APPROXIMATION USING TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Define what is Taylor Polynomial and its relationship to Maclaurin Polynomial,
b. apply the Taylor Polynomials formula to approximate function,
c. use Taylor Remainder theorem to compute the maximum error of the approximation and
the exact value of the error

Taylor Polynomials
If we add a finite number of terms of a power series, the result is a polynomial. Probably the most
important of Taylor series is to use their partial sum to approximate functions.
Taylor polynomials are created to help us approximate other functions. Why would we do this? Because
polynomials are easy to work with in calculus (taking derivative or integral).
Approximation means a value or quantity
that is nearly but not exactly.

The more we compute the nth degree of

Polynomial, the closer approximation we
can get.

Maclaurin polynomial is a special type of

Taylor polynomial

𝑓(𝑛) (𝑐)
Formula: ∑∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛
𝑛!

n = nth degree
n! = factorial of n
c = real or complex number

𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑐) = nth derivative of f evaluated at the point c

For a function f, the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 degree Taylor Polynomial (centered at c), written 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥), is the partial
sum of the terms up to the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 degree of the Taylor Series for f:
𝑓′′ (𝑐) 𝑓′′′ (𝑐) 𝑓(4) (𝑐)
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑓(c) + 𝑓’(c) (x - c) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)3 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)4 + ⋯ +
2! 3! 4!

𝑓′′ (0) 𝑓′′′ (0) 𝑓(4) (0) 4

𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓’(0)x + 2!
𝑥2 + 3!
𝑥3 + 4!
𝑥 + ⋯+
Example 1: Find the 4th degree of the Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(x) = 𝑒 𝑥 and use it to approximate 𝑒 0.2
Solution: First, find the derivative of 𝑒 𝑥 .

Since the derivation of 𝑒 𝑥 is also 𝑒 𝑥 ; then 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + x + 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ 5!
+⋯

To get the approximation of 𝑒 0.2, substitute 𝑒 0.2 to all value of x

(0.2)2 (0.2)3 (0.2)4
𝑃4 (0.2) = 1 + 0.2 + 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!

(0.2)2 (0.2)3 (0.2)4

𝑃4 (0.2) = 1 + 0.2 + 2
+ 6
+ 24

𝑷𝟒 (𝟎. 𝟐) = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒

𝒆𝟎.𝟐 = 1.221402758
As you can see, it is a good approximation because 𝑃4 (0.2) is equal or close to the value of 𝑒 0.2

Example 2: Find the 3rd degree Maclaurin polynomial to 𝑓(x) = 𝑒 2𝑥 then evaluate at 𝑓(0.2) and 𝑃3 (0.2)
Solution: First, find the derivative of:

𝑓(x) = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓(0) = 1

𝑓’(x) = 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓’(0) = 2

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 4

𝑓 ′′′
(𝑥)
= 8𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓 ′′ ′(0) = 8

4𝑥 2 8𝑥 3
𝑃3 (0.2) = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2!
+ 3!

4𝑥 2 8𝑥 3
𝑃3 (0.2) = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2
+ 6

4𝑥 3
𝑃3 (0.2) = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 3

Evaluate: 𝑓(0.2) and 𝑃3 (0.2)

4(0.2)3
𝑃3 (0.2) = 1 + 2(0.2) + 2(0.2)2 + 3
= 1.4906

𝑓(𝑒 2(0.2) ) = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟖𝟐

It was pretty close, it is also a good approximation.
Example 3: Find the 4th degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(x) = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 centered at c = 1 and use it to
approximate 𝑙𝑛(1.1)
𝑓′′ (𝑐) 𝑓′′′ (𝑐) 𝑓(4) (𝑐)
Solution: 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑓(c) + 𝑓’(c)(x-c) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)3 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)4 + ⋯
2! 3! 4!

First, find the derivative of:

𝑓(x) = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑓(1) = 0

1 𝑓’(1) = 1
𝑓’(x) = 𝑥

−1 𝑓 ′′ (1) = -1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −1𝑥 −2 𝑜𝑟
𝑥2
(𝑥) 2 𝑓 ′′ ′(𝑥) = 2
𝑓 ′′′ = 2𝑥 −3 𝑜𝑟 3
𝑥
−6 𝑓 4 (𝑥) = -6
𝑓 4 (𝑥) = −6𝑥 −4 𝑜𝑟 4
𝑥

−1(𝑥−1)2 2(𝑥−1)3 −6(𝑥−1)4

𝑃4 (𝑥) = 0 + 1(x-1) + + +
2! 3! 4!

−1(𝑥−1)2 2(𝑥−1)3 −6(𝑥−1)4

𝑃4 (𝑥) = 0 + 1(x-1) + 2
+ 6
+ 24
1 1 1
𝑃4 (𝑥) = (x-1) - (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 - (𝑥 − 1)4
2 3 4

To get the approximation of ln(1.1), change all the value of x to 1.1

1 1 1
𝑃4 (𝑥) = (1.1 - 1) - 2 (1.1 − 1)2 + 3
(1.1 − 1)3 - 4
(1.1 − 1)4 = = 0.09530833333

𝑙𝑛(1.1) = 0.0953101798
It is a good approximation, 𝑃4 (1.1) is very close to 𝑙𝑛(1.1)

TAYLOR’S REMAINDER THEOREM

Approximation formulas such as the Taylor Polynomials are useful by themselves, but in many applied
situations we want to know how good the approximation is or how many terms of a series are required to
obtain a needed level of accuracy. If 2 terms of a series give you the needed level of accuracy for your
application, it is a waste of time and money to use 100 terms. On the other hand, sometimes even 100
terms may not give the accuracy you need. Fortunately, it is possible to obtain a guarantee on how close a
particular Taylor Polynomial approximation is to the exact value. Then we can work efficiently and use
the number of terms that we need. The next theorem gives a pattern for the amount of "error" in our
Taylor Polynomial approximation and can be used to obtain a bound on the size of the "error."
 The Remainder of a Taylor Polynomial
𝑓(𝑛+1) (𝑧)(𝑥−𝑐)𝑛+1
𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛+1)!
, where z is between x and c

This particular pattern for 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) is called the Lagrange form of the remainder, and is named for the
French– Italian mathematician and astronomer Joseph Lagrange (1736–1813).
The main idea of the proof of the Taylor's Formula with Remainder is straightforward, but the technical
details are rather complicated.

