SEMICONDUCTOR

ELECTRONICS
Introduction
‣ The elements in the fourth group of the periodic table like the Si and Ge have greater
electrical resistivity than the good conductors but have a lower resistivity than the bad
conductors. Such elements are known as semiconductors.

‣ Pure semiconductors behave as insulator at OK temperature.

‣ The resistivity of conductors increases with temperature, while the resistivity of the
semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature upto certain limit.

‣ Si and Ge are known as elemental semiconductors. PN junction diode, zener diode,

transistor etc are fabricated from it.

‣ Carbonic, non-carbonic compounds as well as polymer carbonic substances are also

behave as semiconductor. As for example CdS (Cadmium sulphide), GaAs (Gallium
Arsenide), CdSe (Cadmium selenide) etc. are non-carbonic semiconductors. Solar cell,
LED, LASER diode etc are device made from it.
SILICON
‣ Atomic number = 14

‣ Electronic configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

‣ Si (and Ge(z = 32)) is tetravalent.

‣ Four valance electrons of the Silicon makes a covalent bond with its four neighbouring
atoms by sharing one-one electron. Si and Ge have diamond structure.
CONCEPT OF HOLE
‣ At 0 K temperature each of the valence electrons of Si is bound by the covalent bond. So, Si
behave as insulators at 0 K.
‣ But at the room temperature, the atoms of the crystal perform thermal oscillations. This results
in the breaking of several covalent bonds and electrons become free from the bond. These free
electrons are responsible for electrical conduction.
‣ Deficiency of electron is created at the place from where the electron became free. This
deficiency of electron is known as hole. It behaves as if it has positive electric charge, but
actually hole is not a real particle and it neither has any positive electric charge.
‣ At room temperature in Si the required energy for electrons to escape from covalent bond is 1.1
eV and for Ge it is 0.72 eV.
CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR
‣ On applying a p.d. between two ends of a crystal, the free electrons move from negative end to positive
end and constitute the electric current
‣ Apart from this, thermal oscillations and external electric field causes the bound electrons to be free from
covalent bond and gets trapped in the nearest hole and a new hole is created where the electron escaped.
‣ The motion of the bound electron is from the negative end towards the positive. Hence, it is understood
that motion of hole is from positive end towards the negative end.
‣ Thus, we get two types of currents in a semiconductor, (1) Due to motion of free electron (Ie) (2) Due to
motion of bound electron or hole (Ih).
‣ The number density of free electron and hole in a intrinsic (pure) semiconductor ne and nh respectively
are equal. Here, electron and hole are also known as intrinsic electric charge carriers. For an intrinsic
semiconductor, n = ne = nh.
‣ In Si (or Ge) more number of bonds get broken with the increase in temperature. This results in increase
in the number of electrons and hole. Due to increases in the number density of charge carriers the
conductivity also increases.
BAND PICTURE OF SOLIDS
‣ In crystalline material, when atoms are arranged close to each other, the atom gets interact with
neighbouring atoms and other atoms. As a result energy levels of outer shells electrons of atoms are
changed, since these electrons are shared. It is observed that electrons of the atoms in the crystal has
closely spaced different energy levels instead of widely separated energy level of electrons of isolated
atom.

‣ The classification of insulators, semiconductors and conductors is based on the basis of these energy
levels.
FOR SEMICONDUCTOR (SILICON)
‣ There are 8N valence state and corresponding energy levels in a silicon crystal of N atoms.
‣ According to electronic configuration of Si, 4 N energy levels are filled. As per Pauli’s
principle, 4 N electrons occupy these 4 N energy levels of band and this band is completely filled.
This band is called valence band.
‣ Above the valence band there is a region where no energy levels are available. This region is
known as forbidden gap.
‣ The region above the forbidden gap is known as the conduction band. The conduction band is
completely empty.
‣ The difference of minimum energy level of conduction band (Ec) and maximum energy level
of valence band (Ev) is called band gap (Eg).
‣ If the energy supplied to the valence electron is Eg or greater than Eg, the electron can jump
from the valence band to conduction band. These electron will then contribute towards the
current.
‣ For semiconductor band gap is Eg < 3 eV. (for Si Eg = 1.1 eV and for Ge Eg = 0.72 eV)

For insulator, band gap Eg > 3 eV.

