanics Static 45

Equilibrium

CLASSIFICATION: 2 - Internal or Non-Confidential