𝑓(𝑛+1) (𝑧)(𝑥−𝑐)𝑛+1
The pattern for the remainder, (𝑛+1)!
, contains three pieces, (n+1)!, (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛+1 , and 𝑓(𝑛+1)(𝒛)

for some z between x and c.

Example 1: Determine the remainder or the error of the approximation using the Taylor Polynomial to
estimate the function, 𝑓(𝒙) = 𝐞𝐱
(0.2)2 (0.2)3 (0.2)4
𝑒 0.2 ≈ 1 + 0.2 + + +
2! 3! 4!

𝑓(𝑛+1) (𝑧)(𝑥−𝑐)𝑛+1
Solution: 𝑅𝑛 (𝒙) = (𝑛+1)!

𝑛=4
𝑥 = 0.2
𝑐=0
𝑧 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 c
We need to find the fifth
derivative. So, let’s start with the
original function; 𝑓(𝑥) = ex

𝑅4(0.2) = 𝑓 (4+1 ) (𝑧 ) (0.2−0)4 +1 𝑓 (5 ) (𝑧 ) (0.2)5 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥 𝑓′′(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥

(4+1)!
= (5 )!
𝑓′′′(𝑥) = ex 𝑓4(𝑥) = ex
0 .2 5
𝑒 (0.2)
𝑅4 (0.2) =
5! 𝑓5(𝑥) = ex

. = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝑅4(0.2) 𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟐 Take note that z is going to be 0, 0.2
𝑹 or some number in between. The
𝑓 5 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥 important is that, which of those
values will give us the maximum value
𝑓 5 (0.2) = 𝒆𝟎.𝟐
for the fifth derivative.
Example 2: Use Taylor’s Remainder Theorem to determine the maximum error of the approximation and
calculate the exact value of the error.
Original Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥)

𝒙 = 1.1
𝒄=1

𝑓 5 (𝑧)(𝑥 − 1)5 Number in between. The important is

𝑅4 (1.1) = that, which of those values will give us
5!
the maximum value for the fifth
24(1.1 − 1)5 derivative.
𝑅4 (1.1) =
5!
𝒛=𝟏
24(0.1)5
𝑅4 (1.1) = 24
5! 𝑓5(𝑧) = 𝑥 5
𝑹𝟒(𝟏. 𝟏) = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 24
𝑓5(1) = 𝑥 5 = 𝟐𝟒

Exact Value of the Error:

To get the exact value of the error, we need to find the difference between the 𝑙𝑛(1.1) and the value of the
fourth-degree polynomial at 1.1.

Evaluate:

𝑙𝑛(1.1) = 0.0953101798
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4
𝑃4(1.1) = 0.1 − 2
+ 3
+ 4
= 0.09530833333
 𝒍𝒏(𝟏. 𝟏) − 𝑷𝟒(𝟏.𝟏)
𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔

We should expect a higher value for maximum error compared to the exact error.

Summary

 If we add a finite number of terms of a power series, the result is a polynomial.

 For a function f, the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 degree Taylor Polynomial (centered at c), written 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥), is the partial
sum of the terms up to the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 degree of the Taylor Series for f:
𝑓′′ (𝑐) 𝑓′′′ (𝑐) 𝑓(4) (𝑐)
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑓(c) + 𝑓’(c)(x-c) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)3 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)4 + ⋯ +
2! 3! 4!
𝑓𝑛 (𝑐)
𝑛!
(𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛
𝑓(𝑛) (𝑐)
 The formula of Taylor Polynomial is ∑∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛
𝑛!

Where n! = factorial of n, c = real or complex number, 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑐) = nth derivative of f evaluated at
the point c
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
 The Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 is 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + x + 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ 5!
+ ⋯ since 𝑒 𝑥 is the derivative of
itself.
𝑓(𝑛+1) (𝑧)(𝑥−𝑐)𝑛+1
 The Remainder of a Taylor Polynomial 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛+1)!
, where z is between x and c.
This particular pattern for 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) is called the Lagrange form of the remainder, and is named for
the French– Italian mathematician and astronomer Joseph Lagrange (1736–1813).
 We should expect a higher value for maximum error compared to the exact error.

References:

Tylor Polynomials and Maclaurin Polynomials with Approximation; The organic chemistry Tutor (2018):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urPIxvNBXF0&pp=ygUmYXBwcm94aW1hdGlvbiB1c2luZyB0YXl
sb3IgcG9seW5vbWlhbHM%3D
Finding a Taylor Polynomial to Approximate a Function ex 1; PatrickJMT (2011):
https://youtu.be/WKvBJdl1qrM
Using Taylor Polynomials to Approximate Function 2; ossmteach (2014):
https://youtu.be/oosCWJKSm_Y
Calculus BC- 10.11 Finding Taylor Polynomial Approximation of functions; the algerbros, (2022):
https://youtu.be/-g0NbTsEtVc
Youtube link: Taylor's Remainder Theorem - Finding the Remainder, Ex 1 - YouTube