For conductor, band gap Eg = 0. (Valence band and Conduction band overlaps)
Extrinsic Semiconductors (N and P Types )

The conductivity of the pure semiconductor can be drastically changed by adding

impurities in the right proportion. This process of adding impurities in the
semiconductor is known as doping.
N - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
‣ when pentavalent impurities like Antimony or Arsenic is added to Si or Ge, N
type semiconductor forms.
‣ Here, Arsenic atoms replace one silicon atom from crystal of silicon.
‣ The four out of the five valence electrons of the Arsenic atom are involved in the
formation of the covalent bonds and the fifth electron is available as an extra
electron to the crystal.
‣ If 0.05 eV energy is available to this electron, it can act as a free electron. This
energy is 0.01 eV in case of Germanium. This much energy is already available to
the electron in the form of thermal energy at the room temperature.
‣ The impurity atoms donate electric charge carriers (electron) to the host crystal. Such
an impurity atom is known as donor atom. Their proportion is kept as
approximately as 1 in 106 pure atoms.
‣ Here, conductivity is primarily due to negative charge free electrons of donor
atoms. So, such a crystal is known as N-type semiconductor. The electrons are
majority charge carriers, The electrical conduction due to holes in such a crystal
is very less, so holes are known as minority charge carriers.
 Band Diagram at 0 K temp Band Diagram at room temp

‣ In figure, Energy levels the valence energy levels of the impurity atoms is indicated by the
dashed lines. At 0 K temperature, one electron each of the impurity atoms occupies one of
these energy levels.
‣ The difference between (Ec) and (ED) being very less, when the temperature increases, more
and more electrons cross over to the conduction band.
‣ The number of charge carriers available for electrical conduction will be much more than
the pure semiconductors. Hence, in N-type semiconductor ne > nh.
P - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
‣ when trivalent impurities like aluminium, Gallium or Indium is added to Si or Ge, P
type semiconductor forms.
‣ Here, Aluminium atoms replace one silicon atom from crystal of silicon.
‣ The three free electrons of these impurity atoms form covalent bonds with its neighbouring
three Silicon atoms. As a result, there is a deficiency of one electron in Si atoms. This
deficiency of electron can be considered as a hole.
‣ This hole attracts electron and hence in this sense the aluminium impurity is known as
acceptor impurities.
‣ The electrical conduction in such a crystal is primarily due to holes. Holes behave as a
positively charged particle. Hence, such a semiconductor is known as P-type semiconductor.
‣ The Holes are the majority charge carriers while electrons are the minority charge
carriers in a P-type semiconductor. In this case nh > ne.

Band Diagram at 0 K temp Band Diagram at room temp

▸ Here, EA lies very close to EV. Since no electrons are present in EA one can say that there is
an existence of holes. The valence band electrons can easily occupy the empty energy levels
of the impurity atoms on getting sufficient energy at the room temperature.
▸ Apart from these, some of the electrons occupy empty energy levels in the conduction band
and as a result create holes in large numbers and the possibility of the motion of the
electrons also increases. Hence in a P-type semiconductor the electrical conductivity is
much more than the electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductor.
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
‣ When Si or Ge wafer is doped with donor
impurity (As) at one end and accepter impurity
(Al) at the other end, the silicon wafer contains N-
type and P-type semiconductor region and
junction between them.
‣ N-section has excess of free electrons compared to
the P section. Hence, the diffusion of electron
takes place from the N-section towards the P- Situation before Formation of PN Junction
section.
‣ Arsenic atom becomes positive ion and A1 atom
becomes negative ion near the junction. As the
diffusion process continues the negative charges
and positive charges are accumulated near the
junction in the P-section and N-section
respectively.
‣ Due to these charges, electric field is established at
the junction from N region towards the P region.
Now the electrons have to overcome the electric
field in order to diffuse from N region to P region.
Situation of PN Junction After the Diffusion
The diffusion process of the electron and hole
stops as the electric filed is sufficiently established.
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
At P-N Junction,
‣ Majority charge carrier is altered. These regions are
known as depletion layer or space charge region. The
width of depletion region is approximately 0.5 𝜇m.
‣ The distribution of electric potential in the depletion
layer is called the depletion barrier or potential barrier.
This potential barrier is in order of 0.1 V. This value is
about 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge.
‣ In PN Junction, the width of depletion region are
dependent on the concentration of the impurity added
to the P and N type semiconductor. The width of the
depletion region decreases with the increase in the
impurity concentration. This increases the intensity of
electric field near the junction.
‣ Thus, the characteristics of the junction can be
changed by increasing or decreasing the impurity
concentration. As a result we can fabricate different
types of the semiconductor devices.
‣ Here, P region is referred to as anode (A) and N is
referred to as cathode (K). The arrow shows the
Symbol of P-N junction direction of conventional flow of current.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS(I-V CURVE) OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
Forward Bias : When the positive terminal of battery is connected to P side of junction and negative
terminal connected to N side of junction such a connection is known as forward bias.

‣ In forward bias, electric field due to external battery and electric field of depletion layer are in opposite direction.
As a result the width and height of the depletion barrier reduces.
‣ Now, the work done by electron will be less to move from N-type to P-type and more and more electrons cross the
junction easily. Similarly, hole can easily cross the junction from P-type to N-type.
‣ Thus, there is a flow of current in the junction due to both types of majority charge carriers. In forward bias the
total current is sum of the hole diffusion current and electron current. This direction of the current in the
junction is from P-type towards N-type. The magnitude of this current is in order of mA. If the battery voltage
increase, the current in the junction also increase as shown in figure.
‣ The initial increase in current is very less compared to the increase in the voltage. As the voltage increases beyond
a point, the current starts increasing rapidly (exponentially). This voltage is known as the threshold voltage or cut
in voltage. The approximate value of threshold voltage for Ge and Si is 0.3 V and 0.7 V respectively.
FORWARD BIAS
‣ The dynamic resistance rf of the diode at any point

‣ The values of rf will be different at different points on the curve. The resistance of the diode in forward
bias mode is approximately between 10 𝛺 to 100 𝛺.
 REVERSE BIAS
Reverse Bias : When the positive terminal of battery is connected to N side of junction and negative
terminal connected to P side of junction such a connection is known as reverse bias.

‣ Here, electric field due to external battery and electric field of depletion layer are in same direction. As a result
the width and height of the depletion barrier increases.
‣ As a result electrons find it more difficult to move from N to the P region of the diode as well as holes to move
from P region to N region.
‣ But resultant electric field is in such a direction that minority charge carriers in P and N section cross the junction.
In reverse bias, due to minority charge carrier, current produced in 𝜇A range. This current remains constant with
battery voltage. So it is called reverse saturated current.
‣ There is sudden rise in current when the voltage is increased beyond point. This value at voltage is known as
breakdown voltage (VR). Voltage given to PN junction greater than breakdown voltage may damage it.
‣ In reverse bias mode Dynamic resistance (rrb) is in the range of 106 𝛺.
P-N JUNCTION DIODE AS RECTIFIER
The process of converting AC energy in to DC energy is called rectification. The circuit which performs this process
is called the rectifier.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

‣ The primary coil of transformer is connected to AC mains voltage and the secondary coil is connected in series
with the PN junction diode D and load resistance RL as shown in figure.
‣ During the first positive half cycle of vs the S1 end of the secondary coil is positive with respect to S2 as a result
PN junction diode will be in forward bias and the conventional current flows through secondary coil of
transformer. Current flows from A to B in load resistance.
‣ During the second half cycle S1 end of secondary coil becomes negative with respect to S2. As a result PN
junction will be in reverse bias and no current will flow in the circuit. The output voltage developed across RL
will be zero.
‣ At every half-alternate cycle, the current flows through RL only in one direction which is a direct current (DC).
As a result the voltage developed across RL will be also DC voltage.
‣ In this arrangement we get the output voltage during only one half-cycle, therefore, it is called half-wave rectifier.
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

‣ To get the output voltage during both the half cycle, two PN junction diodes D1 and D2 are connected to S1
and S2 of secondary coil of centre-taped transformer and a load resistance RL is connected as shown in figure.
‣ The applied voltage to both the diodes are same (VS1 = VS2) but phase difference between them is 180°.
‣ During one half cycle, S1 end becomes positive and S2 end becomes negative with respect to centre tap. In this
situation D1 diode is forward biased and D2 diode is reverse biased. Hence the conventional current flows in
the S1-D1-A-RL-B-CT-S1 direction. The A end of the RL becomes positive and B end becomes negative.
‣ During the next half cycle, S2 end becomes positive and S1 end becomes negative with respect to centre tap
(CT). Now D2 diode is forward biased and D1 diode is reverse biased. The conversional current flows through
the S2-D2-A-RL-B-CT-S2 direction. Even during this half cycle the A end of the RL becomes positive and B
end becomes negative.
‣ Thus, during both the cycles of the input signal DC current is flowing through load RL and DC voltage is
obtained across RL. Hence, this circuit is called full wave rectifier. The rectification efficiency of full wave
rectifier is high compared to half wave rectifier.